Finals will cover

 Multiplexing and Multiple Access (Sklar chapter 11 – 2nd edition or

parts of Chapter 9 in 1st edition + Tomasi Chapter 11)
 Allocation of Communications Resource (FDM,TDM,CDMA,SDM and
PDM)
 Multiple Access Communication Systems and Architecture
 Access Algorithms
 Multiple Access for Satellite Systems
 Multiple Access for LAN

 Extra Topics (Subject to Time Constraints)

 Channel Coding Examples
 ISI, Multipath, Equalization, and OFDM
 Direct-Sequence Spread Spectrum

1
Lecture 5

ECET422a
Digital Communications Course
Lecture 5
Multiplexing and Multiple Access

Thanks to:
Sai Praveen of Birla Institute of
Technology and Science
and Wikipedia
2
Block diagram of a DCS

3
Why Channelization?
 Channelization
 Semi-static bandwidth allocation of portion of
shared medium to a given user
 Highly efficient for constant-bit rate traffic
 Preferred approach in
 Cellular telephone networks
 Terrestrial & satellite broadcast radio & TV

4
Why not Channelization?
 Inflexible in allocation of bandwidth to users
with different requirements
 Inefficient for bursty traffic
 Does not scale well to large numbers of users
 Average transfer delay increases with number of
users M
 Dynamic MAC much better at handling bursty
traffic

5
Channelization Approaches
 Frequency Division Multiple Access (FDMA)
 Frequency band allocated to users
 Broadcast radio & TV, analog cellular phone
 Time Division Multiple Access (TDMA)
 Periodic time slots allocated to users
 Telephone backbone, GSM digital cellular phone
 Code Division Multiple Access (CDMA)
 Code allocated to users
 Cellular phones, 3G cellular

6
Channelization: FDM
 Divide channel into M frequency bands
 Each station transmits and listens on
assigned bands

7
Simple FDM Example

8
Modulation Plan for FDM System

9
Channelization: TDM
 Dedicate 1 slot per station in transmission
cycles
 Stations transmit data burst at full channel
bandwidth

10
Guardbands
 FDMA
 Frequency bands must be non-overlapping to
prevent interference
 Guardbands ensure separation; form of overhead
 TDMA
 Stations must be synchronized to common clock
 Time gaps between transmission bursts from
different stations to prevent collisions; form of
overhead
 Must take into account propagation delays

11
Time & Frequency Channelization

12
Bit Rate Equivalence of FDM and TDM

M orthogonal frequencies M orthogonal time slots

13
Orthogonal waveforms and Orthogonal Spectra

Orthogonal time slots - TDM

Orthogonal frequency channels - FDM

14
Message Delays in FDM and TDM

15
Message Delays in FDM and TDM

16
Message Delays in FDM and TDM

17
Message Delays in FDM and TDM

18
Channelization: CDMA
 Code Division Multiple Access
 Channels determined by a code used in
modulation and demodulation
 Stations transmit over entire frequency band
all of the time!

19
Channelization: CDMA
 Frequency Hopping Spread Spectrum (used old
802.11b WiFi systems with data rates of 1 and 2
Mbps)
 Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum (used in newer
802.11b WiFi systems with data rates of 1, 2, 5.5,
and 11 Mbps)

20
Problems

21
Lecture 5

ECET422a
Digital Communications Course
Lecture 5 (Part 2)
Multiplexing and Multiple Access

Thanks to:
Sai Praveen (BIST); Juha Korhonen
(TTPCom); Peter Chong (UBC)
and Wikipedia
22
 Channelization: CDMA DSSS

 User information mapped into: +1 or -1 for T sec. (BITS)

 Multiply user information by pseudo- random binary pattern of G “chips”
of +1’s and -1’s
 Resulting spread spectrum signal occupies G times more bandwidth:
W = GW1
 Modulate the spread signal by sinusoid at appropriate f c
 Spreading Factor (SF) = chip rate ÷ symbol rate
23
 DSSS Demodulation

 Recover spread spectrum signal

 Synchronize to and multiply spread signal by same pseudo-random
binary pattern used at the transmitter
 In absence of other transmitters & noise, we should recover the original
+1 or -1 of user information
 Other transmitters using different codes appear as residual noise
24
Channelization in Code Space
 Each channel uses a different pseudorandom code
 Codes should have low cross-correlation (orthogonal
or quasi-orthogonal)
 As number of users increases, effect of other users
on a given receiver increases as additive noise
 CDMA has gradual increase in BER due to noise as

number of users is increased (cell-breathing)

 Interference between channels can be eliminated if
codes are selected to be orthogonal and if receivers
and transmitters are synchronized

25
DSSS: Illustration

 Assume three users share same medium

 Users are synchronized & use different 4-bit orthogonal
codes:
{-1,-1,-1,-1}, {-1, +1,-1,+1}, {-1,-1,+1,+1}, {-1,+1,+1,-1},

26
DSSS: Illustration

 Sum signal is at the receiver

27
DSSS: Receiver for Station 2

 Each receiver takes sum signal and multiplies by code

sequence of desired transmitter and
 Integrate over T seconds to smooth out noise

28
DSSS: Decoding at Receiver 2

29
DSSS: Sample Walsh Codes

30
Channelization in Cellular Telephone Networks

 Cellular networks use frequency reuse

 Band of frequencies reused in other cells that are
sufficiently far that interference is not a problem
 Cellular networks provide voice connections which
is steady stream
 FDMA used in AMPS
 TDMA used in IS-54 and GSM
 CDMA used in IS-95
 WCDMA used in UMTS (3G)
 OFDM used in LTE

31
Advanced Mobile Phone System
 Advanced Mobile Phone System (AMPS)
 First generation cellular telephone system in US
 Analog voice channels of 30 kHz
 Forward channels from base station to mobiles
 Reverse channels from mobiles to base

 Frequency bands in 800 MHz region allocated to service providers: e.g. “A” and “B”

32
 AMPS Spectral Efficiency
 50 MHz (e.g. 2 operators) @ 30kHz gives 832 2-way channels
 Each service provider has
 416 2-way channels
 21 channels used for call setup & control
 395 channels used for voice
 AMPS uses 7-cell frequency reuse pattern, so each cell has
395/7 voice channels
 AMPS spectrum efficiency: #calls/cell/MHz
 (395/7)/(25 MHz) = 2.26 calls/cell/MHz

Frequency reuse: Cells are assigned a group of channels

that is completely different from neighboring cells. The
coverage area of cells is called the footprint and is limited
by a boundary so that the same group of channels can be
used in different cells that are far enough away from each
other so that their frequencies do not interfere.
33
Interim Standard 54/136
 IS-54, and later IS-136, developed to meet demand
for cellular phone service
 Digital methods to increase capacity (D-AMPS)
 A 30-kHz AMPS channel converted into several
TDMA channels
 1 AMPS channel carries 48.6 kbps stream
 Stream arranged in 6-slot 40 ms cycles
 1 slot = 324 bits →8.1 kbps per slot
 1 full-rate channel: 2 slots to carry 1 voice signal
 1 AMPS channel carries 3 voice calls
 30 kHz spacing also used in 1.9 GHz PCS band

34
IS-54 TDMA frame structure

 416 AMPS channels x 3 = 1248 digital channels

 Assume 21 channels for calls setup and control
 IS-54 spectrum efficiency: #calls/cell/MHz
 (1227/7)/(25 MHz) = 7 calls/cell/MHz

 D-AMPS is considered end-of-life, and existing networks have mostly been replaced by GSM/GPRS or CDMA2000 technologies.

35
Interim Standard 95 (IS-95)

 CDMA digital cellular telephone system (still 2G)

 Operates in AMPS & PCS bands
 1 signal occupies 1.23 MHz
 41 AMPS signals
 All base stations are synchronized to a common clock
 Global Positioning System accuracy to 1 µsec
 IS-2000 (or cdma-2000) supplanted IS-54 in North America

36
Global System for Mobile Communications (GSM)

 European digital cellular telephone system

 890-915 MHz (uplink) & 935-960 MHz (downlink) band
 PCS: 1800 MHz (Europe), 1900 MHz (N.America)
 Hybrid TDMA/FDMA
 Carrier signals 200 kHz apart
 25 MHz give 124 one-way carriers

37
GSM TDMA Structure

 Each carrier signal carries traffic and control channels

 1 full rate traffic channel = 1 slot in every traffic frame
 Bit Rate per traffic channel = 24 slots x 114 bits/slot / 120 ms =
22.8 kbps

38
GSM Spectrum Efficiency
 Error correction coding used in 22.8 kbps to carry 13 kbps digital voice signal
 Frequency reuse of 3 or 4 possible
 124 carriers x 8 = 992 traffic channels
 Spectrum efficiency for GSM:
 (992/3)/50MHz = 6.61 calls/cell/MHz

 GSM has used a variety of voice codecs to squeeze 3.1 kHz audio into between 6.5 and 13 kbit/s. Half-Rate
(6.5 kbit/s) and Full-Rate (13 kbit/s) codecs based upon linear predictive coding (LPC) identify more important
parts of the audio to prioritize and protect. GSM was further enhanced with the Enhanced Full-Rate codec, a
12.2 kbit/s codec.

39
Evolution of Cellular Systems

 Gaussian minimum shift keying or GMSK is a continuous-phase FSK (like MSK). The digital data
stream is first shaped with a Gaussian filter before being applied to a frequency modulator – reducing
out-of-band interference between adjacent frequency channels. However, the Gaussian filter
increases causes ISI making it more difficult to discriminate between different transmitted data values
and requiring more complex channel equalization algorithms. GMSK has high spectral efficiency but it
needs a higher power in order to reliably transmit the same amount of data. GMSK is most notably
used in GSM.
 GPRS provides moderate-speed data transfer, by using unused TDMA channels
 EDGE (EGPRS) uses 8PSK to achieve instead of GMSK in its upper modulation and coding schemes

40
Evolution of Cellular: 3G WCDMA
 Orthogonal variable spreading factor (OVSF) is an
implementation of CDMA where before each signal is transmitted,
the signal is spread (Wideband-CDMA) over a wide spectrum range
through the use of a user's code. Users' codes are carefully chosen
to be mutually orthogonal to each other. 3G WCDMA channelization
codes are 256 for uplink and 512 for downlink.

41
Evolution of Cellular : 3G UMTS (WCDMA)
 Aside from channelization codes (UL: to separate physical data and control
data from same terminal; DL: to separate connection to different terminals
in a same cell), scrambling codes (pseudo-noise PN codes) are used to
separate cell sector transmissions and separate terminals. Lastly,
synchronization codes (Gold codes) are used to enable terminals to locate
and synchronize to the cells' main control channels. The later codes DO
NOT change the transmission bandwidth (unlike channelization codes).

42
Evolution of Cellular : 3G HSDPA

 The High Speed-Shared Control Channel (HS-SCCH) informs the user that
data will be sent on the HS-PDSCH, 2 slots ahead. The Uplink High Speed-
Dedicated Physical Control Channel (HS-DPCCH) carries acknowledgment
information and current channel quality indicator (CQI) from the user. This
value is then used by the base station to calculate how much data to send
to the user device on the next transmission. The High Speed-Physical
Downlink Shared Channel (HS-PDSCH) is the channel mapped to the
above HS-DSCH transport channel that carries actual user data.
43
Evolution of Cellular : 3G HSDPA

 The shared HSDPA data channel (HS-PDSCH) is a more capable

upgrade of the Release 99 Downlink Shared Channel (DSCH) (3G). HS-
PDSCH is shared between all active HSDPA users in the cell in both time
and code multiplexed. Each standard 10 ms frame is divided into 2 ms
sub-frames in HSDPA. Timeslots are still the same length as in Release
99; that is 0.67 ms. Thus there are 3 timeslots within one HSDPA sub-
frame. Furthermore each sub-frame can further be shared up to 16 users
simultaneously because each active user is allocated at least one
spreading code of SF=16.
44
Lecture 5

ECET422a
Digital Communications Course
Lecture 5 (Part 3)
Multiplexing and Multiple Access

Thanks to:
Sai Praveen (BIST)

45
SDMA and PDMA (Space/Polarization)

46
Sample Satellite Data

47
PCM Multiplex Frame Structures (TDMA)

48
Example

49
Multiple Access Comm System
 A multiple access protocol or algorithm is that rule by which a user
knows how to use time, frequency, and code functions to
communicate to other users

50
Multiple Access Information Flow
1. Channelization = allocation
information (seldom changes)
2. Network State (NS) = refers to
the state of the communication
resource . A station is advised
regarding availability and where in
the resource (freq,time,code) to
transmit its service request
3. Service Request = request for
allocation of m message slots
4. Controller sends a schedule of
where and when to position its
data in the comm resource
5. Station transmits its data
according to its assigned
schedule

51
 ALOHA (Hawaiians’ “living in harmony”)
 1971 – to connect several university computers using random access protocol
1. Users transmit at any time they desire with an error detection code
2. If messages collide and errors are detected, users receive negative acknowledgment (NAK)
3. When NAK is received, messages are simply retransmitted after a random delay (or back-off time)
4. If the user does not receive either an ACK or NAK within a specified time, the user retransmits a
message

52
Message Arrival Statistics

 A user can successfully transmit a

message as long as no other user
began within the previous τ seconds
τ τ or starts one within the next τ
seconds τ
τ
53
Message Arrival Statistics
 The probability of exactly having zero (K=0) other messages transmitted with the duration is:


2τ
Since the message arrival statistics for unrelated users of a communication system is often modeled as a Poisson
process

 Thus

τ τ

54
Message Arrival Statistics
 For a pure ALOHA system, only 18% of the
communication resource can be utilized.
Simplicity of control is achieved at the expense of
channel capacity (or throughput). Improves to
37% with S-ALOHA.

55
Slotted ALOHA

τ
Time is slotted in seconds slots
 A sequence of synchronization pulses is broadcast to all stations
 Messages are required to be sent in the slot time between synch pulses and can be started only at the
beginning of a time slot
 Reduces the rate of collisions by half since only messages transmitted in the same slot can interfere with
one another
 Thus,
 Like ALOHA, if a NAK occurs, the user retransmit after a random delay but on an integer number of slot
times

56
Slotted ALOHA with Reservation
 Reservation protocol allows a large number of stations with
infrequent traffic to reserve slots to transmit their frames in future
cycles
 Each cycle has mini-slots allocated for making reservations
 Stations use slotted Aloha during mini-slots to request slots

57
Performance Measure of MA schemes

58
Delay of Slotted ALOHA & R ALOHA

59
Polling Techniques
 One way to impose order on a system
with multiple users having random access
requirement is to institute a controller that
polls the user population to determine
their service requests
 E.g. to rapidly poll, use binary tree search

 STUDY:
Book Examples 11.1 to 11.3 (Sklar 2 nd
edition)

60
PROBLEMS

61
Multiple Access for LAN (Local AN)
 Bandwidth is not as scarce as in Wide Area Networks
(WAN)
 Ethernet (invented by XEROX) scheme is based on the
assumption that each local machine can sense the state of
a common broadcast channel - Carrier-sense multiple
access with collision detection (CSMA/CD)
 Carrier means electrical activity on the cable
 Manchester PCM formatting is used
 The presence of data transitions denotes to all “listeners”
that the carrier is present
 If a transition is not seen between 0.75 and 1.25 bit times
since the last transition, the carrier has been lost indicating
the end of a packet

62
 Multiple Access for LAN (Local AN)
Sync (0 1 0 1 0 1 … 1 1) MAC addresses
Parity bits

8 x (46 to 1500) bits

TYPE: used to indicate which protocol

type is encapsulated in the data field (e.g.
ethernet II or 802.3)

Data or bit
rate???

63
Ethernet User Action/Response
1) DEFER. The user must not transmit when the carrier is present or within
the minimum packet spacing time

2) TRANSMIT. If not deferring, the user may transmit until the end of the
packet or until a collision is detected

3) ABORT. If a collision is detected, the user must terminate packet

transmission and transmit a short jamming signal to ensure that all
collision participants are aware of the collision

4) RETRANSMIT. The user must wait a random delay time (like ALOHA)
and then attempt retransmission

5) BACKOFF. The delay before the nth attempt is a uniformly distributed

random number from 0 to 2n – 1 for (0 < n ≤ 10) else 0 to 1023 for n
> 10. The unit of time for the retransmission delay is 512 bits (51.2
usec)

64
END OF COURSE

Topics Covered:

Fourier Transforms (Intro to Signals and Spectra)

Formatting and Baseband Transmission
Baseband Demodulation and Detection
Bandpass Modulation and Demodulation
Multiplexing and Multiple Access

THANKS!

65