ECET412a

ECET412a
Principles of Communications Course

Resources
Course material
Course text book:
Carlson, B., Crilly P. (2010). Communications Systems: An
Introduction to Signals and Noise in Electrical
Communication. 5th ed. Boston: McGraw-Hill.
Additional recommended books

Electronic Communications Systems W. Tomasi. Prentice Hall, 4th ed
2001 (or 5th edition, 2004)
Material accessible from course yahoo group:

Message Posts
Lecture slides (.ppt, pdf)
Assignments
Joel C. Delos Angeles M.S. ECE Lecture 1: Introduction 2

Scope of the course …
Course Outline (May change depending on period

time constraints)
Introduction - (Prelims)
Fourier Series, Fourier Transforms and Continuous
Spectra – (Prelims)
Signal Transmission and Filtering - (Midterms)
Linear CW Modulation - (Midterms )
Exponential CW Modulation (Finals)
Joel C. Delos Angeles M.S. ECE 3

Midterms
ECET412a
Lecture 3
Signal Transmission and Filtering
Primary Reference Book: Carlson Chapter 3

pages 112-124,126-131, 134-136, 137-140,
143-146, 147-151, 153-154,
Joel C. Delos Angeles M.S. ECE

In Lec 3, we are going to talk about:
Response of LTI Systems
Signal Distortion in Transmission
Transmission Loss and Decibels
Filters and Filtering
Joel C. Delos Angeles M.S. ECE Lecture 3: Signal Transmission and Filtering 5
Background
Signal transmission - process whereby an
electrical waveform gets from one location to
another, ideally arriving without distortion.
Signal filtering – operation which purposefully
distorts a waveform by altering its spectral content.
Most transmission systems and filters have in
common the properties of linearity and time
invariance (LTI).
These properties allow us to model both transmission
and filtering in the time domain in terms of the impulse
response, or in the frequency domain in terms of the
frequency response
Objectives
1. State and apply the input–output relations for an LTI system in
terms of its impulse response h(t), step response g(t), or transfer
function H(f) (Sect. 3.1)
2. Use frequency-domain analysis to obtain an exact or approximate
expression for the output of a system (Sect. 3.1).
3. Find H(f) from the block diagram of a simple system (Sect. 3.1).
4. Distinguish between amplitude distortion, delay distortion, linear
distortion, and nonlinear distortion (Sect. 3.2)
5. Identify the frequency ranges that yield distortionless transmission
for a given channel (Sect. 3.2).
6. Use dB calculations to find the signal power in a cable
transmission system with amplifiers (Sect. 3.3).
7. Discuss the characteristics of and requirements for transmission
over fiber optic and satellite systems (Sect. 3.3).
8. Identify the characteristics and sketch H(f) and h(t) for an ideal
LPF, BPF, or HPF (Sect. 3.4).
9. Find the 3 dB bandwidth of a real LPF, given H(f) (Sect. 3.4).
10. State and apply the bandwidth requirements for pulse
transmission (Sect. 3.4).
RESPONSE OF LTI SYSTEMS
Excitation-and-response relationship between input and

output
Energy storage elements and other internal effects may
cause the output waveform to look quite different from
the input
Impulse Response and Superposition
Assume: no internal stored energy so y(t) is due entirely

to x(t)
Linear (superposition principle applies):
Time-Invariant
Define: The system’s response to an impulse input
Thus, the superposition integral:
Or, the forced response y(t) is the convolution of the

input (t) and the system impulse response h(t)
System analysis in the time domain thus requires

knowledge of the impulse response along with the
ability to carry out a convolution. Alternatively, we may
calculate first the system’s step response
where
Define: unit step function
Time Response of an nth order system
The order n is equal to the number of energy-storage

elements (below is 1st order)
The step response (input is a step function)
Time Response of an 1st order system
The impulse response (when input is an impulse)
One can now find the response y(t) to an arbitrary

input x(t)
Time Response of an 1st order system
Let x(t) = A for 0 < t < τ , then the response is
System Gain and Phase Shift
Since Ay/Ax = |H(f0)| and any frequency f0, then H(f) is
the amplitude ratio as a function of frequency or the
amplitude response or gain
arg H(f) represents the system phase shift since ϕy – ϕx
= arg H(f0)
Plots of |H(f0)| and arg H(f0) versus frequency gives the
system’s frequency response
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M.S. ECE Lecture 3: Signal Transmission and Filtering 15
Midterms
ECET412a
Lecture 4
Linear Continuous-Wave Modulation
Primary Reference Book: Carlson Chapter 4
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M.S. ECE Midterm: Linear CW Modulation
In Lec 4, we are going to talk about:
Bandpass Signals and Systems
DSB Amplitude Modulation
Modulators and Transmitters
Suppressed-Sideband AM
Frequency Conversion and Demodulation
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M.S. ECE Midterm: Linear CW Modulation 17
Background
Modulation - the systematic alteration of one
waveform, called the carrier, according to the
characteristics of another waveform, the modulating
signal or message, to produce an information-
bearing modulated wave with properties best suited
to the given communication task.
CW modulation systems – the carrier is a

sinusoidal wave modulated by an analog signal
(e.g. AM, FM)
Linear CW modulation involves direct frequency

translation of the message spectrum
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Background - Modulation
Modulating Signal + Carrier Wave
Joel C. Delos Angeles M.S. ECE

Modulation Benefits and Applications
1) For Efficient Transmission – antennas for line-of-
sight requires at least 1/10 of signal wavelength
2) To overcome hardware limitations – minimize cost
if fractional bandwidth (absolute bandwidth /
center frequency) is kept within 1 to 10%
3) To reduce noise and interference (wideband noise
reduction – using much greater transmission
bandwidth than the bandwidth of modulating
signal)
4) For frequency assignment
5) For multiplexing / multiple access
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M.S. ECE Lecture 1: Introduction 20
Objectives
1. Given a bandpass signal, find its envelope and
phase, in-phase and quadrature components, and
lowpass equivalent signal and spectrum (Sect. 4.1).
2. State and apply the fractional-bandwidth rule of
thumb for bandpass systems (Sect. 4.1).
3. Sketch the waveform and envelope of an AM or DSB
signal, and identify the spectral properties of AM,
DSB, SSB, and VSB (Sects. 4.2 and 4.4).
4. Construct the line spectrum, and find the sideband
power and total power of an AM, DSB, SSB or VSB
signal with tone modulation (Sects. 4.2 and 4.4).
5. Distinguish between product, power-law, and
balanced modulators, and analyze a modulation
system (Sect. 4.3).
6. Identify the characteristics of synchronous,
homodyne, and envelope detection (Sect. 4.5).
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M.S. ECE Lecture 3: Signal Transmission and Filtering 21
BANDPASS SIGNALS AND SYSTEMS
Applying Fourier frequency translation or

modulation property:
Most long-haul transmission systems have a

bandpass frequency response.
The properties of the transmission system are
similar to those of a bandpass filter, and any signal
transmitted on such a system must have a
bandpass spectrum.
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Analog Message Conventions
Arbitrary message waveform x(t) with
spectrum X(f):
Fall-back position for ease of analysis is tone

modulation:
What is the spectrum of a tone message signal?

Joel C.Joel
Engr. Delos
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Delos Angeles Midterm: Linear CW Modulation 23
Analog Message Conventions
In general, multiplying the message by cos 2πfCt in the time
domain translates its spectrum to frequency fc
Note how the shape of X(f) is preserved in the graph of
Xbp(f); the modulated signal occupies BT = 2W Hz of
spectrum.
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Bandpass Signals
Bandpass signal bandpass
condition
envelope
phase
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Bandpass Transmission
Simplest bandpass system
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Bandpass Transmission – Tuned Circuit
Voltage Transfer Function H(f)
where the resonant frequency f0 and quality factor Q

are related to the element values by
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Bandpass Transmission – Tuned Circuit
3-dB (half-power) bandwidth
since practical tuned circuits typically have 10 < Q < 100

then 0.01 f0 < B < 0.10 f0
Antennas in radio systems produce considerable distortion

when the frequency range is small compared to the carrier
frequency fC.
Designing reasonably distortionless bandpass amplifier is
difficult if B is too small or too large compared to fC.
Thus rule of thumb for fractional bandwidth
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Bandpass Transmission
Otherwise, the signal distortion may be beyond the scope of

practical equalizers.
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Bandpass Signals - Bandwidth
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Bandpass Transmission - Bandwidth
1. Absolute bandwidth. This is where 100% of the energy is confined
between some frequency range of fa -> fb. (If we have ideal filters and
unlimited time signals)
2. 3 dB / half-power bandwidth. The frequency(s) where the signal power
starts to decrease by 3 dB.
3. Noise equivalent bandwidth. Equal to the total signal power over all
frequencies divided by the value of the power spectral density at fC.
4. Null-to-null bandwidth. Frequency spacing between a signal spectrum’s
first set of zero crossings.
5. Occupied bandwidth. This is an FCC definition, which states, “The
frequency bandwidth such that, below its lower and above its upper
frequency limits, the mean powers radiated are each equal to 0.5
percent of the total mean power radiated by a given emission.” In other
words, 99% of the energy is contained in the signal’s bandwidth.
6. Relative power spectrum bandwidth. This is where the level of power
outside the bandwidth limits is reduced to some value relative to its
maximum level. This is usually specified in negative decibels (dB). For
example, consider a broadcast FM signal with a maximum carrier power
of 1000 watts and relative power spectrum bandwidth of -40 dB (i.e.,
1/10,000). Thus we would expect the station’s power emission to not
exceed 0.1 W outside of fC ± 100 kHz.
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DOUBLE-SIDEBAND AM
Two types of DSB
Standard AM
DSB-Suppressed Carrier (DSB-SC)
AM Signals and Spectra

The envelope of the modulated carrier has the same
shape as the message or modulating signal x(t)
where AC is the unmodulated carrier amplitude

and µ is the modulation index
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The signal’s
envelope is then
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µ≤1
AC [ 1 + µ x(t) ] does not go negative
100% modulation
µ=1
Amin = 0; Amax = 2 Ac
Overmodulation (µ > 1)
causes phase reversals and envelope distortion
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Frequency Domain (positive-side only)
NOTE: Transmission bandwidth is twice the baseband

bandwidth. BT is an important consideration in comparing
modulation systems
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Average transmitted power of AM signal
from
we have 0 0
assuming the message has zero dc component, the

average of x(t) =0; carrier average is also equal to zero
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If the average power of the message or modulating
signal is
then
In terms of power of each sideband (upper and lower)
where
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PC = power of the unmodulated carrier
(note when µ = 0; no modulation)
PSB = power of each sideband
The modulation constraint |µx(t)| ≤ 1 makes

At least 50% (often
close to 2/3) of the
total transmitted
power is “wasted”
carrier power
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DSB-SC Signals and Spectra
The “wasted” carrier power can be eliminated by
setting µ = 1 and suppressing the unmodulated
carrier-frequency component
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For standard AM, xC(t) has no time-varying phase
(i.e. the value of xC(t) is always positive and ϕ(t) is
zero
It’s in-phase and quadrature components are
However for DSB-SC:
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The envelope takes on the form of |x(t)| rather than
x(t) – as in standard AM
Full recovery of the message requires knowledge of
the phase reversals – a simple envelope detector
will not suffice (circuit complexity)
The trade-off is that all of the average transmitted
power goes to information-bearing sidebands
(efficiency), thus
DSB conserves power but requires complicated

demodulation circuitry whereas AM requires
increased power to permit simple envelope
detection.
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In practice, transmitters are limited by its peak
envelope power A2max
Under maximum modulation conditions, for DSB,
Amax = AC; for AM Amax = 2AC
Thus for AM
and for DSB-SC
yields
If is Amax is fixed and other
factors are equal, a DSB
transmitter produces 4x the
sideband power of an AM
transmitter.
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DSB AM : Exercises
1) Consider a radio transmitter rated for ST ≤ 3kW and

A2max ≤ 8 kW. Let the modulating signal be a tone
with so with Am = 1.
a) Find the modulating signal power Sx
b) If the modulation is DSB, find the maximum possible power

per sideband (hint: use both the formula for ST and the one
for PSB/A2max and choose the smaller value allowed for PSB
c) If the modulation is AM with 100% modulation, find the

maximum allowed PSB (again use the two specifications to
get the lower value)
d) How far will the DSB signal travel compared to the AM

signal?
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DSB AM : Exercises
2) Let the modulating signal be a square wave that

switches periodically between x(t) = 1 and x(t) = -1.
a) Sketch xC(t) when the modulation is AM with µ = 0.5
b) with AM with µ = 1
c) with DSB
3) Suppose a voice signal has |x(t)|max = 1 and Sx= 1/5.

Calculate the values of ST and A2max needed to get
PSB = 10 W for
a. DSB
b. AM with µ = 1
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Tone Modulation
Tone-modulated DSB waveform
Line spectra for tone-modulated DSB
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Tone Modulation
Tone-modulated AM waveform
Line spectra for tone-modulated AM
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DSB-AM: Exercises
1) AM DSBFC signal with carrier 100 KHz and a maximum modulating
signal frequency of 5 KHz
a. Frequency limits of upper and lower sidebands
b. Spectral Bandwidth
c. Draw frequency spectrum
d. Repeat a to c if tone input to AM modulator is 3 KHz
2) Input to a conventional AM modulator is a 500 KHz carrier with amplitude
20 V. Modulating signal input is 10 KHz that is of sufficient amplitude to
cause a change in the output wave of +/- 7.5 V, Determine
a. Upper and lower side frequencies
b. Modulation coefficient /percent modulation
c. Peak amplitude of modulated carrier
d. Upper and lower side frequency voltages
e. Maximum and Minimum amplitudes of the envelope
f. Expression for the modulated wave
g. Draw the output spectrum
h. Sketch the output envelope (i.e. time-domain)
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DSB-AM: Exercises
3) AM DSBFC signal with carrier 100 KHz and a

maximum modulating signal frequency of 5 KHz with
peak unmodulated carrier of 10 volts, load resistance
of 10 ohms, and 100% modulation
a. Power of carrier, upper and lower sidebands

b. Total sideband power
c. Total power in the modulated wave if index is 0.5
d. Draw the power spectrum
e. Repeat a to d if modulation coefficient is 0.3
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MODULATORS AND TRANSMITTERS
Time-varying or nonlinear systems since LTI

systems do not produce new frequency
components
Modulators
Product Modulator (low-level)
Square-law Modulator (low-level)
Switching Modulator (high-level)
A modulator is a component inside a

transmitter/transceiver
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Product Modulators
Product:
Schematic Diagram with Analog Multiplier
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Product Modulators
Variable Transconductance Multiplier:
Input voltage v1 is applied to a differential amplifier whose

gain depends on the transconductance of the transistors
which, in turn, varies with the total emitter current
Input v2 controls the emitter current by means of a voltage-to-
current converter, so the differential output equals Kv1v2
Most analog multipliers are limited to low power levels and
relatively low frequencies (low-level modulator)
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Low-level AM Modulator
Modulation takes place prior to the output element of
the final stage of the transmitter - less modulating
signal power is required to achieve a high percentage
of modulation
Emitter
modulator
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The modulating signal varies the gain of the amplifier at a
sinusoidal rate equal to the frequency of the modulating signal
Coupling capacitor C2
removes the modulating
signal frequency from the
waveform, producing a
symmetrical AM envelope
at Vout
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For a low-level AM modulator with modulation

coefficient of 0.8, quiescent voltage gain of 100, and
an input carrier frequency of 500 KHz with an
amplitude VC = 5 mV and a 1 KHz modulating signal,
determine:
a) Maximum and minimum voltage gains

b) Maximum and minimum amplitudes for Vout
c) The output AM envelope
d) The output signal AM equation
e) The output signal spectrum
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Square-law Modulators
Assume the nonlinear element
approximates the square-law
transfer curve
Can be used at higher frequencies
Field-effect transistor as the nonlinear element and a

parallel RLC circuit as the filter.
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Square-law Modulators
Thus,
The last term is the desired AM wave provided it can be

separated from the rest (AC = a1 and µ = 2a2/a1)
We just need a bandpass filter (BPF) with

center frequency = ? and bandwidth = ?
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Balanced Modulators: DSB-SC
Two AM modulators arranged in a balanced configuration
to cancel out the carrier.
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Balanced Modulators: DSB-SC
Ring Modulator
A square-wave carrier c(t) with frequency causes the

diodes to switch on and off.
Functionally, multiplying x(t) with c(t):
We just need a bandpass filter (BPF) with

center frequency = ? and bandwidth = ?
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Medium-Power AM Modulator
Collector modulator
Consider: without applied

modulating signal
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Medium-Power AM Modulator
When modulating
signal is applied:
1) The modulating signal
adds to and subtracts
from the DC supply
VCC and the output
voltage waveform
swings from a
maximum value
(2Vcc) to a minimum
value Vce(sat) ≈ 0
2) The operation is as
before only this time,
there is a slow time-
varying power supply
3) What is the stage after
this?
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Switching Modulators
The active device, typically a
transistor, serves as a switch
driven at the carrier frequency,
closing briefly every 1/fC sec.
The RLC load, called a tank
circuit, is tuned to resonate at
fC, so the switching action
causes the tank circuit to “ring”
sinusoidally.
The steady-state load voltage
in absence of modulation is
then v(t) = V cos ωCt
Adding the message to the
supply voltage, say via
transformer, gives v(t) = [V +
Nx(t)] cos ωCt
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Switching Modulators
In view of the heavy filtering required, square-law
modulators are used primarily for low-level
modulation, i.e., at power levels lower than the
transmitted value.
Substantial linear amplification becomes necessary to

bring the power up to ST
But RF power amplifiers of the required linearity are

not without problems of their own, and it often is better
to employ high-level modulation if is ST to be large
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Low-level AM Transmitters
Preamplifier (linear voltage amplifier with high input

impedance) - raises source signal amplitude to a usable level
with minimum nonlinear distortion and as little thermal noise
as possible
Modulating signal driver (linear amplifier) - amplifies the
information signal to an adequate level to sufficiently drive the
modulator
RF carrier oscillator - generates stable carrier signal
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Low-level AM Transmitters
Buffer amplifier (low-gain, high-input impedance linear amplifier) -

isolates the oscillator from the high-power amplifiers
Intermediate and final power amplifiers (push-pull modulators) –
requires linearity with low-level transmitters to maintain symmetry in
the AM envelope
Coupling network - matches output impedance of the final amplifier
to the transmission line/antenna
Applications in low-power, low-capacity systems: wireless
intercoms, remote-control units, pagers and short-range walkie-
talkies
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High-level AM Transmitters
Addition of power amplifier (To provide higher power

modulating signal necessary to achieve 100% modulation)
The modulator circuit has three primary functions:
Provide the circuitry necessary for modulation to occur
Act as the final power amplifier
Frequency up-converter: translates low-frequency
information signals to RF signals
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Midterm Recap:
Bandpass Signals and Systems
DSB Amplitude Modulation
Modulators and Transmitters
Suppressed-Sideband AM *
Frequency Conversion and Demodulation *
* Will be covered within the next 2 lecture days
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SUPPRESSED SIDEBAND AM
Conventional amplitude modulation is wasteful of

both transmission power and bandwidth
Suppressing the carrier reduces the transmission
power
Either one of the sidebands contains ALL of the
message information
Suppressing one sideband, in whole or part,
reduces transmission bandwidth and leads to
single-sideband modulation (SSB) or vestigial-
sideband modulation (VSB)
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SSB Signals and Spectra
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Time-domain representation is not immediately
obvious – save for the special case of tone modulation
Note: Unlike AM and DSB, the amplitude of the modulated

signal is constant. So envelope (peak) detection won’t work
to demodulate SSB
For the general case where the input modulating
signal x(t) is not a tone, the modulated signal is
expressed as
where is the Hilbert transform of x(t) ☺
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SSB is not appropriate for pulse transmission, digital
data, or similar applications, and more suitable
modulating signals (such as audio waveforms) should
still be lowpass filtered before modulation in order to
smooth out any abrupt transitions that might cause
excessive horns or smearing
Time-domain of modulated
output when modulating
signal input is a pulse
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Exercise: SSB Transmission Power
A transmitter with a 630 KHz carrier of amplitude 5 volts is modulated
by a signal composed of tones with frequencies 2 KHz and 3 KHz and both
with amplitude of 0.2V with modulation index of 1.
a) Find the total carrier power Pc
b) Find the modulating signal power Sx. (Use either VRMS or Parseval’s
Power Theorem)
c) In the same transmitter, find the total AM power ST
d) In the same transmitter, if the modulation is converted to SSB-SC,
what is the total power?
RECALL: AM (DSB-FC) Transmitted Power
For DSB-SC:
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SSB Generation
A perfect cutoff at f=fC cannot be synthesized, so a real
sideband filter will either pass a portion of the
undesired sideband or attenuate a portion of the
desired sideband (the former is Vestigial Sideband)
Fortunately, many modulating signals have little or no
frequency content – their spectra having “holes” at
zero frequency
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SSB Generation
It may not be possible to obtain a sufficiently high
carrier frequency with a given message spectrum. For
these cases the modulation process can be carried
out in two (or more) steps
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SSB Generation: Phase-Shift Method
An SSB signal consists of two DSB waveforms with
quadrature carriers and modulating signals x(t) and
bypassing the need for sideband filters
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SSB Generation: Weaver’s Modulator
Exercise: Let x(t) = cos ωmt
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Vestigial SB Signals and Spectra
Consider a modulating signal of very large bandwidth
having significant low-frequency content (analog TV
video, fax, and high-speed data signals
Bandwidth conservation argues for SSB, but practical
SSB systems have poor low-frequency response
DSB works quite well for low message frequencies but
the transmission bandwidth is twice that of SSB
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Vestigial SB Signals and Spectra
Suppose an AM (DSB-FC) wave is applied to a
vestigial sideband filter – the modulation scheme is
termed VSB plus carrier (VSB + C)
Used for television video transmission (4.2 MHz video)
The unsuppressed carrier allows for envelope
detection (an approximation), as in AM while retaining
the bandwidth conservation of SSB.
Joel
Engr.
C.Joel
Delos
C. Angeles
Delos Angeles
FREQUENCY CONVERSION AND DEMODULATION
Demodulation implies downward frequency

translation in order to recover the message from
the modulated wave.
Types of demodulators
Synchronous detectors
Envelope detectors
Frequency translation, or conversion, is also used

to shift a modulated signal to new carrier frequency
(up or down) for amplification or other processing.
Joel
Engr.
C.Joel
Delos
C. Angeles
Delos Angeles
Frequency Conversion
Frequency conversion starts with multiplication by a
sinusoid
With appropriate filtering, the signal is up-converted or

down-converted. The operation itself is termed
heterodyning or mixing.
Frequency converter
or mixer
?? Sketch the output
spectrum
cos ω1t
Joel
Engr.
C.Joel
Delos
C. Angeles
Delos Angeles
Frequency Conversion
Below is a simplified transponder in a satellite relay that
provides two-way communication between two ground stations.
Different carrier frequencies, 6 GHz and 4 GHz, are used on the
uplink and downlink to prevent self-oscillation due to positive
feedback from the transmitting side to the receiving side.
A frequency converter translates the spectrum of the amplified
uplink signal to the passband of the downlink amplifier.
Joel
Engr.
C.Joel
Delos
C. Angeles
Delos Angeles
Synchronous Detection
All types of linear modulation (AM,DSB,SSB) can be detected by
a product demodulator
Synchronous or coherent assumes that the local oscillator (LO)

is exactly synchronized (in-phase) with the carrier
General AM equation
0 0
Joel
Engr.
C.Joel
Delos
C. Angeles
Delos Angeles
Synchronous Detection: VSB ??
Baseband and corresponding VSB spectra
Frequency-translated signal prior to filtering shows recovery of

original baseband modulating signal
Joel
Engr.
C.Joel
Delos
C. Angeles
Delos Angeles
Synchronous Detection: Challenge
The crux of the problem is synchronization — synchronizing an
oscillator (LO) in the receiver that is not even present in the
incoming signal if carrier is supressed. Thus, suppressed-carrier
systems may have a small amount of carrier reinserted in xC(t) at
the transmitter
This pilot carrier is picked off at the receiver by a narrow bandpass
filter, amplified, and used in place of a LO (local oscillator)
In practice, the amplified pilot serves to synchronize a separate
oscillator rather than be used directly (using a phase-locked loop)
Joel
Engr.
C.Joel
Delos
C. Angeles
Delos Angeles
Envelope Detection
Synchronous detectors are best for weak signal reception
In most cases, the envelope detector is much simpler and more
suitable (if a carrier is present)
R2C2 acts as a DC block to

remove the bias of the
unmodulated carrier
component.
Joel
Engr.
C.Joel
Delos
C. Angeles
Delos Angeles
Envelope Detection
Some DSB and SSB demodulators employ the method of
envelope reconstruction. The addition (reinsertion) of a large,
locally generated carrier to the incoming signal reconstructs the
envelope for recovery by an envelope detector.
This method eliminates signal multiplication but does not get
around the synchronization problem, for the local carrier must be
as well synchronized as the LO in a product demodulator.
Joel
Engr.
C.Joel
Delos
C. Angeles
Delos Angeles
The Superheterodyne Receiver
Intermediate Freq (IF) =

455 KHz (standard for
AM)
Preselector’s function is
to reject image
frequencies
Joel
Engr.
C.Joel
Delos
C. Angeles
Delos Angeles

ECET412a - Midterm - Lectures 3 and 4

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ECET412a - Midterm - Lectures 3 and 4

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Principles of Communications Course

Additional recommended books

Material accessible from course yahoo group:

Joel C. Delos Angeles M.S. ECE Lecture 1: Introduction 2

Course Outline (May change depending on period

Joel C. Delos Angeles M.S. ECE 3

Primary Reference Book: Carlson Chapter 3

Joel C. Delos Angeles M.S. ECE

Response of LTI Systems

Signal Distortion in Transmission

Transmission Loss and Decibels

Filters and Filtering

Excitation-and-response relationship between input and

Assume: no internal stored energy so y(t) is due entirely

Linear (superposition principle applies):

Define: The system’s response to an impulse input

Thus, the superposition integral:

Or, the forced response y(t) is the convolution of the

System analysis in the time domain thus requires

Define: unit step function

The order n is equal to the number of energy-storage

The step response (input is a step function)

The impulse response (when input is an impulse)

One can now find the response y(t) to an arbitrary

Let x(t) = A for 0 < t < τ , then the response is

Primary Reference Book: Carlson Chapter 4

Bandpass Signals and Systems

DSB Amplitude Modulation

Modulators and Transmitters

Frequency Conversion and Demodulation

CW modulation systems – the carrier is a

Linear CW modulation involves direct frequency

Joel C. Delos Angeles M.S. ECE

Applying Fourier frequency translation or

Most long-haul transmission systems have a

Fall-back position for ease of analysis is tone

What is the spectrum of a tone message signal?

Simplest bandpass system

Voltage Transfer Function H(f)

where the resonant frequency f0 and quality factor Q

3-dB (half-power) bandwidth

since practical tuned circuits typically have 10 < Q < 100

Antennas in radio systems produce considerable distortion

Otherwise, the signal distortion may be beyond the scope of

AM Signals and Spectra

where AC is the unmodulated carrier amplitude

NOTE: Transmission bandwidth is twice the baseband

assuming the message has zero dc component, the

In terms of power of each sideband (upper and lower)

The modulation constraint |µx(t)| ≤ 1 makes

However for DSB-SC:

DSB conserves power but requires complicated

and for DSB-SC

1) Consider a radio transmitter rated for ST ≤ 3kW and

b) If the modulation is DSB, find the maximum possible power

c) If the modulation is AM with 100% modulation, find the

d) How far will the DSB signal travel compared to the AM

2) Let the modulating signal be a square wave that

3) Suppose a voice signal has |x(t)|max = 1 and Sx= 1/5.

Line spectra for tone-modulated DSB

Line spectra for tone-modulated AM

3) AM DSBFC signal with carrier 100 KHz and a