CHEMISTRY breathing problems, skin rashes, allergic reaction,

- the observation and description of allergic sensitization, cancer, and other health

matter, its properties, and the changes problems from exposure.

it undergoes. • Example of Hazardous Chemicals

- Chemistry is sometimes called "the central - Paints, drugs, cosmetics, cleaning chemicals,
degreaser, detergents, gas cylinders and
science" because it connects physics with
refrigerant gases.
other natural sciences such as geology and
• Characteristics of Hazardous Chemicals:
biology.
1. Ignitability or something flammable
PRACTICES OF CHEMISTRY 2. Corrosively or something that can rust or
1. decompose.
• Glass making 2. Reactivity or something explosive
• Wine making 3. Toxicity or something poisonous
• Pottery
• Dyeing • Hazardous substance

Chemistry of Flowers - is a material or substance

• Smell a Flower that poses a physical or health hazard.

- The Fragrance is Chemistry • Health Hazards
• See a Flower
- The Colours are Chemistry - occur when a chemical produces
• Touch a Flower an acute or chronic health effect on exposed
- The Structure is Chemistry
individuals.
Chemistry in the Home
• Physical properties of a substance determine a
• Everything in your home is Chemistry
• Shower Gel, Wallpaper Physical Hazard.
• soap, shampoo • Physical Hazard Examples: Flammable, explosives,
• Disinfectants
pyrophoric, corrosive, reactive, peroxide former.
Healthier Lives
• Xylene
• Formulations of all medicines
• Clean water through chemical science - is an organic chemical compound
• Cures for Cancer, AIDS… - also known as Xylol.
BRANCHES OF CHEMISTRY -used as a solvent (a liquid that can dissolve
• Organic Chemistry other substances) in the printing, rubber,
• Inorganic Chemistry
and leather industries.
• CHEMICAL SAFETY
-used as a cleaning agent, a thinner for
- is the practice of handling
paint, and in varnishes.
chemicals in a safe manner, minimizing the hazard
• A substance is pyrophoric if it ignites
to public and personal health.
spontaneously in air at or below 54 °C or within 5
• HAZARDOUS CHEMICALS
minutes after coming into contact with air. (ex. iron
- are substances that
sulfide)
can cause adverse health effects such as poisoning,
• Peroxide Formers are a class of chemicals with commercial, agricultural and residential
sources)
high instability and are one of the most dangerous
• Non-hazardous Lab Consumable Waste Items
chemicals used in laboratories. Shock, heat, or
1. Uncontaminated gloves
friction can cause unexpected explosions of
2. Empty plastic chemical containers
peroxide forming chemicals. (classes of 3. Pipettes
4. Centrifuge tubes
compounds: Ethers, Tetrahydrofuran, Aldehydes, 5. Fraction collection tubes
and Acetals) 6. Disposable flasks

• Health Hazard Examples: • Common Cleaning Agents

✓ Nephrotoxin: A toxic chemical that 1. Water, the most common cleaning

agent which is a very powerful polar solvent.
damages the kidneys (e.g., Cisplatin, 1. Soap or detergent
2. Ammonia Solution
Aminoglycoside,Antibiotics,Indomethacin)
3. Calcium hypochlorite
✓ Hepatotoxin: A toxic chemical that 4. Citric acid
5. Sodium hypochlorite
damages the liver (e.g., Ethanol, 6. Sodium hydroxide
Halothane, CarbonTetrachloride). 7. Acetic acid
PHYSICAL HAZARD
✓ Teratogen: A toxic chemical that causes • HAZARD SYMBOLS
HEALTH HAZARD
malformation of an embryo (e.g., Alcohol).

• Acute vs. Chronic

✓ Acute Hazards cause immediate harm

(e.g., Carbon Monoxide poisoning, Cyanide

inhalation, etc.).

✓ Chronic Hazards do not cause immediate

harm (e.g., Mesothelioma from Asbestos

exposure, lung cancer from smoking, etc.).

• Routes of Exposure

The four routes of exposure are ingestion,

inhalation, injection, and skin contact.

• THE CLASSIFICATION OF HAZARDOUS CHEMICALS
• Toxicity
✓ CLASS 1: EXPLOSIVES
The degree to which a toxic chemical can cause
-include ammunitions, fireworks, air bag
damage. Dosage, duration, and exposure to
inflators and fuse, etc.
chemicals affect toxicity.
✓ CLASS 2: GASES
• NON-HAZARDOUS CHEMICALS
-oxygen, natural gas, carbon dioxide,
- that have been determined to be non-
hazardous waste. (paper, metals, and lighters, and aerosols
chemicals, materials generated by industrial,
✓ CLASS 3: FLAMMABLE AND COMBUSTIBLE
LIQUIDS
-acetone, adhesives, paints, gasoline,
perfume, ethanol, methanol and some
pesticides with flammable solvents
✓ CLASS 4: FLAMMABLE SOLIDS
-sulfur, matches, activated carbon, alkali
metals and some metal powders
✓ CLASS 5: OXIDIZING SUBSTANCES,
ORGANIC PEROXIDES
-hydrogen peroxide, potassium
permanganate, sodium nitrite, ammonium
nitrate fertilizers and oxygen generators
✓ CLASS 6: TOXIC SUBSTANCES AND
INFECTIOUS SUBSTANCES
-cyanides, lead compounds, phenol,
cresols, some pesticides, biological
samples and clinical wastes
✓ CLASS 7: RADIOACTIVE MATERIALS
-enriched uranium, radioactive ores,
isotopes and some medical equipment or
parts
✓ CLASS 8: CORROSIVES
-acids such as sulfuric acid, strong bases
such as sodium hydroxide, batteries and its
fluids.
• Labelling
-is the best source of information to acquire
knowledge about the hazards, emergency
information, and storage.
• Safety data sheet (SDS)
-is a document that must be provided to you with
all hazardous chemicals. It provides useful
information on the chemical hazards, advice on
safe handling, use and storage, and the emergency
measures to be followed in case of an accident.
• Control measures for chemical hazards
1. Elimination: Discontinue the use of the
hazardous chemical.
2. Substitution: Replace the hazardous chemical
with a less hazardous substance.
3. Engineering Controls: Isolate people from the
hazardous substance.
4. Administrative controls: Change the way
people work.
5. PPE: Protect people with personal protective
equipment.
• 4 Tips in Chemical Safety
1. Understand the chemicals you are using. The
1. first and most critical aspect of using chemicals
2. safely is to understand exactly what you are
3. dealing with. ...
2. Provide the correct PPE.
3. Store chemicals safely. ...
4. Train staff thoroughly.
• Hazard
- is anything that has the potential to cause harm,
in terms of injury, ill-health or damage to the
environment. For example, working with
dangerous chemicals or processes which give rise
to dusts or fumes.
• Risk
-is the chance (e.g. high, medium or low) that a
person or the environment will be harmed by the
hazard. It also considers how severe the harm or
illhealth could be.
• Likelihood
- is a measure of how likely it is that an accident or
illness could happen. When people are working
and managing their chemicals safely there is less
chance that an accident or ill-health will occur.
• Severity
-is a measure of how serious the injury, ill-health or
damage to the environment could be as a
consequence of unsafe working with chemicals.
CHEMICAL HANDLING
• Chemical Treatment (of hazardous waste)
-refers to the treatment methods that are used to
effect the complete breakdown of hazardous
waste into non-toxic gases or, more frequently, to
modify the chemical properties of the waste, for
example, through reduction of water solubility or
neutralization of acidity.
• Thermal treatment
-is any waste treatment technology that involves
high temperatures in the processing of the waste
feedstock. Commonly this involves the combustion
of waste materials.
• Biological treatments
- rely on bacteria, nematodes, or other small
organisms to break down organic wastes using
normal cellular processes. Wastewater typically
contains a buffet of organic matter, such as
garbage, wastes, and partially digested foods.
• Physical treatment
-concentrates, solidifies, or reduces the volume of
the waste. Physical processes include evaporation,
sedimentation, flotation, and filtration. Yet
another process is solidification, which is achieved
by encapsulating the waste in concrete, asphalt, or
plastic.
• Corrosive wastes
-can cause a chemical action that eats away
materials or living tissue.
• Biological waste treatment
- is a generic term applied to processes that use
micro-organisms to decompose organic wastes
either into water, carbon dioxide, and simple
inorganic substances, or into simpler organic
substances, such as aldehydes and acids.
ELECTROCHEMISTRY
Electrochemistry
- is the branch of chemistry that deals with the
interconversion of electrical energy and
chemical energy.
- deals with the chemical changes produced by
electric current and with the production of
electricity by chemical reactions.
Electrochemical
- processes are redox (oxidation reduction)
reactions in which the energy released by a
spontaneous reaction is converted to
electricity or in which electrical energy is used
to cause a nonspontaneous reaction to occur.
ELECTRODES
• are surfaces on which oxidation or
reduction half-reactions occur.
• cathode - electrode at which reduction
occurs as electrons are gained by some
species.
• anode -electrode at which oxidation occurs
as electrons are lost by some species.
DEFINITION OF TERMS
•oxidation-reduction reactions (redox
reactions)
• Reactions that involve oxidation of one
reactant and reduction of another.
• Oxidation is an increase in oxidation
number and corresponds to the loss, or
- apparent loss, of electrons.
• Reduction is a decrease in oxidation
number and corresponds to a gain, or
apparent
- gain, of electrons.
Oxidation reduction reactions involve a transfer of
electrons.
CLASSIFICATION OF ELECTROCHEMICAL CELLS
• OIL- RIG
1. Voltaic or Galvanic Cells
-Oxidation Involves Loss
-Reduction Involves Gain
• LEO-GER
-Lose Electrons Oxidation
-Gain Electrons Reduction
Oxidation number or Oxidation state
- of an element in a simple binary ionic
compound is the number of electrons gained
or lost by an atom of that element when it
forms the compound.
Rules in Assigning Oxidation Numbers
1. The oxidation number of the atoms in any free,
uncombined element is zero. This includes
polyatomic elements such as H 2 , O 2 , O 3 , P
4 , and S 8 .
2. Fluorine has an oxidation number of -1 in its
compounds.
3. Hydrogen has an oxidation number of+1 in
compounds unless it is combined with metals,
in which case it has an oxidation number of -1.
Examples of these exceptions are NaH and CaH
2.
4. 4.Oxygen usually has an oxidation number of -
A salt bridge serves three functions.
2 in its compounds, except in peroxide which is
-1.
5. The position of the element in the periodic
table helps to assign its oxidation number.
Review
• Elements by itself = 0
• Gr 1A: Always +1
STANDARD REDUCTION POTENTIALS E˚
• Gr 2A: Always +2
• Halogens usually -1
• Monoatomic ion = ion charge
• H = +1 with non metals
= -1 with metals
• usually -2 ; -1 in peroxide H 2 O 2 F always -1
• Sum of oxidation number for neutral
compound =0
• Sum of oxidation number for polyatomic ion=
ion charge
ReDox Reactions
• In redox reactions electrons are transferred from one
substance to another.
1. N 2 0 + 3H 2 0 2N -3 H 3 +1
2. Fe +2 + Cr +5 Fe +3 + Cr +3
• electrochemical cells in which spontaneous
oxidation–reduction reactions produce
electrical energy.
• after the Italian scientists Luigi Galvani and
Alessandro Volta, who constructed early
versions of the device.
• COMPONENTS OF A GALVANIC CELL
- Connected this way the reaction starts
Stops immediately because charge builds
up.
- Electricity travels in a complete circuit
- An electric current flows from the anode to
the cathode because there is a difference in
electrical potential energy between the
electrodes. The voltage across the electrodes
of a galvanic cell
- is called the cell voltage, or cell potential.
Experimentally, this is measured by a
voltmeter
- Another common term for the cell potential is
the electromotive force or emf (E), which,
despite the name, is a measure of voltage, not
force.
1. It allows electrical contact between the two
solutions.
2. It prevents mixing of the electrode solutions.
3. It maintains the electrical neutrality in each
half-cell as ions flow into and out of the salt
bridge.
- The superscript “E˚” denotes standard-state
conditions, and E˚ is the standard reduction
potential, or the voltage associated with a
reduction reaction at an electrode when all
solutes are 1 M and all gases are at 1 atm. Thus,
the standard reduction potential of the
hydrogen electrode is defined as zero. The
hydrogen electrode is called the standard
hydrogen electrode (SHE).
STANDARD HYDROGEN ELECTRODE
• This is the reference all other oxidations are
compared to Eº = 0
• º indicates standard states of 25ºC, 1 atm, 1
M solutions.

HALF CELL
- A half-cell contains the oxidized and reduced
forms of an element, or other more complex
species, in contact with one another. A
common kind of half-cell consists of a piece of
metal (the electrode) immersed in a solution of
its ions.
CELL POTENTIAL
• The total cell potential is the sum of the
potential at each electrode.
• Eº cell = Eºred - Eºoxid
Reduction Potentials (E) at varying conditions
• standard –state conditions are often difficult,
and sometimes impossible to maintain.
• there is a mathematical relationship between
the emf of a galvanic cell and the
concentration of reactants and products in a
redox reaction under nonstandard-state
conditions.
E= Eº cell - RT/nF log Q
E= Eº cell - 0.0821 li-atm/mol-k X 298 K /n 96,485 C/ mol- e - log Q
E = Eº cell – 0.0591 log Q (Nernst equation)
n -
Q = the ratio of concentration = product/reactant
E= reduction
Eº = standard potential
R = universal gas constant = 0.0821 li-atm/mol-K
T= temperature in Kelvin = 298 k
N = iron charge ( moles of electrons)
F= Faraday constant= 96, 485 c /mol-e -
Q= reaction quotient
Nernst Equation
- What is the reduction potential of the reaction
2. Electrolytic Cell
- those in which electrical energy from an external
source causes nonspontaneous chemical reactions to
occur.
• ELECTROLYSIS
- The process whereby an electric current
passes through a substance to cause a
chemical change; produces an oxidation–
reduction reaction.
- Lysis means “splitting apart.” In many
electrolytic cells compounds are split into their
constituent elements.
- If you melt or dissolve an ionic compound
(such as CuCl2), then the ions become free to
move around – and carry electrical current.
- Electrolysis is used to separate a metal from its
compound.
- When we electrolysed copper chloride the
NEGATIVE chloride ions moved to the POSITIVE
electrode and the POSSITIVE copper ions
moved to the NEGATIVE electrode –
OPPOSITES ATTRACT!!!
Application of Electrolysis
• Extraction of metals
• Electroplating
Battery
- is a device that stores chemical energy and
converts it to electrical energy. The chemical
reactions in a battery involve to flow of
electrons from one material (electrode) to
another, through an external circuit.
Types of battery
a. Primary cell – batteries are single use and
cannot be recharged. Dry cells and alkaline
batteries
b. Secondary cell – rechargeable batteries
 Voltaic Cell VS Electrolytic Cell
• is the amount of energy required to break
TYPE OF NUCLEAR REACTIONS
1. Radioactive Decay
NUCLEAR CHEMISTRY
- is the sub field of chemistry dealing with the
radio activity, nuclear processes, and
transformation in the nuclei of atoms, such as
nuclear transmutations and nuclear
properties.
Atomic Nucleus
- is the small, dense region consisting of protons
and neutrons at the center of an atom
- discovered in 1911 by Ernest Rutherford based
on the 1909 Geiger–Marsden gold foil
experiment.
- Protons and neutrons are bound together to
form a nucleus by the nuclear force.
Atomic nuclei
- are made up of protons and neutrons. A proton
and neutron have virtually the same mass,
1.0073 amu, and 1.008 amu respectively.
- The proton has a positive charge written as 1+.
The electron has a charge of 1- and a mass of
0.0005 amu.
- The number of protons in the nucleus of an
atom of any element is the atomic number of
that element. Atoms of an element have
different number of neutrons, that is they exist
as isotopes.
- The isotopes are represented by symbols with
subscripts and superscripts.
BINDING ENERGY
• Is the minimum energy required to
disassemble a system of particles into separate
parts. The energy is equal to the mass defect
minus the amount of energy, or mass that is
released with a bound system is created, and is
what keeps the system together.
NUCLEAR BINDING ENERGY
apart a nucleus into its component nucleons.
The conversion of mass defect into energy via
the Einstein equation.
– is the process by which an unstable atomic
nucleus loses energy by emitting radiation.
a. Alpha Decay
– a type of radioactivity in which an
atomic nucleus emits an alpha particle
and there by transforms or decays into
a different atomic nucleus ,with a mass
number that is reduced by four and an
atomic number that is reduced by two.
Occurs in elements with high atomic
numbers , such as uranium, radium,
and thorium.
b. Beta negative decay
– a radioactive process is classified as
beta decay if the atomic number of the
nuclide changes but the mass number
does not change. In this process,
electron is ejected from a nucleus and
in the process a neutron is converted
into a proton.
c. Beta positive decay or positron
emission
– a process in which a positron is
electron is ejected from the nucleus
and in the process a proton is
converted into a neutron.
d. Electron capture
– is a process which involves the weak
interaction and can be represented by
a Feynman diagram. In the middle
range of the periodic table, those
isotopes tend to decay by electron
capture and those heavier decay by
negative beta decay.
e. Gamma radiation
– is an emission from an excited
nucleus of a gamma photo. Often
gamma emission very quickly after
radioactivity decay, however, in some
cases an excited state has a significant
lifetime before it emits a gamma
photo. This type of emission no
particles and no equation is needed.
Radioactive decay b. Beta-Plus Decay

• is the spontaneous breakdown of an atomic - In positron emission, also

nucleus resulting in the release of energy and called positive beta decay (β + -decay),
matter from the nucleus. Remember that a a proton in the parent
radioisotope has unstable nuclei that does not nucleus decays into a neutron that
have enough binding energy to hold the remains in the daughter nucleus, and
nucleus together. the nucleus emits a neutrino and a
• Radioisotopes would like to be stable isotopes positron, which is a positive particle
so they are constantly changing to try and like an ordinary electron in mass but of
stabilize. opposite charge.
• In the process, they will release energy and - the proton disintegrates to yield a
matter from their nucleus and often transform neutron causing a decrease in the
into a new element. This process, atomic number of the radioactive
called transmutation, is the change of one sample.
element into another as a result of changes
c. Electron capture
within the nucleus. The radioactive decay and
transmutation process will continue until a - is a mode of beta decay in which
new element is formed that has a stable an electron – commonly from an
nucleus and is not radioactive. Transmutation inner (low-energy) orbital – is
can occur naturally or by artificial means. ‘captured’ by the atomic nucleus.
The electron reacts with one of the
Types of radioactive decay nuclear protons, forming a neutron
and producing a neutrino. The
1. Alpha decay or α-decay
daughter nucleus may be in an excited
• is a type of radioactive decay in which an state.
atomic nucleus emits an alpha particle (helium
nucleus) and thereby transforms or ‘decays’ 3. GAMMA DECAY
into a different atomic nucleus, with a mass
• Gamma decay, type of radioactivity in which
number that is reduced by four and an atomic
some unstable atomic nuclei dissipate excess
number that is reduced by two.
energy by a spontaneous electromagnetic
2. Beta Decay
process. In the most common form of gamma
• is a type of radioactive decay in which a proton
decay, known as gamma emission, gamma
is transformed into a neutron or vice versa
rays (photons, or packets of electromagnetic
inside the nucleus of the radioactive sample.
energy, of extremely short wavelength) are
• As a result of beta decays, the mass number of
radiated
the atoms remains the same, but the atomic
number changes:the atomic number increases
in the negative beta decay and decreases in
the positive beta decay, respectively.
a. Beta-Minus Decay
- In beta minus, a neutron is
transformed to yield a proton causing
an increase in the atomic number of
the atom. The neutron is neutral but
the proton is positive. To maintain
conservation of charge, the nucleus in
the process also produces an electron
and an antineutrino. Antineutrino is
the antimatter counterpart of
neutrino.
 PENETRATING POWER OF RADIATION PARTICLES half its initial value. This period of time is called
the half-life of the reaction, written as t^1/2 .
Transmutation
Half Life
• a nucleus is transformed into another through
bombardment by various subatomic particles. • Half Life of radioactive isotope is the period of
in which one half the original number of atoms
undergo radioactivity decay to form a new
Nuclear Fission element.

• a heavy nucleus splits into two smaller nuclei.

An example of a fission reaction that was used
in the first atomic bomb and is still used in
nuclear reactors.
• Is a process in nuclear physics in which the
nucleus of an atom splits into two or more
smaller nuclei as fission products, and usually
some by-product particles. Hence, fission is a
form of elemental transmutation.

Nuclear Fusion

• a process in which two light nuclei combine to

form a heavier one. If two light nuclei combine
or fuse together to form a larger and more
stable nucleus.
• Is a reaction in which two or more atomic
nuclei are combined to form one or more
different atomic nuclei and subatomic
particles. The difference in mass between the
reactants and products is manifested as either
the release or absorption of energy.

How Energy is released in Nuclear Fusion?

A fusion reaction, two light nuclei merge to form a

single heavier nucleus. The process
releases energy because the total mass of the resulting
single nucleus is less than the mass of the two original
nuclei. The leftover mass
becomes energy.... fusion produces a neutron and a
helium nucleus.

NUCLEAR KINETICS

• As with chemical reactions, the nuclear

reactions are not instantaneous and evolve on
differing times (ranging from billions of years
to microseconds). Also, as with chemical
reactions, nuclear reactions follow comparable
rate laws.

Half-Lives and Radioactive Decay Kinetics MAG-REVIEW NA

• Another approach to describing reaction rates
is based on the time required for the
KAYOOOO!!!!!!
concentration of a reactant to decrease to one-