Environmental Science 15th Edition

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CHAPTER 6
THE HUMAN POPULATION AND URBANIZATION

Outline
6-1 How many people can the earth support?
A. Human population growth continues but it is unevenly distributed.
1. For most of history, the human population grew slowly, but has been growing exponentially
for the past 200 years. Reasons for this increase in growth rate include:
a. Humans have expanded into almost all of the planet’s climate zones and habitats.
b. The emergence of early and modern agriculture allowed us to grow more food for each
unit of land area farmed.
c. Death rates dropped sharply because of improved sanitation and health care.
2. The rate of population growth has slowed, but the world’s population is still growing at a rate
that added about 83 million people during 2011.
3. Geographically, this growth is unevenly distributed.
a. About 1% of the 83 million new arrivals on the planet in 2011 were added to the world’s
more-developed countries
b. The other 99% were added to the world’s middle- and low-income, less-developed
countries. At least 95% of the 2.6 billion people likely to be added to the world’s
population between 2011 and 2050 will end up in the least-developed countries.
4. SCIENCE FOCUS: How long can the human population keep growing?
a. Different viewpoints include:
i. The planet already has too many people, that overpopulation is contributing
to environmental problems and slowing human population growth should be
an important priority.
ii. There few limits to human population growth because technological
advances have allowed us to overcome environmental limits and increase
the earth’s carrying capacity for our species.
5. Cultural carrying capacity is the maximum number of people who could live in reasonable
freedom and comfort indefinitely, without decreasing the ability of the earth to sustain future
generations.
6-2 What factors influence the size of the human population?
A. The human population can grow, decline, or remain fairly stable.
1. Birth rate, or crude birth rate, is the number of live births per 1,000 people in a population in a
given year.
2. Death rate, or crude death rate, is the number of deaths per 1,000 people in a population in a
given year.
3. Population change of an area = (births + immigration) - (deaths + emigration).

© 2016 Cengage Learning

 Instructor’s Manual for Environmental Science, 15th edition

B. Women are having fewer babies but not few enough to stabilize the world’s population.
1. The total fertility rate (TFR) is the average number of children born to women in a population
during their reproductive years.
2. Between 1955 and 2011, the average global lifetime number of births of live babies per
woman dropped from 5 to 2.5.
3. A TFR of 2.1 will eventually halt the world’s population growth.
C. CASE STUDY: The U.S. population is growing.
1. The population of the United States grew from 76 million in 1900 to 312 million in 2011.
2. Between 1946 and 1964, a period known as the baby boom, 79 million people were added to
the U.S. population.
3. TFR has dropped in the U.S. since the peak during a peak during the baby boom of 3.7
children per woman to at or below 2.1 children per woman in most years from 1972 to 2011.
4. The U.S. population is still growing faster than all other more-developed countries as well as
that of China. About 2.7 million people were added to the U.S. population in 2011, with about
two-thirds added because there were that many more births than deaths, and one third added
by immigration.
5. Lifestyle changes since 1900 include a dramatic increase in per capita resource use and a
much larger U.S. ecological footprint.
D. Several factors affect birth rates and fertility rates.
1. A particular country’s average birth rate and TFR can be affected by:
a. The importance of children as a part of the labor force.
b. The cost of raising and educating children.
c. The availability of, or lack of, private and public pension systems.
d. Urbanization.
e. The educational and employment opportunities available for women.
f. The average age at marriage.
g. The availability of legal abortions.
h. The availability of reliable birth control methods.
i. Religious beliefs, traditions, and cultural norms.
2. Several factors affect death rates.
a. People started living longer and fewer infants died because of increased food supplies
and distribution, better nutrition, medical advances, improved sanitation, life
expectancy, married women working, and safer water supplies.
b. Two useful indicators of the overall health of people in a country or region are life
expectancy (the average number of years a person can expect to live) and infant
mortality rate (the number of babies out of every 1,000 born who die before their first
birthday).
i. The average global life expectancy increased from 48 years in 1955 to 69
years in 2011. Between 1900 and 2011, the average global life expectancy
in the United States increased from 47 years to 78 years.
ii. Infant mortality is a measure of a society’s quality of life because it reflects
the general level of nutrition and health care. A high infant mortality rate
can results from insufficient food (undernutrition), poor nutrition
(malnutrition), and a high incidence of infectious disease, which is
exacerbated by under- or malnutrition.
iii. While infant mortality rates in more-developed and less-developed
countries have declined dramatically since 1965, more than 4 million
infants die during their first year of life.
iv. The U.S. ranks 54th in the world in infant mortality rates due to:
a. inadequate health care for poor women during pregnancy and for
their babies after birth
b. drug addiction among pregnant women
c. a high teenage pregnancy rate
E. Migration affects an area’s population size.
1. Migration is the movement of people into (immigration) and out of (emigration) specific
geographic areas.

© 2016 Cengage Learning

Chapter 6: The Human Population and Urbanization

a. Most people who migrate from one country to another are seeking jobs.
b. Religious persecution, ethnic conflicts, political oppression, wars, and certain types of
environmental degradation are also factors.
c. Environmental refugees are people who migrate due to environmental degradation such
as soil erosion and water and food shortages. One UN study estimated that a million
people are added to this category every year.
2. CONNECTIONS: Global Warming and Environmental Refugees.
a. Due to global warming the number of environmental refugees could soar to 250 million
or more before the end of this century.
3. CASE STUDY: The United States: A Nation of Immigrants.
a. Since 1820, the United States has admitted almost twice as many immigrants and
refugees as all other countries combined.
b. Legal and illegal immigration account for about 36% of the country’s annual population
growth.
c. Between 1820 and 1960, most legal immigrants to the United States came from Europe.
Since 1960, most have come from Latin America and Asia. Hispanics are projected to
make up 30% of the U.S. population by 2050.
d. There is controversy over reducing legal immigration to the U.S.
i. Proponents of reducing immigration say it would help stabilize population
size and reduce the country’s enormous environmental impact.
ii. Those against say it would diminish the role of the U.S. as a land of
opportunity and take away from cultural diversity and innovation. Most
immigrants and their descendants start new businesses and create jobs.
Many immigrants take menial and low-paying jobs that most other
Americans shun.
e. There were an estimated 11 million illegal immigrants in the United States in 2011.
There is controversy over what to do about illegal immigration.
i. Some want to deport all illegal immigrants.
ii. Others want to set up programs that allow illegal immigrants to remain in
the country as long as they are working towards citizenship.
6-3 How does a population’s age structure affect its growth or decline?
A. A population’s age structure helps us to make projections.
1. Age structure is the numbers or percentages of males and females in young, middle, and older
age groups in a given population.
2. Population age-structure diagrams are made by plotting the percentages or numbers of males
and females in the total population in each of three age categories:
a. Prereproductive (ages 0–14): individuals normally too young to have children.
b. Reproductive (ages 15–44): those normally able to have children.
c. Postreproductive (ages 45 and older): individuals normally too old to have children.
3. Demographic momentum is rapid population growth in a country that has a large percentage
of people younger than 15, and happens when a large number of girls enter their prime
reproductive years.
4. 1.8 billion people will move into their reproductive years by 2025.
5. Most future human population growth will take place in less-developed countries due to their
population age structure.
6. The global population of seniors (age 65 and older) is increasing due to declining birth rates
and medical advances that have extended life spans.
B. CONNECTIONS: The American baby boom
1. The American baby boom added 79 million people to the U.S. population between 1946 and
1964.
2. The large numbers of baby boomers have strongly influenced the U.S. economy. First they
created a youth market and are now creating the late middle age and senior markets.
3. As the baby boomers turn 65, the number of seniors will grow sharply through 2030. This
process has been called the graying of America.
4. As the number of working adults declines in proportion to the number of seniors, so will the
tax revenues necessary for supporting the growing senior population.

© 2016 Cengage Learning

 Instructor’s Manual for Environmental Science, 15th edition

C. Populations made up mostly of older people can decline rapidly.

1. Japan has the world’s highest percentage of elderly people and the world’s lowest percentage
of young people. Because Japan discourages immigration, it may face a bleak economic
future.
2. The average age of China’s population is increasing at one of the fastest rates ever recorded.
This could lead to a declining work force, higher wages for workers, limited funds for
supporting continued economic development, and fewer children and grandchildren to care
for the growing number of elderly people.
D. Populations can decline from a rising death rate: the AIDS tragedy.
1. Between 1981 and 2010, AIDS killed more than 29 million people, and it takes about 2
million more lives each year (22,000 in the United States).
2. AIDS kills many young adults and leaves many children orphaned, causing a change in the
young-adult age structure of a country. This causes a sharp drop in average life expectancy,
especially in several African countries where 15–26% of the adult population is infected with
HIV.
3. AIDS can cause a pandemic loss of productive young adult workers and trained personnel.
6-4 What are some ways to slow human population growth?
A. header that still needs to be written
1. The three most effective ways to slow or stop population growth are to reduce poverty,
elevate the status of women, and encourage family planning and reproductive health care.
B. Promote economic development.
1. As countries become industrialized and economically developed, their populations tend to
grow more slowly. This demographic transition has four phases:
a. Preindustrial
b. Transitional
c. Industrial
d. Postindustrial
2. Less-developed countries may transition to slower growth if modern technology can raise per
capita incomes by bringing economic development and family planning.
3. Rapid population growth, extreme poverty, and increasing environmental degradation in some
low-income less-developed countries—especially in Africa—could leave these countries
stuck in stage 2 of the demographic transition.
C. Empowering women can slow population growth.
1. Women tend to have fewer children if they are educated, have the ability to control their own
fertility, hold a paying job outside the home, and live in societies that do not suppress their
rights.
2. Women account for 66% of all hours worked but receive only 10% of the world’s income and
own just 2% of the world’s land.
3. Women make up 70% of the world’s poor and 64% of its 800 million illiterate adults.
4. Poor women who cannot read often have an average of 5–7 children, compared to 2 or fewer
children in societies where almost all women can read.
D. Promote family planning.
1. Family planning provides educational and clinical services that help couples choose how
many children to have and when to have them.
2. Successes of family planning:
a. Without family planning programs that began in the 1970s, the world’s population
would be about 8.5 billion instead of the current 7 billion.
b. Family planning has reduced the number of abortions performed each year and
decreased the numbers of mothers and fetuses dying during pregnancy.
3. Problems that have hindered success in some countries:
a. 42% of all pregnancies in less-developed countries are unplanned and 26% end with
abortion.
b. An estimated 201 million couples in less-developed countries want to limit their number
of children, but lack access to family planning services.
4. CASE STUDY: Slowing Population Growth in India.

© 2016 Cengage Learning

Chapter 6: The Human Population and Urbanization

a. For over 50 years, India has tried to control its population growth with only modest
success.
b. Two factors help account for larger families in India.
i. Most poor couples believe they need several children to work and care for
them in old age.
ii. The strong cultural preference for male children means that some couples
keep having children until they produce one or more boys.
c. The result: even though 9 of every 10 Indian couples have access to at least one modern
birth control method, only 48% actually use one.
6-5 What are the major urban resource and environmental problems?
A. header that still needs to be written
1. An increasing percentage of the world’s people live in urban areas.
2. Urban areas grow in two ways—by natural increase due to births and by immigration, mostly
from rural areas.
3. Three major trends in urban population dynamics have emerged:
a. The proportion of the global population living in urban areas increased from 2% in 1850
to 50% today, and is projected to be 70% by 2050.
b. The numbers and sizes of urban areas are mushrooming. We now have cities with 10
million or more people (megacities or megalopolises) and will soon have hypercities
with more than 20 million people. Megacities and hypercities are merging into
megaregions that can stretch across entire countries.
c. Poverty is becoming increasingly urbanized, mostly in less-developed countries. An
estimated 1 billion people in less-developed countries live in urban slums and
shantytowns.
B. CASE STUDY: Urbanization in the United States.
1. Between 1800 and 2011, the percentage of the U.S. population living in urban areas increased
from 5% to 79%. This population shift has occurred in four phases.
a. People migrated from rural areas to large central cities.
b. Many people migrated from large central cities to smaller cities and suburbs.
c. Many people migrated from the North and East to the South and West.
d. Some people fled cities and moved to developed areas outside of suburbs. These exurbs
are scattered over vast areas that lie beyond suburbs and have no socio-economic
centers.
2. There are upsides to urbanization. Conditions in U.S. cities have improved, with better
working and housing conditions, improved air and water quality, and decreased death rates
and sickness from infectious diseases due to better sanitation, clean public water supplies, and
medical care.
3. Concentrating people in urban areas has helped protect the country’s biodiversity by reducing
the destruction and degradation of wildlife habitat.
4. Many cities have aging infrastructures (streets, bridges, dams, power lines, schools, waste
management, water supply pipes, and sewers) with limited funds for repair.
C. Urban sprawl gobbles up the countryside.
1. Urban sprawl, or the growth of low-density development on the edges of cities and towns, is
eliminating surrounding agricultural and wild lands.
2. Urban sprawl is the product of affordable land, automobiles, relatively cheap gasoline, and
poor urban planning.
3. Urban sprawl has caused or contributed to a number of environmental problems.
a. People are forced to drive everywhere, resulting in more emission of greenhouse gases
and air pollution.
b. Sprawl has decreased energy efficiency, increased traffic congestion, and destroyed
prime cropland, forests, and wetlands.
c. Sprawl has led to the economic deaths of many central cities as people and businesses
move out.
D. Urbanization has advantages.
1. Cities are centers of industry, commerce, transportation, innovation, education, technological
advances, and jobs.

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as is necessary for most bulbs, but to increase it; one, or two young bulbs
being annually produced, in addition from the old one. The best soil is a
sandy peat, with a small proportion of loam.
P L AT E 56
 P L AT E LVII.

MESEMBRYANTHEMUM GLABRUM.
Smooth-leaved annual Fig Marygold.

CLASS XII. ORDER IV.

ICOSANDRIA PENTAGYNIA. Twenty Chives. Five Pointals.

GENERIC CHARACTER.

C . Perianthium monophyllum, semiquinquesidum, superum, patens,

persistens.
C . Monopetala; petala lanceolato-linearia, numerosissima, serie
multiplici nata, calyce longiora, unguibus læviter connatis in unum.
S . Filamenta numerosa, capillaria, longitudine calycis. Antheræ
incumbentes.
P . Germen inferum, angulis quinque, obtusis. Styli quinque
sæpius, subulati, erecto-reflexi. Stigmata simplicia.
P . Capsula carnosa, subrotunda, loculamentis numero
stylorum respondentibus.
S plurima, subrotunda.
E . Cup one leaf, cut nearly half way down into five divisions,
above, spreading, and remaining.
B . One petal; petals linearly lance-shaped, very numerous, rising
in a number of rows, longer than the cup, slightly joined together by
their claws.
C . Threads numerous, hair-like, the length of the cup. Tips laying on
the threads.
P . Seed-bud beneath, with five obtuse angles. Shafts mostly five,
awl-shaped, upright, and a little bent outwards. Summits simple.
S - . A fleshy capsule, nearly round, the cells answering to the
number of the chives.
S many, nearly round.

SPECIFIC CHARACTER.
Mesembryanthemum foliis amplexicaulibus, glaberrimis, spathulatis;
pedunculis longitudine foliorum; calycibus hemisphæricis; corollis
luteis.
Fig Marygold with leaves embracing the stem, very smooth, and spatula-
shaped; the foot-stalks the length of the leaves; cups hemispherical;
blossoms yellow.

REFERENCE TO THE PLATE.

1. A Seed-bud; the Blossom, Cup and Chives, cut off, the Pointals
remaining.
2. The same, with the Cup and Chives.

A the extreme brilliancy of this plant cannot be done justice to in

painting, we must rest satisfied with having done our best; every person
in the least acquainted with the art, must know, that in yellow the shining
colour existing in nature cannot be retained in a drawing. This species is
annual, and according to the Kew Catalogue, was introduced to the royal
gardens by Mr. F. Masson in the year 1787. The seeds should be sown on
a hotbed in the month of February, and by the end of August the plants
will flower, and continue to blossom till the end of October; never failing
to perfect their seeds.
P L AT E 57
 P L AT E LVIII.

BORONIA PINNATA.
Hawthorn-scented Boronia.

CLASS VIII. ORDER I.

OCTANDRIA MONOGYNIA. Eight Chives. One Pointal.

GENERIC CHARACTER.

C . Perianthium quadripartitum; laciniis acutis, persistentibus.

C . Petala quatuor, ovata, sessilia.
Nectarium coronæ forma, excavatum, glandulosum.
S . Filamenta octo, plana, ciliata, incurvata, receptaculo inserta.
Antheræ infra apicem filamentorum pedicillatæ, incumbentes.
P . Germen superum, conicum, quadrisulcatum. Stylus
brevissimus, simplex. Stigma capitatum, glabrum, sulcatum.
P . Capsulæ quatuor, ovato-acuminatæ, compressæ, margine
introrsum coalitæ, apicibus distantibus, sutra superiori dehiscentes,
bivalves.
S solitaria sæpius, nitida, reniformia, arillata.
E . Cup with four divisions; segments sharp pointed, and
remaining.
B . Petals four, egg-shaped, sitting close to the cup.
Honey-cup of the shape of a crown, hollowed, and glandular.
C . Eight threads, flat, fringed, turned inwards, and fixed into the
receptacle. Tips fixed below the ends on the inside of the threads, on
short foot-stalks, and lying on them.
P . Seed-bud above, conical, and four-furrowed. Shaft very short,
and simple. Summit headed, smooth, and furrowed.
S - . Capsules four, of a pointed egg-shape, flattened, joined by
the interior edge, the points standing separate, splitting from the upper
suture, two-valved.
S mostly solitary, shining, kidney-shaped, and covered with an elastic
coat.

SPECIFIC CHARACTER.

Boronia foliis impari-primatis, integerrimis; pedunculis axillaribus,

dichotomis; filamentis apice obtusis, glandulosis.
Boronia with leaves abruptly winged, entire; flower-stalks growing from
the base of the leaves, forked; end of the threads blunt, and glandular.

REFERENCE TO THE PLATE.

1. The Empalement, (natural size).

2. The Chives, and Pointal.
3. One Chive, (magnified).
4. The Pointal, and Honey-cup, (natural size).

T is the only species yet in our gardens, of a most beautiful new genus
of plants, natives of New South Wales, first named, described, and with
three other species, figured in the Tracts relating to Natural History by
Dr. J. E. Smith, F.R.S. P.L.S. &c. Thus eternizing the name of an esteemed
and faithful servant, who by his ardour in botanical pursuits, had merited
the honour; rejecting the usual considerations, riches, or learning, does
the Dr. no less credit as a man, for the kindness of his heart, than what his
distinguished talents have gained him, by placing him in the first
botanical seat in this kingdom. In the short history of the unfortunate end
of Borone, the Dr. informs us, he had resigned him to Dr. Sibthorpe, as a
most fit person to attend him in his last journey through Greece; where, at
Athens, he met his death, by an accidental fall from a balcony: the Dr. did
not long survive him.
The Boronia pinnata has much of the aromatic flavour of Diosma in its
leaves and stem; the flowers, which appear about February, and continue
till May, have the scent of the Hawthorn flower; it grows to a shrub of the
height of eighteen inches, is propagated with difficulty by cuttings, and
has not hitherto perfected its seeds in this country; requiring a dry
situation in the greenhouse, and flourishes most in light sandy peat. The
figure was taken from a plant which flowered last year, in the nursery of
Messrs. Lee and Kennedy, Hammersmith, where it was raised from seeds
in 1794.
P L AT E 58
 P L AT E LIX.

IXIA FISTULOSA.
Hollow-leaved Ixia.

CLASS III. ORDER I.

TRIANDRIA MONOGYNIA. Three Chives. One Pointal.

ESSENTIAL GENERIC CHARACTER.

C 6-petala, patens æqualis. Stigmata tria, erectiusculo-patula.

B six petals, spreading, equal. Summits three, nearly upright, and
spreading.
See I . Plate XIV.

SPECIFIC CHARACTER.

Ixia foliis linearibus, fistulosis; floribus secundis, noctu fragrantes; bulbus

campanulatus, margine acuto-fibroso.
Ixia with linear, hollow leaves; flowers pointing one way, and fragrant by
night; bulb bell-shaped, the margin edged with sharp fibres.

REFERENCE TO THE PLATE.

1. The outer spath of the Empalement.

2. The inner spath of the Empalement.
3. A Flower cut open.
4. The Pointal, and Chives.
5. The Pointal.

T Ixia is of a very delicate nature, the root being subject to rot soon
after the flower decays, if not then removed from its pot, and dried; the
flowers expand about four o’clock in the afternoon, and are so extremely
fragrant that they are smelt at a considerable distance. For this plant, our
gardens are indebted to the Dowager Lady De Clifford, who received the
bulbs from the Cape of Good Hope in the year 1794. The drawing was
made from a plant, which flowered last year at Messrs. Lee and
Kennedy’s, Hammersmith, who had some of them in a present from her
ladyship. Like other Ixias, it should be planted in light peat, and watered
but seldom; its propagation is but slow, as seldom more than one new
bulb is produced, upon the decay of the old one.
P L AT E 59
 P L AT E LX.

GERANIUM PUNCTATUM.
Dotted-flowered Geranium.
CLASS XVI. ORDER IV. Suppl. System. Veget. 1781.
MONODELPHIA DECANDRIA. Threads united. Ten Chives.

ESSENTIAL GENERIC CHARACTER.

M . Stigmata 5. Fructus rostratus, 5-coccus.

O P . Five summits. Fruit furnished with long awns, five dry
berries.
See G , Plate XII.

SPECIFIC CHARACTER.

Geranium foliis radicalibus; floribus umbellatis, diandris; petalis duobus

superioribus punctatis; stigmata quatuor.
Geranium with leaves growing from the root; flowers grow in umbels,
two fertile chives; the two upper petals being dotted; summits four.

REFERENCE TO THE PLATE.

1. The Empalement cut open, with the Chives and Pointal left on,
(natural size).
2. The Threads cut open, to shew their number, and the situation of the
two fertile ones, (magnified).
3. The Pointal, (magnified).

P amongst plants, there is no genus exhibits such varied and

numerous species as Geranium; no one, in which the species are so allied
in natural character, or so unfavourable to the sexual system, if some
deviation from general rules was not allowed: the founder thought such
licence necessary, and we implicitly follow him. Thus far we have
thought proper to extenuate in the present instance; for should we follow
Mons. L’Heritier, (as most of the modern correctors of Linnæus have
done,) a new genus must inevitably be formed for this plant. Upon a close
examination of the flowers, from a dozen different plants, invariably, only
seven threads were found; two only with tips, and those placed
immediately behind the shaft, whose summits were but four. This
Geranium is rather tender, and requires a dry-stove heat to make it flower,
which it will readily do with such assistance, in April; about the
beginning of which month, this year, a drawing was made from a plant in
the collection of Messrs. Lee and Kennedy. The roots or bulbs of this
plant were first received in England by Thomas Johnes, Esq. in the year
1794, in whose magnificent conservatory at Havod they flowered the next
year.
P L AT E 60
 P L AT E LXI.

ASTER DENTATUS.
Toothed-leaved Starwort.

CLASS XIX. ORDER II.

SYNGENESIA POLYGAMIA SUPERFLUA. Tips united. Superfluous
Pointals.

GENERIC CHARACTER.

C . Communis squamoso-imbricatus; squamis interioribus apice

prominulis.
C . Composita radiata; corollulæ hermaphroditæ numerosæ in
disco; femineæ ligulatæ, decem plures in radio.
Propria hermaphroditi infundibuliformis; limbo quinquefido, patulo.
Femineæ ligulata, lanceolata, tridentata.
S . Filamenta quinque, capillaria, brevissima. Anthera cylindracea,
tubulosa.
P . Hermaphroditis; germen oblongum. Stylus filiformis,
longitudine staminum. Stigma bifidum, patens.
Femineis; germen oblongum. Stylus filiformis, longitudine
hermaphroditi. Stigmata duo, oblonga, revoluta.
P nullum. Calyx vix mutatus.
S . Hermaphroditis solitaria, oblonga, ovata. Pappus pilosus.
Femineis similia hermaphroditis.
R nudum, planiusculum.
E . Common, scales tiled; the inner scales standing a little out
at the points.
B . Compound, radiate; florets with chives and pointals, many in
the center; florets with only pointals, ligulate, ten or more in the
circumference.
Individuals with chives and pointals, funnel-shaped; border with five-
clefts, spreading.
Individuals with only pointals, ligulate, spear-shaped, with three teeth.
C . Five hair-like threads, very short. Tips forming a hollow cylinder.
P . To those with chives and pointals, seed-bud oblong. Shaft
thread-shaped, the length of the chives. Summit two-cleft, expanding.
Seed-bud to those with pointals only, oblong. Shaft thread-shaped, the
length of the hermaphrodites. Summits two, oblong, bent back.
S - none. Cup scarcely changing.
S to the hermaphrodites solitary, oblong, egg-shaped. Feather hairy.
Females the same as hermaphrodites.
R naked, almost flat.

SPECIFIC CHARACTER.

Aster caulis fruticosus; foliis dentatis, subtus ferrugineis; floribus

terminalibus; pedunculis unifloris, bracteatis.
Starwort with a shrubby stem; leaves toothed, iron colour beneath;
flowers terminate the branches; fruit-stalks having but one flower, with
floral leaves.

REFERENCE TO THE PLATE.

1. A Floret of the circumference.

2. The Pointal of the preceding.
3. A Floret of the center, (magnified).
4. The Chives and Pointal of the preceding, (magnified).
5. The Shaft and Summit of the same, (magnified).

T plant cannot undoubtedly be considered as amongst the most

beautiful of the vegetable productions of New Holland; but nevertheless,
from the continuance of its flowering, is very desirable as a greenhouse
plant, as it begins to expand its blossoms about December, and from that
time till August is seldom seen without flowers. It is a low-growing
shrub, seldom exceeding a foot in height, and very branching. Like most
plants from Botany Bay, it delights in a light sandy peat soil, is easily
propagated by cuttings, and seeds. The drawing was made from a plant in
the nursery of Messrs. Lee and Kennedy, who raised it first from seeds in
the year 1793.
P L AT E 61
 P L AT E LXII.

GLADIOLUS GRAMINEUS.
Grass-like Gladiolus.

CLASS III. ORDER I.

TRIANDRIA MONOGYNIA. Three Chives. One Pointal.

ESSENTIAL GENERIC CHARACTER.

C sexpartita, ringens.
S adscendentia.
B with six divisions, gaping.
C ascending.
See G . Plate V.

SPECIFIC CHARACTER.

Gladiolus polystachyus, scapo laxo, spicis capillaribus, flexuosis; foliis

ensiformibus; corollæ sexpartitæ, absque tubo.
Gladiolus with many spikes, upon a flexible flower stem, spikes hair-like,
growing zigzag; leaves sword-shape; blossom of six divisions, without a
tube.

REFERENCE TO THE PLATE.

1. The two sheaths of the Empalement.

2. The Seed-bud, Chives, and Pointal (magnified).
3. The Pointal, (magnified).

T species of Gladiolus has been described by Thunberg, and from him

by Linnæus, in his Suppl. Plant. p. 95, under the specific name it here
bears. It is a little straining on the genus to introduce this species into it;
as it is deficient in most of the essential characters; having a blossom
without a tube, and the petals equal. From the Kew Catalogue we learn it
was introduced in the year 1787, by Mr. F. Masson, to the royal gardens;
is there said to flower most part of the year: a plant of such character is
most desirable, but unfortunately we have never seen it in blossom but at
the usual season for the flowers of this tribe; that is, from April till June.
The capsules of this plant bear a strong resemblance to those of the
Euonymus: generally perfecting their seeds. It is a very hardy bulb, blows
early, and may be kept in a pit protected from the frost.
P L AT E 62
 P L AT E LXIII.

USTERIA SCANDENS.
Climbing Usteria.

CLASS XIV. ORDER II.

DIDYNAMIA ANGIOSPERMIA. Two Chives longer. Seeds covered.

GENERIC CHARACTER.

C . Perianthium monophyllum, quinquepartitum, persistens; laciniis

erectis, subulatis.
C . Monopetala, ringens, tubus ventricosus, basi arcta; limbus
bilabiatus, labium superius bifidum, rotundatum, reflexum; labium
inferius trifidum, laciniis rotundatis, intermedia minore.
S . Filamenta quatuor, sub labio superiori recondita, quorum duo
lateralia longiora, fundo corollæ inserta, basi incrassata, lanata, apice
incurvata. Antheræ erectæ, versatiles, approximatæ.
P . Germen sub-rotundum. Stylus filiformis, persistens;
longitudine staminum. Stigma obtusum.
P . Capsula sub-rotunda, bilocularis, calyce longior, obtusa.
S plurima, sub-rotunda, scabrida.
E . Cup one leaf, five divisions, permanent; segments upright,
and awl-shaped.
B . One leaf, gaping, tube swelled out in the middle, and pinched
in at the base; border with two lips, the upper divided into two lobes,
which are rounded, and bent back; the lower has three divisions, the
segments rounded, the middle one the smallest.
C . Threads four, hid under the upper lip, of which the two side ones
are the longest, fixed into the bottom of the blossom, thickened at the
base, woolly, and turned inward at the point. Tips upright, slightly fixed
by the middle, and approaching.
P . Seed-bud nearly round. Shaft thread-shaped, remaining, the
length of the chives. Summit blunt.
S - . Capsule nearly round, of two cells, longer than the cup,
blunt ended.
S many, almost round, and very rough.

SPECIFIC CHARACTER.

Usteria caulis volubilis; foliis hastatis; floribus solitariis, purpureis;

pedunculis tortis, longissimis.
Usteria with a climbing stem; leaves halbert-shaped; flowers solitary, and
purple; fruit-stalks twisted, very long.

REFERENCE TO THE PLATE.

1. A Blossom cut open, to expose the situation of the Chives.

2. One Chive, (magnified).
3. The Pointal, (natural size).
4. The Empalement, and Seed-vessel nearly ripe, of its natural size.

T is another of those plants raised in the year 1797 by the Marchioness

of Bute, at her charming little villa, Brompton, from seeds, sent to her
ladyship from Spain by Dr. Ortega. It is a native of Mexico, North
America, and will live through our winters with the protection of a
greenhouse, to which it forms a beautiful ornament as a creeper;
flowering from May till September, but does not appear to be a long-lived
plant; is easily propagated by cuttings, or from seeds, which are ripened
by November, or earlier; thriving best in light rich earth.
P L AT E 63
 P L AT E LXIV.

PÆONIA ALBIFLORA.
White Pæony.

CLASS XIII. ORDER II.

POLYANDRIA DIGYNIA. Many Chives. Two Pointals.

GENERIC CHARACTER.

C . Perianthium pentaphyllum, parvum, persistens; foliolis

subrotundis, concavis, reflexis, inequalibus magnitudine et situ.
C . Petala quinque, subrotunda, concava, basi angustiora, patentia,
maxima.
S . Filamenta numerosa, capillaria. Antheræ oblongæ,
quadrangulæ, erectæ, quadriloculares, magnæ.
P . Germina duo, ovata, erecta, tomentosa. Styli nulli. Stigmata
compressa, obtusa, colorata.
P . Capsulæ oblongæ, acuminatæ, reflexo-patentes,
tomentosæ, uniloculares, univalves, longitudinaliter introrsum
dehiscentes.
S plura, ovalia, nitida, colorata, saturæ dehiscenti affixa.
E . Cup five-leaved, small, and remaining; leaves roundish,
concave, bent back, and unequal both in size and situation.
B . Petals five, roundish, concave, smaller at the base, spreading,
and very large.
C . Threads numerous, and hair-like. Tips oblong, four-sided,
upright, with four cells, and large.
P . Seed-buds two, egg-shaped, upright, and downy. Shaft none.
Summits flattened, oblong, blunt, and coloured.
S - . Capsules oblong, tapered, bent back, and spreading, downy,
of one cell, and one valve, splitting lengthways from the inner part.
S many, oval, shining, coloured, and fixed to the suture where it
splits.
 SPECIFIC CHARACTER.

Pæonia foliis lobatis, nitentibus; corollis albidis; germinibus ternis, vel

quaternis.
Pæony with leaves divided into lobes, and shining; blossoms white; seed-
buds three, or four.

REFERENCE TO THE PLATE.

1. The Empalement, Chives, and Pointals.

2. A Thread and its Tip (magnified).
3. The Seed-vessels.
4. A Seed.

T new species of Pæony is a native of Mongol Tartary, and the parts

adjacent; of course, is sufficiently hardy to endure our severest winters. It
has been described by Gmelin, in his Flora Sibirica; and figured by Dr.
Pallas, in his Flora Rossica, under the specific title it here bears. J. Bell,
Esq. of Isleworth, procured some plants of it from St. Petersburg, about
the year 1791; where it had been introduced by Dr. Pallas some time
before, when on his travels through Tartary. It forms a handsome, upright
growing, herbaceous plant; the flowers standing much above the foliage,
are much handsomer before they are expanded, than when fully so; as the
under part of the petals are tinged with red, which contrasted with the
purity of the white of the other parts, renders them at that period
extremely beautiful. The figure was taken at the nursery of Messrs. Lee
and Kennedy, this year, in the month of June, during which month it is in
perfection. Like the rest of the Pæonies, it is easily propagated by the
root; requiring little attention in its cultivation, as it will live in almost any
soil or situation.
P L AT E 64
 P L AT E LXV.

OPHRYS LILIFOLIA.
Lily-leaved Ophrys.

CLASS XX. ORDER I.

GYNANDRIA DIANDRIA. Chives on the Pointal. Two Chives.

GENERIC CHARACTER.

C . Spathæ vagæ. Spadix simplex. Perianthium nullum.

C . Petala quinque, oblonga, sursum conniventia, æqualia; duo
horum exteriora.
Nectarium petalis longius, dependens; postice tantum carinatum.
S . Filamenta duo, brevissima, pistillo insidentia. Antheræ erectæ,
tectæ margine interiore nectarii.
P . Germen oblongum, contortum, inferum. Stylus margini
interiori nectarii adnatus. Stigma obsoletum.
P . Capsula subovata, trigona, obtusa, striata, trivalvis,
unilocularis, angulis carinatis dehiscens.
S numerosa, scobiformia.
R lineare, adnatum singulæ valvulæ pericarpii.
E . Sheaths scattered. Fruit-stalks simple. Cup none.
B . Five petals, oblong, approaching upwards, equal; two of them
placed outwards.
Honey-cup longer than the petals, hanging down; only keeled on the back
part.
C . Two threads, very short, fixed to the pointal. Tips upright,
covered by the inner edge of the honey-cup.
P . Seed-bud beneath, oblong, twisted beneath. Shaft fixed to the
inner edge of the honey-cup. Summit imperfect.
S - . Capsule nearly egg-shaped, three-sided, blunt, channelled,
three-valved, and one cell, opening at the keel-shaped angles.
S numerous, like saw-dust.
R linear, growing to each valve of the seed-vessel.

SPECIFIC CHARACTER.

Ophrys bulbo subrotundo; scapo nudo; foliis ovato-oblongis, radicalibus;

nectarii labio integro; petalis dorsalibus linearibus.
Ophrys with roundish roots; stem naked; leaves oblong, egg-shaped,
growing from the root; the two back petals linear.

REFERENCE TO THE PLATE.

1. The Honey-cup cut off the blossom.

2. The Seed-bud and Pointal (natural size) shewn sideways.
3. The same (magnified) shewn in front, with the cup lifted up, to expose
the parts of fructification.

G , in his arrangement of the plants discovered by Mr. J. Clayton

in Virginia, P. i, page 185, has described this plant; and Linnæus after
him, in his second edition of the Species Plantarum, page 1341, has it
likewise, but thought it only a large variety of a species found in marshy
grounds in Sweden; however that may be, it is perfectly new to Britain, as
a plant in our gardens. This species of Ophrys seems much more easy to
preserve than most of its congeners, as, since its introduction, the bulbs
seem to acquire additional size, and the spikes of flowers to grow larger
each year. Our drawing was taken from a plant in the extensive collection
of the Right Hon. the Marquis of Blandford, Bill-hill, Berkshire, in the
year 1797, about the beginning of the month of July; having been sent the
preceding year from Philadelphia, by J. Lyons, gardener to William
Hamilton, Esq. of that State. It is a hardy plant, and will thrive in a
sheltered border, if planted in light earth, and kept moist; is propagated
but slowly by the root, which seems the only method; as the seeds are too
small of all this natural order to raise them by that means.
P L AT E 65
 P L AT E LXVI.

GLADIOLUS POLYSTACHIUS.
Branching Gladiolus.

CLASS III. ORDER I.

TRIANDRIA MONOGYNIA. Three Chives. One Pointal.

ESSENTIAL GENERIC CHARACTER.

C 6-partita, ringens.
S adscendentia.
B of six divisions, and gaping.
C ascending.
See Plate XI. G .

SPECIFIC CHARACTER.

Gladiolus foliis falcatis; caule polystachio; corollis sub-regularibus,

carneis.
Gladiolus with cymitar-shaped leaves; stem many branches; blossoms
nearly regular, and flesh colour.

REFERENCE TO THE PLATE.

1. The Empalement.
2. A Blossom cut open, with the Chives attached.
3. The Pointal and Seed-bud, one summit magnified.

T species of Gladiolus has been long known in herbariums, as it is

very common about Table mountain, at the Cape of Good Hope; Jacquin,
Thunberg, Gmelin, Welldenow, &c. have it under the tribe of Ixia, with
the specific names of Scillaris, Fabricii, &c. but notwithstanding, we have
no hesitation in placing it under its true genus Gladiolus. The upright
character of the chives, their insertion into the tube of the blossom, and
not at the mouth, the difference in the shape of the petals, the situation of