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1. Many species of plants and animals that are associated with boreal forests also occur on
mountains far to the south of the boreal forests. Using what you have learned about
microclimates, predict how aspect and elevation would influence their distributions on
these southern mountains.
On southern mountains, boreal plants and animals should be most prevalent at high elevations,
where cooler climates occur. In the Northern Hemisphere, these species would be found most
often on north-facing slopes, which are cooler than south-facing slopes (in the Southern
Hemisphere, the opposite is true).
2. Consider a mammalian species that has a range extending from Virginia to central
Quebec. In Quebec, the population is near its lower limit of tolerance (see fig. 5.10), where
individuals may survive but are not likely to be successful in reproduction. How might this
species persist in this portion of its range?
For this population to persist, individuals will have to migrate here from source populations,
where the species can successfully reproduce.
3. Imagine a desert beetle that uses behaviour to regulate its body temperature above 35°C.
How might this beetle’s use of microclimates created by shrubs, burrows, and bare ground
change with the season?
During the warmest parts of the year, the beetle would likely avoid spending long periods of time
on bare ground in full sun (see Figure 5.3). It could keep its temperature at 35°C by moving
between sun and the shade created by shrubs. During the hottest time of the day it might seek the
shelter of a burrow. In cooler seasons, the beetle would likely seek out full sun and be active
during the warmest time of the day.
Because of declining enzyme function, swimming speed should decrease above 20°C.
5. The Ecological Tools and Approaches section reviews how the studies of Bruno Baur and
Anette Baur (1993) have documented the local extinction of the land snail Arianta
arbustorum. Their research also shows that these extinctions may be due to reduced egg
hatching at higher temperatures. Do these results show conclusively that the direct effect of
higher temperatures on hatching success is responsible for the local extinctions of A.
arbustorum? Propose and justify alternative hypotheses. Be sure you take into account all
of the observations of the Baurs.
These results show that birth rate in A. arbustorum declines with increases in temperature, but do
not address death rates in the species. Local extinctions could be produced by the effects of
reduced egg hatching, in combination with those of factors such as competition with other snail
species (perhaps warmer species that are expanding their ranges), rates of predation, or mortality
due to disease. We need to consider birth rates, death rates, and the balance between them before
making firm conclusions on the cause of extinctions.
6. Butterflies, which are ectothermic and diurnal, are found from the tropical rain forest to
the Arctic. They can elevate their body temperatures by basking in sunlight. How would
the percentage of time butterflies spend basking versus flying change with latitude? Would
the amount of time butterflies spend basking change with daily changes in temperature?
Basking should be most extensive among butterflies in cooler climates at higher latitudes.
Butterflies should also be more likely to bask in early morning, as they transition from inactive
night-time to active day-time modes, and to avoid basking midday, when the risk of overheating
would increase.
7. Some plants and grasshoppers in hot environments have reflective body surfaces, which
make their radiative heat gain, Hr, less than it would be otherwise. If you were to design a
beetle that could best cope with thermal challenges associated with living on snow, what
colour would it be? If these beetles were white what would that tell us about the relative
roles of thermoregulation and predation pressure in determining beetle colour? What does
this example imply about the ability of natural selection to “optimize” the characteristics of
organisms?
Beetles which live on snow should be black, in order to maximize their Hr. White colouration
would suggest predation exerts stronger selection for background matching, or camouflage, than
selection for optimal thermoregulation. The broader implication here is that natural selection for
one characteristic may oppose natural selection for other characteristics, preventing
“optimization” of any particular trait.
8. In most of the examples discussed in chapter 5, we saw a close match between the
characteristics of organisms and their environment. However, natural selection does not
always produce an optimal, or even a good, fit of organisms to their environments.
To verify this you need only reflect on the fact that most of the species that have existed are
now extinct. What are some of the reasons for a mismatch between organisms and
environments? Develop your explanation using the environment, the characteristics of
organisms, and the nature of natural selection.
One of the causes of mismatch between organisms and environment was the subject of Question
6 – that our definition of “optimal” varies with the trait or function and the specific selective
pressure under consideration. In these situations, an organism’s characteristics may be optimized
for one function but not another, or reflect a compromise solution to multiple active selective
pressures. During selection, the present environment acts upon existing genetic variation within
populations to produce differential survival and reproduction among genotypes. However, future
environments may be quite different from past environments and if environmental change is too
rapid, or the genetic variation within populations too low, the population may become extinct.
9. Why do species exhibit different strategies for coping with extreme temperatures? Why
hasn’t evolution resulted in all species doing the “right” thing under these conditions?
The “right” thing for one species is not necessarily the “right” thing for another species facing
similar thermal conditions. For example, animals can actively vary their choice of microclimate
throughout the day, by moving throughout their environment. The behaviour of plants is more
constrained, and therefore thermoregulation might require greater reliance on alternative
strategies, such as changing leaf morphology with season. In addition, each species will need to
balance its thermoregulatory adaptations with adaptations for other selective pressures.
10. Draw energy budgets using pie diagrams for a typical endotherm and ectotherm. What
aspects of these budgets likely represent the largest energy expenditure? Which type of
organism likely has more food intake and a larger overall energy budget?
For endotherms, the largest energy expenditure is likely maintenance, due to the high metabolic
demands of maintaining a constant body temperature. For ectotherms, the largest expenditure
may be activity, as these species rely more heavily on behaviours for thermoregulation (such as
moving between sun and shade). Since metabolism requires food energy, endotherms would
have greater food intake and therefore larger overall energy budgets.
11. Many animals huddle together in extreme cold. What is the possible energetic benefit of
this behaviour? Under what climatic conditions is huddling likely to be disadvantageous?
Huddling would reduce the surface area of each individual which is exposed to the environment,
thus reducing heat loss through radiation and/or convection (especially in windy environments).
Huddling would also increase conduction (Hcd) between the organisms, helping them to equalize
their temperatures. This behaviour would be disadvantageous in hot climates, or in situations
where huddled animals are more likely to be detected by predators.
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Ma questa legge fu ben tosto violata; anzi nelle province orientali forse
non fu mai osservata: giacchè la legge seconda, dello stesso titolo, diretta
da Costanzo e Giuliano ad Orfito, prefetto di Roma, in data del 16
Ottobre, mostra che nel 357 quei giuochi erano ancora in vigore; e la
terza legge sullo stesso oggetto, emanata da Arcadio ad Onorio nel 397,
non solo ci rende certi che gli spettacoli gladiatorî continuavano, ma ci
addimostra ben anche l’esistenza dei ludi. Ciò stesso l’apprendiamo da S.
Agostino [137] e da Prudenzio [138]:
E sul finire dei poema, Prudenzio esorta Onorio a por fine a quei cruenti
spettacoli con queste parole:
E non tardò più guari una propizia occasione per abolire onninamente
quei giuochi. Narra Teodoreto [139], che regnando Onorio [140] un monaco
di nome Telemaco partì dall’Oriente alla volta d’Italia, col fine di far
cessare gli spettacoli gladiatorî. Giunto in Roma, discese nell’arena e
tentò di far deporre le armi ai gladiatori. Ma gli spettatori, che erano
pagani e che tanto diletto ritraevano da simili combattimenti, insorsero
contro di lui, e l’uccisero [141].
Allora Onorio abolì per sempre gli spettacoli gladiatorî.
L’ANFITEATRO FLAVIO
NEI SUOI VENTI SECOLI DI STORIA.
PARTE I.
DALLE ORIGINI AL SECOLO VI DELL’ERA
VOLGARE.
CAPITOLO PRIMO.
Edificazione — Dedicazione — Feste inaugurali — Medaglie
commemorative — Spese approssimative — Epigrafi.
Fig. 1ª.
Tito fu console per l’ottava volta l’anno 80; i titoli corrispondono a quelli
di un Imperatore vivente. L’altra medaglia ci mostra Tito già morto,
poichè gli si dà in essa il titolo di DIVO. [191] Il Nibby opina che
Domiziano sia stato colui il quale fece coniare queste due medaglie; e
che, per conservare quest’imperatore la data della dedicazione fatta dal
fratello, abbia unito alla prima medaglia i titoli di lui come ancor
vivente; e, sull’altra, ne abbia fatta l’apoteosi, dandogli il titolo di
DIVO: [192]
DIVO. AVG. T. DIVI VESP. F. VESPASIAN S. C.
NUMMI COMMEMORATIVI RIPRODOTTI DAGLI ORIGINALI CHE SI
CONSERVANO NEL GABINETTO NUMISMATICO DELLA BIBLIOTECA
NAZIONALE DI PARIGI.
Fig. 2ª.