Caspah - Kamunda 1593513170 A

PH 110: Introductory Physics
Presented by
Dr Caspah Kamunda
15th January 2020
Created by Dr C.Kamunda 1
•Assessment:
40% Continuous Assessment 60% Examination
Selected Books:
1. Fundamentals of Physics 7th Edition, Halliday

Resnick Walker
2. Physics for Scientists and Engineers”, 8th
Edition, by Serway and Jewett
3. College Physics, 7thEdition, Serway
Syllabus/Major Topics
◼ 1. Units and Measurements:
◼ 2. Scalar and Vector quantities.
◼ 3. Kinematics.
◼ 4. Dynamics.
◼ 5. Forces
◼ 6. Work, Energy, Power
◼ 7. Simple Machines.
◼ 8. Motion in a circle
◼ 9. Gravitational Field.
Syllabus/Major Topics
◼ 10. Rotational Motion.
◼ 11. Oscillations.
◼ 12. Elastic properties of Solid
◼ 13. Fluids in Motion.
◼ 14. Temperature scales.
◼ 15. Thermal Expansion.
◼ 16. Heat Transfer.
◼ 17. Heating Matter.
◼ 18. Direct current Circuits.
◼ 19. Ray Optics.
WHAT IS PHYSICS?
◼ Physics is the scientific study of matter
and energy and how they interact with
each other.
◼ This energy can take the form of
motion, light, electricity, radiation,
sound, gravity etc.
◼ Physics provides an understanding of
the physical world through theories
based on experiments.
WHAT ARE THE FIELDS OF
PHYSICS?
◼ Acoustics - the study of sound & sound waves
◼ Astrophysics - the study of the physical properties of objects in space
◼ Atomic Physics - the study of atoms, specifically the electron
properties of the atom
◼ Biophysics - the study of physics in living systems
◼ Medical physics- the study of physics in the medical field.
◼ Chemical Physics - the study of physics in chemical systems
◼ Computational Physics - the application of numerical methods
to solve physical problems for which a quantitative theory already
exists
◼ Cosmology - the study of the universe as a whole, including its
origins and evolution
◼ Cryogenics - the study of physical properties in low temperature
situations, far below the freezing point of water
◼ Crystallography - the study of crystals and crystalline structures
◼ Electromagnetism - the study of electrical and magnetic fields,
which are two aspects of the same phenomenon
◼ Electronics - the study of the flow of electrons, generally in a circuit
◼ Mechanics - the study of the motion of bodies in a frame of
reference
FIELDS CONTI
Geophysics - the study of the physical properties of the Earth
High Energy Physics -the study of physics in extremely high energy
systems, generally within particle physics
Optical & Laser Physics - the study of the physical properties of
lasers
Mathematical Physics - applying mathematically rigorous methods to
solving problems within physics
Meteorology - the physics of the weather
Nuclear & Molecular Physics - the study of physical properties of
the atomic nucleus and molecules
Plasma Physics - the study of matter in the plasma phase
Quantum Mechanics- the study of science where the smallest
discrete values, or quanta, of matter and energy become relevant
Relativity - the study of systems displaying the properties of
Einstein's theory of relativity, which generally involves moving at speeds
very close to the speed of light
Statistical Mechanics - the study of large systems by statistically
expanding the knowledge of smaller systems
Thermodynamics - the physics
Created of heat
by Dr C.Kamunda 7
Units and Measurements
•Physics is based on measurements.
•What is the temperature of liquid helium?
•What is the wavelength of light from this laser?
•What is the time interval between two clicks of
counters?
•We start by learning to measure physical quantities
based on the laws of physics.
•A physical quantity is a property of matter
which is quantifiable (measurable)
•Among these quantities are length, time, mass,
temperature, current, pressure, etc.
•We use these everyday. e.g I will go to any length
to help you as long as you don’t pressure me.
◼ In physics, words like length and pressure
have precise scientific meanings not as
indicated above.
◼ There are so many physical quantities that it
becomes difficult to organise them.They are all
not independent. e.g speed is the ratio of
length to a time.
◼ What we do is to pick out-by international
agreement, a small number of physical
quantities and assign them standards. We
then define all other physical quantities in
terms of these base standards.
◼ These base standards must be accessible,
invariable and traceable.
◼ In Physics quantitative measurements require units.
◼ How tall is Innocent? How about
his weight?
◼ Height: 2.29 m (7 ft 6 in)
◼ Mass : 141 kg (310 lb)
◼ Number + Unit
◼ “Height is 2.29” has no physical meaning

◼ Both numbers and units are necessary for
any meaningful physical quantities
The International System of
Units
• In 1971, the 14th general conference on weights and
measures picked up 8 quantities as base units
forming the basis of the International System of
Units, abbreviated as the SI
Base and derived units
◼ SI Base units are, in general those which can't be

expressed in terms of others.
◼ The newton is a derived unit, because it is defined as
the force required to accelerate 1kg at 1 ms-2.
◼ The SI is founded on SI base units for eight base
quantities assumed to be mutually independent, as
given in Table 1.
Table 1. SI base units
Base quantity SI base unit
Name Symbol
Length metre m
Mass kilogram kg
Time second s
Electric current ampere A
Thermodynamic kelvin K
temperature
Amount of mole mol
substance
Angle radian rad
Luminous intensity candela cd
Definition of 3 base/fundamental units.
metre (m): One metre is equal to the path length

traveled by light in vacuum during a time interval of
1/299,792,458 of a second.
kilogram (kg): One kilogram is the mass of a

Platinum-Iridium cylinder kept at the International
Bureau of Weights and Measures in Paris.
second (s): One second is the time occupied by

9,192,631,770 vibrations of the light (of a specified
wavelength) emitted by a Cesium-133 atom.
The SI derived units
Derived quantity Derived unit Base units
a) energy joule (J) kg·m2/s2

b) force newton (N) kg·m/s2
c) frequency hertz (Hz) s-1
d) power watt (W) J/s = kg·m2/s3
e) charge coulomb (C) A·s
N/m2 = kg·m-
f) Pressure Pascal (Pa) 1/s2
Use of Prefixes
◼ As a convenience, when dealing with very
large or very small numbers, we often use
prefixes.
◼ These are listed in the table shown in the
next slide.
◼ Thus, we can express a particular electric
power output as;
2.35 x 109 watts = 2.35 gigawatts = 2.35GW
Use of Prefixes
Factor Prefix Symbol
1018 exa- E
1015 peta- P
1012 tera T
109 giga- G
106 mega- M
103 kilo- k
10-3 milli- m
10-6 micro- u
10-9 nano- n
10-12 pico- p
10-15 femto- f
10-18 Createdatto-
by Dr C.Kamunda a 16
The Greek Alphabet
◼ As a further convenience, to express very small or
large numbers, we often in physics, use what is
called scientific notation. e.g
3,560,000,000 = 3.56 x 109 m
and 0.000,000,492 s = 4.92 x 10-7 s
i.e A x 10n, where 1≤A<10 and n is +ve or –ve integer.
◼ The parts shown in red are mostly expressed in the
greek alphabet.
◼ The greek alphabet is so important in physics that
almost all our symbols are expressed in this format,
hence the need to learn it.
◼ The table in the next slide shows the Greek Alphabet.
The Greek Alphabet
Significant Figures
◼ The significant figures of a (measured or calculated)
quantity are the meaningful digits in it.
◼ Any digit that is not zero is significant. Thus 549 has
three significant figures and 1.892 has four significant
figures.
◼ Zeros between non zero digits are significant. Thus
4023 has four significant figures.
◼ Zeros to the left of the first non zero digit are not
significant. Thus 0.000034 has only two significant
figures. This is more easily seen if it is written as
3.4x10-5.
Significant Figures
◼ For numbers with decimal points, zeros to the right of
a non zero digit are significant. Thus 2.00 has three
significant figures and 0.050 has two significant
figures. For this reason it is important to keep the
trailing zeros to indicate the actual number of
significant figures.
◼ There are also specific rules for how to consistently
express the uncertainty associated with a number.
In general, the last significant figure in any result
should be of the same order of magnitude (i.e.. in the
same decimal position) as the uncertainty. Also, the
uncertainty should be rounded to one or two
significant figures.
Significant Figures
◼ For example,
◼ 9.82 +/- 0.02
10.0 +/- 1.5
4 +/- 1
◼ The following numbers are all incorrect.
◼ 9.82 +/- 0.02385 is wrong but 9.82 +/- 0.02 is fine
10.0 +/- 2 is wrong but 10.0 +/- 2.0 is fine
4 +/- 0.5 is wrong but 4.0 +/- 0.5 is fine
Significant Figures
◼ Practice Problems
◼ Identify the number of significant figures:
◼ 1) 4.0050
◼ 2) 0.0036
◼ 3) 7.03 x 10-4
◼ 4) 25,600
◼ 5) 0.6001
◼ 6) 5.800 x 109
◼ 7) 300
◼ 8) 509,000,000
◼ 9) 0.010
◼ 10) 0.00800
Estimation of Errors
◼ A scientist takes time making measurements of
various quantities and usually concludes an
experiment by quoting a numerical result.
◼ He also gives a quantitative indication of the
accuracy or reliability of his final result by estimating
an error.
◼ Without errors, it is not possible to draw significant
conclusions from the experimental result.
◼ It will also help to decide whether certain
measurements will need to be measured more
accurately than others.
◼ It is crucial to understand that all measurements of
physical quantities are subject to uncertainties. It is
never possible to measure anything exactly. It is good,
of course, to make the error as small as possible but it
is always there.
◼ Take the measurement of a person's height as an
example. Assuming that her height has been
determined to be 58.4 cm, how accurate is our result?
◼ Well, the height of a person depends on how straight
she stands, whether she has her shoes on, and how
long her hair is and how it is made up. These
inaccuracies could all be called errors of definition.
◼ . A quantity such as height is not exactly defined
without specifying many other circumstances.
◼ Even if you could precisely specify the
"circumstances," your result would still have an error
associated with it.
◼ The scale you use is of limited accuracy; when you
read the scale, you may have to estimate a fraction
between the marks on the scale, etc.
◼ If the result of a measurement is to have meaning it
cannot consist of the measured value alone. An
indication of how accurate the result is must be
included also.
◼ . Indeed, typically more effort is required to determine
the error or uncertainty in a measurement than to
perform the measurement itself. Thus, the result of
any physical measurement has two essential
components: (1) A numerical value (in a specified
system of units) giving the best estimate possible of
the quantity measured, and (2) the degree of
uncertainty associated with this estimated value. For
example, a measurement of the width of a table would
yield a result such as 95.3 +/- 0.1 cm.
Precision and Accuracy
◼ There is a certain inherent inaccuracy or
variation in any measurement we make in the
laboratory. This inherent inaccuracy or
variation is called experimental “error” and
the word is not meant to imply incompetence
on the part of the experimenter.
◼ Understanding and quantifying measurement
error is important in experimental science
because it is a measure of how seriously we
should believe (or not believe) our theories
about how the physical universe works
Precision and Accuracy
◼ If I measure my mass to be 120.317
kilograms, that is a very precise
measurement because it is very specific. It
also happens to be a very inaccurate
measurement because I am not quite that
fat. My mass is considerably less, something
like 85 kilograms. So, when we say that we
have made a precise measurement we can
also say that we have made a very specific
measurement. When we say we have made
an accurate measurement we are saying
that our answer is close to the true value of
the quantity. When we make measurements
in the laboratory we should therefore
distinguish between the precision and the
accuracy of these measurements.
Classification of Error
◼ Errors are divided into two kinds,
systematic and random.
◼ Systematic errors are errors which tend
to shift all measurements in a systematic way
so their mean value is displaced. This may be
due to such things as incorrect calibration of
equipment, consistently improper use of
equipment or failure to properly account for
some effect. In a sense, a systematic error is
rather like a blunder and large systematic
errors can and must be eliminated in a good
experiment. But small systematic errors will
always be present. For instance, no
instrument can ever be calibrated perfectly
Examples of systematic errors
◼ zero error is caused by an incorrect
position of the zero point,
◼ an incorrect calibration of the
measuring instrument.
◼ consistently improper use of equipment.
◼ Systematic error can be reduced by
conducting the experiment with care.
◼ Repeating the experiment by using
different instruments.
◼
Zero error
◼ A zero error arises when the measuring
instrument does not start from exactly zero.
◼ Zero errors are consistently present in every
reading of a measurement.
◼ The zero error can be positive or negative.
(NEGATIVE ZERO ERROR: The pointer of the
ammeter does not place on zero but a negative
value when no current flow through it.)
(POSITIVE ZERO ERROR: The pointer of the ammeter
does not place on zero but a positive value when no
current flow through it.)
Random errors
1Random errors arise from unknown and
unpredictable variations in condition.
2.It fluctuates from one measurement to the
next.
3.Random errors are caused by factors that are
beyond the control of the observers.
4. They may occur due to lack of sensitivity i.e
an instrument may not be able to respond to a
small change .
5.They may occur due to noise or wrong
technique of measurement.
Random Errors cont…
◼ 6. Random errors can be caused by personal errors
such as human limitations of sight and touch, natural
errors such as changes in temperature or wind, while
the experiment is in progress
◼ One example of random error is the parallax error.
Random error can be reduced by taking repeated
readings and find the average value of the reading.
Random Errors cont…
◼
Parallax error
A parallax error is an error in reading an instrument due to the
eye of the observer and pointer are not in a line perpendicular
to the plane of the scale.
Random and Systematic errors
◼ Random errors displace measurements
in an arbitrary direction whereas
systematic errors displace
measurements in a single direction.
◼ Some systematic error can be
substantially eliminated (or properly
taken into account).
◼ Random errors are unavoidable and
must be lived with.
Error Analysis: Mean Value
◼ Suppose an experiment were repeated many, say N, times to
get,
◼ N measurements of the same quantity, x. If the errors were

random then the errors in these results would differ in sign and
magnitude. So if the average or mean value of our
measurements were calculated,
◼ some of the random variations could be expected to cancel out

with others in the sum. This is the best that can be done to deal
with random errors
Standard error of the mean
◼ When you are carrying out measurements, one most
important parameter is the standard error of the
mean. This is expressed by the formula below;
◼ NB There are other important statistical parameters that

are used, but in physics, the standard error of the
mean is widely used.
Propagation of Errors
◼ Relation between Z Relation between errors
and(A,B) and ( , )
----------------------------------------------------
◼ 1 Z=A+B
◼ 2 Z=A-B
◼ 3 Z = AB
◼ 4 Z = A/B
◼ 5 Z = An
◼ 6 Z = ln A
◼ 7 Z = eA
Dimensional analysis
◼ The word dimension denotes the physical nature of a quantity.
e.g The distance btn two points can be measured in feet,
metres, or inches – all expressing the dimension of length.
◼ The technique used to check the correctness of an equation or
to derive a mathematical expression of a physical quantity is
called Dimensional Analysis.
◼ Examples of dimensions are length, mass, time or a combination.
◼ Both sides of equation must have the same dimensions
◼ Dimensions can be treated as algebraic quantities i.e added or
subtracted if they have the same dimensions.
◼ Dimension is denoted with square brackets
◼ [Length]=[L]
◼ [Mass]=[M]
◼ [Time]=[T]
◼ [Temperature] =[θ]
◼ [Electric charge]= [Q]
◼ Example: Derived quantities
◼ Area: [A]=L2
◼ Speed: [v]=L/T
◼ Density: [ρ]=M/L3
Examples
◼ Given P = kA ΔT/l, where A is the area,
ΔT is difference in temperature, l is
length, and k is a constant with SI units
of watts per (metre·kelvin), what are
the SI units for P (rate of thermal
energy flow)?
Solution
◼ Given P = kAΔT/l, ◼ Recall that watt (W) is
where A is the area, ΔT joules per second, so
is difference in [k] = M·L·T-3·θ-1.
temperature, l is length, [A] = L2, [ΔT] = θ ,
and k is a constant with and [l] = L
SI units of watts pr [right side] = M·L2/T3
(metre·kelvin), what are Therefore, [P] =
the SI units for P (rate M·L2/T3, and SI units
of thermal energy are kg·m2/s3, or J/s.
flow)?
Vectors and scalars
Scalars have magnitude only. Temperature, speed,
mass, and volume are examples of scalars.
Vectors have magnitude and direction.
displacement, velocity, acceleration and force are
examples of vector quantities.
Vectors have the following properties:
•Vectors are equal if they have the same magnitude and
direction.
•Vectors must have the same units in order for them to be
added or subtracted.
•The negative of a vector has the same magnitude but
opposite direction.
•Subtraction of a vector is defined by adding a negative
vector:
•Multiplication or division of a vector by a scalar
results in a vector for which
(a) only the magnitude changes if the
scalar is positive
(b) the magnitude changes and the
direction is reversed if the scalar is
negative.
.The projections of a vector along the axes of a
rectangular co-ordinate system are called the
components of the vector. The components of
a vector completely define the vector.
Projections of a vector in 2-D
Components of the vector
Ax
cos =  Ax = A cos
A
Ay
sin =  Ay = A sin
A
By Pythagoras we have, A= Ax2 + Ay2
and from the diagram

Ay
tan  =
Ax
Ay
 = tan −1
Ax
Addition of vectors by
components
•Find the components of all vectors to be
added.
•Add all x components to get Rx = Ax + Bx + Cx + ...
.Add all y components to get R y = Ay + By + Cy +...
Then 
R = R x2 + R y2
Ry
 = tan −1
Rx
THE END

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PH 110: Introductory Physics

15th January 2020

1. Fundamentals of Physics 7th Edition, Halliday

◼ Mass : 141 kg (310 lb)

◼ “Height is 2.29” has no physical meaning

Base and derived units

◼ SI Base units are, in general those which can't be

metre (m): One metre is equal to the path length

kilogram (kg): One kilogram is the mass of a

second (s): One second is the time occupied by

Derived quantity Derived unit Base units

a) energy joule (J) kg·m2/s2

d) power watt (W) J/s = kg·m2/s3

e) charge coulomb (C) A·s

◼ N measurements of the same quantity, x. If the errors were

◼ some of the random variations could be expected to cancel out

◼ NB There are other important statistical parameters that

By Pythagoras we have, A= Ax2 + Ay2

and from the diagram

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