Journal of Energy Storage 49 (2022) 103468

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Journal of Energy Storage

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/est

Review Article

Application of Filament Winding Technology in Composite Pressure Vessels

and Challenges: A Review
Mohammad Azeem a, *, Hamdan Haji Ya a, *, Mohammad Azad Alam a, Mukesh Kumar b,
Paweł Stabla c, Michał Smolnicki c, Lokman Gemi d, Rehan Khan e, Tauseef Ahmed f,
Quanjin Ma g, Md Rehan Sadique h, Ainul Akmar Mokhtar a, Mazli Mustapha a
a
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Universiti Teknologi PETRONAS, Seri Iskander, 32610, Malaysia
b
Indian Institute of Technology, Ropar, India
c
Wrocław University of Science and Technology, Wroclaw, Poland
d
Necmettin Erbakan University, 42000 Konya, Turkey
e
National University of Sciences and Technology, Pakistan
f
Özyeğin University, Mechanical Engineering Department, Turkey
g
Faculty of Mechanical and Automotive Engineering Technology, Universiti Malaysia Pahang, Pekan 26600, Malaysia
h
Aligarh Muslim University, 202002, Aligarh, India

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: The filament winding (FW) technology is one of the emerging manufacturing practices with a high degree of
Filament winding excellence and automation that has revolutionized gas storage and transportation doctrine. Various pressure
Composite pressure vessel vessels have evolved in the last few decades, from metal to fiber-reinforced tanks, primarily for weight savings
Gas storage
and high-pressure ratings; advantageously, Type 4 composite pressure vessels (CPVs) can affect fuel gas tanks’
Storage technologies
Winding Pattern
weight savings to 75% compared to metallic vessels. As a result, composite pipelines and CPV manufacturing
through FW technology have proliferated. Though many design and manufacturing challenges are associated
with various process factors involved in winding technology, careful considerations are needed to create a
reliable product. Therefore, it is essential to comprehend the various process parameters, their combined effects,
and the associated challenges while designing and fabricating filament-wound structures. This article reviews the
FW technique’s utility, its evolution, various process parameters, and the CPVs as an emerging contender for
high-pressure gas and cryo fluid storage. In addition, different optimization techniques, numerical analysis
strategies, and challenges are summarized with related disputes and suggestions.

1. Introduction
The transportation sector consumes a large part of petroleum prod­
ucts (Diesel and Gasoline). The depleting oil reserves slowly push the
transportation sector towards natural gas use for an alternate energy
source. Natural gas storage at high pressure as fuel on automobiles has
highly affected the development of pressure vessel technology. Pressure
vessels (PVs) are the traditional equipment for storing liquids and gases
[1]. Pressure vessels are irreplaceable for storing gas/fluids at different
pressures, from consumable products to advanced aerospace systems.
Initially, high-strength steel vessels (type 1 cylinder) have been
manufactured for CNG storage applications on the road. This vessel type
was restricted after the developments in composite materials, as steel
tanks were heavy and susceptible to fatigue and corrosion damage [2].
An increasing class of high-pressure vessels uses the FW process
featuring high-strength and lightweight. CPVs provide higher individual
strengths and moduli and tolerability features that help reduce structure
weight. The importance of composite’s in CPVs evolves from type 2 to
type 4 pressure vessels. CPVs can achieve considerable weight savings
than steel vessels and exhibit excellent fatigue and corrosion resistance
[3]. Type 3 and type 4 pressure vessels can reach 70-80% of
weight-saving than type 1 [4]. Thus, the fuel consumption of natural gas

Abbreviations: FW, Filament winding; CPV, Composite pressure vessel; PV, Pressure vessel; NGV, Natural Gas Vehicles; CNG, compressed natural gas; DOFs,
degrees of freedoms; WCM, Wound Composite Modeller.
* Corresponding author.
E-mail addresses: mazeem.me@zhcet.ac.in, mohammad_18000380@utp.edu.my (M. Azeem), hamdan.ya@utp.edu.my (H.H. Ya).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.est.2021.103468
Received 13 August 2021; Received in revised form 17 October 2021; Accepted 19 October 2021
Available online 10 February 2022
2352-152X/© 2021 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
M. Azeem et al.
vehicles significantly improves with this weight reduction. CPVs also
boosted the vehicles’ distance travelled with reduced refueling. Demand
is growing for automobiles fueled by natural gas since many countries
concentrate on lowering greenhouse emissions. The supply of cheaper
natural gas in contrast with gasoline and Diesel has also sped up this
requirement. According to Lucintel’s report, the demand for composite
CNG tanks was estimated to rise by 10.2% CAGR (compound annual
growth rate) from 2015 to 2020 [5].
The FW method has become known as a futuristic affordable com­
posite manufacturing technology. In this technique, continuous threads
of fiber filaments are wound to the mandrel, ideal for making high-
pressure vessels, tubing, shafts, and ducts [6]. With high automation,
the FW process optimizes the anisotropic fiber properties [7]. In addi­
tion, the broad range of improved mechanical and physical properties of
composite materials renders it ideal for wide-ranging applications.
Nowadays, several mechanical characteristics of filament wound
structures such as burst [8–17], crush [18,19], impact [20–32], fatigue
[33–39], compression [40,41,42], porosity [43], fracture [44,45],
tribological features [27,32] were popularly investigated by scientists to
satisfy many engineering requirements in various applications. This
review summarizes the state of FW technology’s art in the gas storage
domain, different aspects of this technology, including basic construc­
tion, concepts and principles, winding patterns, finite element (FE)
techniques, and optimization approaches. In addition, various pressure
vessels and their worth for the natural gas vehicle (NGV) industry and
cryogenics applications are also discussed.
The current literature study is scanned from well-known databases,
including Web of Science™ (Clarivate), Scopus (Elsevier), ScienceDirect
(Elsevier). Keywords and searches from reputable search engines and
databases were mapped onto the downloaded articles. For example, the
following keywords were used: Filament winding, Composite pressure
vessel followed by specific aspects to outline, e.g., +CNG, +NGV, etc. Simi­
larly, exemplary screening criteria using Boolean language (for Scopus) is
presented below (for Section 5):
TITLE-ABS-KEY ( ( FEA OR ( finite AND element AND ( method OR
analysis ) ) ) AND ( ( pressure AND vessel* ) OR ( filament AND winding ) )
AND composite* ).
Most of the articles published between 2010 and 2021 were taken.
However, some earlier published articles which seem to be worth
addressing are included. The articles which do not conform with the
expanse of the current study were not considered. In addition, some
industrial reports, e-magazines, books, and company websites are also
included to cover some aspects which are not thoroughly reported in
academic research. Each analysis obtained has been carefully selected
for the benefit of this study and evaluated to contribute to the literature
in this area.
2. Filament winding technique
FW is a well-known technique for manufacturing composite struc­
tures. In this method, the fiber strands/filaments are wound continu­
ously on a supportive shape form or mandrel. This method can create
items generally in the form of cylinders and tubing, for example, high-
pressure containers, rocket engine cases, launch tubes, fishing rods,
and golf club shafts [46]. FW is an inexpensive and automated method
for positioning fibers in a precise pattern that adapts to the path of stress
by allowing the efficient use of high-strength fibers for enhanced
structural efficiency [47]. In addition, mass production can cut down the
cost further [7].
Fig. 1 shows the schematic diagram of the FW method. A stationary
rotating mandrel is used in the FW process, while a carriage arm moves
horizontally with the mandrel. The arm contains a winding pay-out eye,
which groups and dispenses pre-impregnated fibers called rovings;
rovings are usually carbon, Kevlar™, glass fiber, or a hybrid [48–50]. As
the mandrel turns, the rovings wrap around it to form a composite
winding over the mandrel’s surface. The composite winding’s exact
2
Journal of Energy Storage 49 (2022) 103468
Fig. 1. Schematics of filament winding process for composite pipes [52].
direction is determined by the carriage rate and the mandrel’s rotary
velocity. The fibers are impregnated in the resin before they wrap over
the mandrel and later solidify with the fiber. After the overwrapping of
fiber has been finished, the entire assembly, mandrel plus composite
overwrapped layers, is put in the oven to be heated at the required
temperatures for curing. The mandrel is removed when the composite
resin is fully cured [51], leaving the hollow composite structure.
Nevertheless, optimization of resin type, fiber type, fiber tension,
winding thickness, winding angle, and speed, etc., is needed to tailor the
product’s required final quality.
2.1. Filament winding machines: evolution and state-of-the art
Components such as wire-wound barrels of guns typically hoop
(circumferentially) wrapped to ensure high burst pressures were
claimed to have been invented in 1850 by American Woodbridge, in
Russia as early as 1869, and in Germany in 1900 [53,54]. The FW
concept was introduced in the 1940s. In 1945, Bassons Industries made
lightweight reinforced plastic hoops on the lathe for the Manhattan
nuclear project (during World War II). Under the US Navy Bureau of
Ordnance, a winding machine having a wooden mandrel was designed
in 1947 [55]. The first production of the rocket motor case (for space
applications) through FW was recorded, which laid down the beginning
of winding machines. The basic 2-axes version was produced until the
1950s [56,57].
Many companies assertively accepted the technology. The first in­
dustrial winding machines were developed at the beginning of the 1960s
with bulky, mechanical machinery involving a change of gears, belts,
and chains to adjust wind angles or lengths and were primarily used to
make pipes. Due to complex machinery, these machines constitute errors
and involve lengthy design calculations to adjust different sprocket sizes
and chain lengths for particular product sizes and were restricted to
wind over limited shapes [57,58]. In the 1960s and 1970s, winding
machines were commercially used to make composite tubes, pressure
vessels, and light street poles [59]. The first computer-controlled
winding machines designed in the late 1970s were inaccurate and
difficult to program, requiring calculations and trial & error. Control
systems were developed by companies including Bosch, Fanuc, NUM,
and Siemens in the mid-1970s and early 1980s. These control systems
were designed for metal cutting (milling and turning), but they could be
used for FW. There was an obvious need for better programming ap­
proaches to take advantage of modern technologies. In the early 1990s,
electronic control systems were introduced for the winding machines
with motion control cards and servo devices that accurately monitor
position and speed. 4 to 6-axes of motion were incorporated in the
design [60,61]. The computerized numeric control (CNC) technique
made it easier to control the fiber path precisely. Optimization of the
process parameters resulted in a quality product [62]. Robot-assisted
machines were introduced in the 1990s with 7-axes motion control
[63]; however, until 2004, machines with complete robot assistive
systems were developed [59]. Fig. 2(d) depicts a robotic winder from
Cygnet Texkimp™ that employs a robotic arm to feed fiber into the
M. Azeem et al. Journal of Energy Storage 49 (2022) 103468

Fig. 2. (a) 2-axes winder (Source: Xwinder™), (b) 4-axes module (Source: MICROSAM), (c) 6-axes winder (Source: McClean Anderson, [53]), (d) Robotic winder
(Source: Cygnet Texkimp) (e) 3D winder with multiple payout eyes (Source: Cygnet Texkimp).

winding mechanism from multiple axes and can be configured to pro­
vide high fiber tension levels.
Several variants of FW machines are now available based on specific
product requirements. The 2-axes motion with revolving mandrel, and
the traversing carriage motion, typically horizontal, is the best option
for pipe fabrication, Fig. 2(a). However, a 4-axes winding machine
became popular for lightweight pressure vessel demands, such as LPG or
CNG containers [57]. Various 4-axes of motion are shown in Fig. 2(b) as;
(1) Rotation of mandrel, (2) Horizontal carriage motion, (3) Pay-out eye
angular motion, (4) Radial carriage movement. The 4-axes module has a
radial cross-feed axis perpendicular to the carriage ride. On the
cross-feed axis, a spinning fiber payout head is installed, a rotating
payout head avoids fiber band twisting, and the change in width can be
verified during winding. 6-axes winding devices typically have three
linear and three rotational axes [61], Fig. 2(c). Multi-axes provides the
capability to manufacture even non-symmetrical components. Im­
provements in winding software and CNC machines made it possible to
fabricate tee pipes, elbows, and curved shapes [64]. Also, incorporating
multiple pay-out eyes, as in Fig. 2(e), enhances productivity rather than
increasing the degrees of freedoms (DOFs) of a single pay-out eye [65].
Fig. 3 gives the evolution timeline of the FW technology [59–61,63].
The FW sector is looking like a developing industry. After several
years of stagnant growth, several companies supplying machinery and
software have recently displayed strong sales. Most of this revenue
growth is in the developing world, particularly India and the Middle
East. In recent years, sales for winding machines in the Middle East have
risen by 30% a year. FW technology enables the use of novel materials
and expands the application of composites into new markets. In the
coming years, more innovation and progress are expected [66]. Com­
panies are moving forward by incorporating software and automation
into their modules, boosting control through a simple user interface
[67].
2.2. Machine Manufacturers
Many manufacturers of FW modules can be found with various
characteristics. Entec Composite Machines (Utah, USA) claimed to be
the oldest continuous machine maker globally, designed the famous
FiberGrafiXTM winding pattern generation software, and invented the
world’s first computer-controlled winding machine. Entec offers various

Fig. 3. Evolution in filament winding technology.

3
M. Azeem et al. Journal of Energy Storage 49 (2022) 103468

spindle features, volume, and quality [64]. Based in Florida, Magnum 3. Process parameters
Venus Plastech (MVP) provides a wide range of equipment to produce
tanks and pipes. The Econo-Winder is the base model for hoop winding, The quality of filament wound products can be affected by various
the compact Ultra-Winder for helical winding, and the Multi-Axis Wind parameters, so the choice and combination of these factors are essential
module can wind up to 6-axes at once are examples of MVP winders for minimizing output difficulties and increasing structural perfor­
[64]. Pultrex focuses on the airspace field, with machines entirely CNC mance. Besides material engineering properties, fiber direction, fiber
with controlled motion between 2 and 6-axes. A range of fiber tension tension, and winding velocity are necessary to control when designing
control and fiber heating options is available with multi-spindle choices filament wound composites [73]. In a statistical analysis, composite
[68]. Correspondingly, one may find a list of leading manufacturers, component consistency parameters were enlisted as resin, fiber, pro­
namely McClean Anderson, Mikrosam, MF tech, Autonational, Dura duction method, design, and machine [74]. It was realized that the
Wound, W&H Group, CNC Technics, Roth Composite Machinery, strength of a CPV is influenced by stacking sequence, fiber tension and
Matrasur Composites, VEM SpA, Xwinder, etc. A list of FW machine gradient, winding time, and interaction between winding time and
manufacturers with specific features is given in Table 1. tension gradient. Furthermore, the fiber bandwidth and resin viscosity
Some small-scale machines were designed and developed, reported [75], feasible temperature gradients during cure [76] affected the
in [60,69–72]. An automatic small-scale FW system was designed and findings significantly. Therefore, the optimum values need to be
manufactured, introducing a collection of algorithms that govern the pre-defined and retained throughout the development process for these
whole winding process. The prototype reveals that it can generate interrelated parameters.
winding angles ranging from 40o to 80o. This system can train new
students to manufacture long fiber composite materials [69]. The 2-axes 3.1. Mandrel
motion FW system was developed to manufacture various
fiber-reinforced composite tubings. The unit can generate specimens Mandrel serves as a rotating surface on which the fibers are wound.
with various size specifications, different winding angles for the hoop, In composite pipe making, steel mandrels should be used (in place of
helical, and polar winding forms [70]. A 3-axes lightweight, functional, aluminium) as removable mandrels as they offer wear resistance and
effective, compact FW machine was built and optimized to meet the lower thermal expansion coefficient. If removable mandrels are used,
customer’s demand to make pipes and round-shaped cylinders [71]. A the shape of the component should allow easy extraction Water-soluble
lathe-type machine and a wet winding system were used in constructing sand mandrels, plaster mandrels, collapsible mandrels, and unremov­
the winding mechanism, allowing the development of pipe specimens able liners, such as metallic load-sharing liners or non-load-sharing
with an internal diameter and a length of up to 100 mm and 1000 mm, plastic liners, are widely used in the industry [7,46]. For CPVs, an in­
respectively. The winding angle varies from 20◦ to 90◦ based on the ternal liner is required to serve as a mandrel for FW and prevent leakage
mandrel diameter used [60]. The construction of a low-cost system for of the stored fluid or gas. The liner also imparts toughness and prevents
composite components was presented [72]; the framework has provided gas leakage and indentation [77]. The internal liner may be metallic as
consumers with better insight into winding characterization, process in type 2, type 3 vessels, and plastic liners as in type 4 tanks.
flexibility, shorter cycle time, and a more consistent pattern overlay,
eliminating material waste. 3.1.1. Geometrical parameters
Small scale or low-cost machines fulfill specific needs; however, The design of CPVs depends on the liner and composite geometrical
these lack versatility, controllability, and other features that influence parameters such as length, diameter, dome shape, length-to-diameter
the process parameters. (L/D) ratio [78,79]. To enhance the structure’s efficiency, the overall
L/D ratio of the CPVs should reflect the dome shape neither too flat nor
too peaked.
When winding filaments on a mandrel surface, two types of trajec­
tories are commonly used: geodesic and non-geodesic. Fiber winding
Table 1
along these trajectories or paths, typically on CPVs, is commonly called
Manufacturers of winding machines [64,68].
geodesic and non-geodesic windings. The shortest paths between two
S. Manufacturers* Featuring
arbitrary points on a surface are geodesic paths. Geodesic paths are
no
stable and are non-slip as they don’t need any external force to keep
1. McClean Anderson (Wisconsin, Eight models with 2 to 6-axes with digital them from falling off the mandrel surface. Non-geodesic pathways, on
USA) AC servo technology
the other hand, are employed to increase design flexibility. However,
2. Mikrosam (Macedonia) 2-axes to multi-axes and multi-spindles,
AC servo drive, precision tensioning, and because non-geodesic paths are unstable, they require frictional forces to
a temperature-regulated resin bath keep them from slipping off the mandrel surface. As a result, the friction
3. MF tech (France) Robot winder with 6-axes Kuka robot coefficient becomes a critical factor in the process, as it determines the
with 8-axes of motion control
set of winding trajectories.
4. Autonational, (The All the modules required to wind tubes,
Netherlands) couplings, tees, and elbows Geodesic winding is widely used, whether the design is axisymmetric
5. Dura Wound (Oregon, USA) Suite for pipe and tank winding or not. On the other hand, the non-geodesic winding is more used on
6. MATERIAL Robotic winder capable of producing complex designs. The in-plane lateral force is zero on the line fragments
complex parts representing the roving for geodesic winding, while the opposite case
7. Waltritsch & Wachter GmbH, Up to 6-axes of motion control
occurs for non-geodesic winding [80–85]. The geodesic winding does
(Germany)
8. EHA Spezialmaschinenbau Specific production needs, laboratory not necessarily have to be a stable wound. The semi-geodesic fiber paths
GmbH, (Germany) machine, and large carriage platform require a small deviation from the geodesic path that depends on
9. Pultrex (Essex, England) Multi-spindle with 2 to 6-axes, CNC required friction to keep the fiber in its desired position. It is also called
control, Mini & Lab machines, and pipe &
stable non-geodesic winding. Semi-geodesic winding provides flexibility
tank winders
10. Xwinders (New Mexico, USA) 2-axes and 4-axes small scale desktop for fiber paths for optimization [81,86,87].
modules suited for shops, labs, etc.
11. Cygnet Texkimp (Cheshire, 4-axes, multi-axes robotic winders, and 3.2. Fiber overwrapping and winding patterns
United Kingdom) 3D winders

*The official web pages of the leading manufacturers of winders can be found in The linear density of fiber yarn is measured as weight per unit length
[64]. (1 g/1000 m = tex). The ktex specification is used to describe

4
M. Azeem et al.
commercial fibers, and it specifies the number of fibers in the bundle in
thousands (X ktex means X thousand fibers in the bundle) [88]. A strand
or tow is a bundle of filaments, while rovings are parallel bundles of
strands or tows. Glass fiber is frequently referred to as strand, while
carbon fiber is referred to as tow. Tow size is stated as 12K or 24K, with
24,000 filaments in a 24K tow. Small tows are tows with up to 24K fil­
aments. It is referred to as a heavy tow when more than 24K filaments
are present. Common delivery forms include 1K, 3K, 6K, 12K, 24K, 48K,
50K, and 60K. They are sold in continuous form, wound around bobbins
several kilometers in length [88,89]. Fig. 4 shows the continuous fiber
available in the market.
Wet and dry winding are the two types of winding methods. In the wet
winding process, the fibers are soaked in resin and wrapped around a
rotating mandrel. The pre-impregnated fiber tows are wound on the
mandrel in dry or prepreg winding. Wet winding is the most popular of
these winding methods, and it is frequently used to make filament
wound composite cylinders. Wet winding has several advantages over
dry winding, including lower material costs, shorter winding periods,
and a resin formulation that can be easily modified to meet precise re­
quirements [60]. Fiber volume control is also better in wet winding
[90]. Various fibers and resins are used based on the price and quality
needed. Glass fiber is less expensive but has the lowest performance
rating; carbon fiber is the most expensive but has the highest perfor­
mance level [46]. In addition, carbon fiber’s excellent fatigue resistance
extends the vessel’s service life. Carbon fiber reinforced type 3 and type
4 pressure vessels could last up to 30 years before needing replacement,
twice as long as type 1 and type 2 vessels [91]. The most recent en­
hancements to 700 bar type 4 containers have yielded promising results,
including increased cycling resistance, burst pressure, hydrogen tight­
ness, and gravimetric and volumetric storage capabilities [92].
The winding angle is formed by the fiber path on the mandrel’s surface
and its rotational axis. Fig. 5 shows the winding configurations. Winding
angles are denoted by α or θ, in the hoop winding where it is 90◦ , in fact
slightly less than 90◦ to allow fiber winding next to the current circuit,
Fig. 5(b). A hoop winding can be termed a high-angle helical winding
wound at a 90o angle, usually 85o to 90o [93]. In the helical winding, the
value of α lies in the range of 0◦ to less than 90◦ , or between 5o and 85o
[47]. Fibers are wound from pole to pole in polar winding; the angle is not
constant and depends on the mandrel’s length, Fig. 5(c). Hoop winding
is often referred to as circumferential winding or girth winding. Hoop
winding offers radial strength to the structure, while helical winding
holds the hoop circuits [94], provides stability at the ends, and
Fig. 4. (a) Glass fiber roving (Source: China Beihai Fiberglass) (b) Carbon fiber
tow (Source: Toray) (c) Twaron™ Aramid fiber (Source: Teijin) (d) 24K carbon
fiber tow details.
5
Journal of Energy Storage 49 (2022) 103468
participates in bearing axial loads. Helical winding is often used to make
composite tubes and pressure vessels. Almost any diameter and length
combination can be wound by trading off the wind angle and circuits to
close the patterns. Before the composite’s desired thickness and strength
are achieved, the winding stress, winding angle, and resin quality of the
filament may be changed in each reinforcement layer. The winding
pattern adopted during the production process determines the
completed product’s properties [95].
It is essential to carefully monitor fibers’ orientation so that different
layers will overlap in the same way, i.e., wound in the opposite direc­
tion. A higher angle provides more compression resistance, and a low
angle ensures amplified traction resistance. The winding angle directly
influences the mechanical behaviour of a component [96]. Effect of fiber
orientation was experimentally studied in [97], various wind angles
projected different energy-absorbing characteristics at intermediate
impact velocity. In [98], multiple winding angles were proposed for
uniform strength in all layers. Fig. 6 demonstrates the variation in me­
chanical properties as a function of winding angle.
The bandwidth of the fiber bundle also influences the tank weight
performance. Higher bandwidths cover the mandrel surface in fewer
overlaps, thereby reducing the tank’s weight [58,99]. In addition, a
carefully chosen bandwidth delivers a continuous smooth covering of
the liner [53].
3.2.1. Mosaic patterns in fiber winding
For filament wound parts, it is inevitable to obtain a pattern geom­
etry. The cyclic positioning of the fiber band on the rotating mandrel
creates the so-called mosaic pattern. An integer number defines the
pattern. It shows how many diamonds are on the circumference of the
part. The diamond region could then be decomposed into different areas
for analysis. Firstly, two triangular laminate areas may be noticed with
the laminate sequences -α/+α and +α/-α. The so-called ’zig-zag’ occurs
at the intersection of such triangles. The concentration of interweavings
can be seen in that field. The specific areas described above are shown in
Fig. 7(a). It can be then concluded that the pattern number directly in­
fluences the number of interweaving and the undulation areas. A sche­
matic presentation is shown in Fig. 7(b) to understand the interlaces
creation better. Finally, in Fig. 8, the winding pattern architecture on
composite tubes is shown.
Literature suggests that the FW parameters were investigated in
various configurations. The mechanical response of composite rings was
evaluated to assess the effects of winding angle, diameter-to-thickness
ratio, and stacking sequence [103]. A novel hoop ring test facility was
used to find the fiber and burst properties [104,105].
Another study [95] investigated impact damage development in
composite pipes stacked at different angles. Fatigue tests of damaged
and non-damaged hybrid pipes under different loads were carried out. It
was found that the internal pressure was effective in the damaged pipes,
and the pressure increase reduced the impact damage. Also, in GFRP
pipes at ±55◦ and ±75◦ , the influence of winding angle on fatigue
damage development was studied, and it was reported that an increase
in winding angle increased the fatigue life and reduced the damage
formation [106,107]. The most common failure mode was delamination
with small off-axis cracks and fiber/matrix debonding. A genetic algo­
rithm (GA) was used in [108] to find the best stacking sequence for
internally pressurised filament-wound tubes. In other research, a novel
damage model predicted the response of filament-wound pipes when
subjected to radial compression and external pressure [109,110]. Good
agreement among experimental and numerical findings was reported;
nevertheless, the pattern issues were considered in none of these works.
Although the mosaic pattern is generally disregarded, some re­
searchers deal with this concern. In [111], which is one of the first works
concerning the pattern issue, there was a combination of pressure tests
on glass/epoxy pipe specimens with ±55◦ winding angle. It was
concluded that the higher pattern number, which indicates the higher
degree of interweaving, influences damage growth. Nevertheless, it only
M. Azeem et al. Journal of Energy Storage 49 (2022) 103468

Fig. 5. Types of Filament Winding Configurations [100].

Fig. 6. Variation in mechanical properties with winding angle [101].

Fig. 7. (a) Laminate structure - pattern 2/1 with 18 bands (b) Mechanism of interlaces formation.

Fig. 8. Winding pattern architecture on composite tubes [102].

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M. Azeem et al. Journal of Energy Storage 49 (2022) 103468

has an impact on closed-ended internal pressure loading and weeping final mechanical response. Table 2 summarizes the literature regarding
tests, while no significant variations were found in tensile or pure in­ the influence of winding angle and mosaic pattern in filament wound
ternal pressure tests. In [112], filament wound multi-layered composite structures.
pipes were analyzed. A simplified elastic solution was developed to
analyze composite pipes’ deformation and stress distribution under in­ 3.3. Fiber tension
ternal pressure loading. The subsequent significant work on the pattern
issue was made in [113]. The experiments were accompanied by nu­ The tension mechanism is an essential part of the winding operation
merical assessments, including the classical approach without consid­ and is crucial for high-angle winding. Fiber tension directly affects fiber
ering the diamond-shaped regions of filament-wound parts, which may volume fraction, void content, and strength/stiffness of the part. In other
not reflect the stress distribution correctly. The external pressure loading words, increased fiber tension helps improve fiber compaction, allowing
case was investigated in [114]. Experiments revealed that the winding fiber volume fraction regulation.
pattern did not affect the mechanical response of composite tubes The preload due to pre-tensioning ensures the increased pressure
exposed to implosion pressure. capacity and reduces the weight and volume of the tank [120]. This
In [115], an attempt to incorporate the mosaic pattern in the cylin­ value should be held at a specific level since the friction force varies
drical part and the dome area in the numerical investigation was pre­ between the fibers and the mandrel. Fibers applied at higher tension
sented. Implementing the diamond-shaped regions significantly improve the rigidity and resilience of finished goods, while lower ten­
influenced the stress and strain distribution along the vessel’s length and sion allows for greater flexibility. Filament wound CPVs are designed to
circumference. Another research [102] examined the winding patterns stack fibers in composite overwrapping at high-stress levels for
on the filament wound cylinder under axial compression (buckling) after high-performance applications (ranging from 60% to 70% of fiber’s
hydrothermal conditioning. The investigated patterns were 1/1, 3/1, ultimate strength). Significant elongations of the composite (0.5% to
and 5/1, reflecting 1, 3, or 5 diamond formation on the circumference. 2.0%) and severe splitting of the resin matrix between the fibers result
The greater the number of interweaving zones, the less local buckling from high fiber tension. In general, resin crazing is critical to composite
occurs. It also postponed the crack propagation when the buckling stress, between 10% and 40% of final fiber strength, which is signifi­
finally occurred. In another work [116,117], a novel method was cantly lower than the operating stress of high-performance CPVs [121].
introduced to calculate the stiffness of the specific areas of An experimental study [122] indicates that the tubular part’s strength
filament-wound tubes. In a 3-step analysis, the ABD matrix was alerted depends on the fiber’s stress levels.
in dependence on interweaving. The regions where the undulation Higher winding tension contributes to better resistance against fail­
process occurs were separated, and the stiffness was calculated. Realis­ ure under fiber-dominated loading conditions. Whereas under matrix-
ing that, a more uneven strain distribution was obtained, corresponding dominated loading, the reduced fiber tension delays the failure. Be­
with the experimental analysis. Most recently, in [118], a more thor­ sides being a highly customizable manufacturing method, the FW pro­
ough investigation of the fiber bundles crossovers and undulations was cess is ideal for automation, primarily controlling fiber tension and
conducted. A three-dimensional (3D) repeated unit cell (RUC) at stress.
mesoscale was utilized to investigate filament wound cylinders’ me­
chanical and thermal properties. It was concluded that the fiber undu­ 3.4. Winding Speed
lation model could provoke a 15.7% change in the calculated properties
than the less advanced models. In [119], a numerical approach to FW offers relatively high processing speeds than other
mosaic patterns was suggested. A satisfactory agreement was obtained manufacturing methods [73]. Fast winding speeds allow for a high de­
between the analyses and experiments conducted in [112]. The research gree of productivity. Winding speed is an influencing parameter and is
showed that the ’zig-zag’ area influences the stress distribution and the limited until the quality of impregnated tows must remain unaffected
[123]. However, for different winding angles/patterns, the linear speed
of the carriage dispensing fiber tows and the rotational speed of the
Table 2
mandrel is controlled [69,71,124]. Winding speed influences the fiber
The summary of literature considering the influence of winding angle and
tension, fiber volume content, and product quality [123]. As the proper
mosaic pattern in filament wound structures.
placement of the fiber over the mandrel depends upon the relative
S. Material, Analysis Test Refs.
motion of various moving elements, the intensity of error increases with
no Winding angle,
Specimen increasing speeds. For example, while winding a CPV, the fiber may slip
at the dome region at high speeds; thus, the speed is lowered when the
1. GFRP, ±55o, Mosaic pattern influence Internal pressure, [111]
tube weeping test
payout eye reaches the dome region. Alternatively, at low speeds, the
2. CFRP, various Deformation and stress Internal pressure [112] resin may harden. Therefore, a reasonable speed trade-off is done for the
angles, tube calculations required quality [99,125].
3. GFRP, ±60o, The mosaic pattern in Internal pressure [113] The following are the major parameters that affect impregnation
tube FEM and experiment
efficiency: (a) resin viscosity, (b) fiber bundle porosity, (c) resin injec­
4. GFRP, ±55o, Mosaic pattern influence External pressure [114]
tube tion pressure, (d) fiber tension, and (e) fiber architecture inside the fiber
5. CFRP, various The mosaic pattern in Internal pressure [115] bundle [126]. Since the fiber bundle gets more residence time when
angles, vessel FEM for pressure vessels, travelling at lower speeds, low winding speeds favor the degree of
including dome area impregnation [126]. Winding speed in wet winding is restricted by the
6. GFRP, ±50o, Mosaic pattern and Axial [102]
tube hydrothermal compression
fiber’s ability to absorb resin in terms of cycle time. Depending on the
conditioning influence part and process complexity, usual speeds range from 1 to 2 m/min upto
7. GFRP, various Interweaving influence on External pressure, [116, 10 m/min [127,128]. Dry fiber or prepreg winding is relatively faster
angles, tube ABD matrix, numerical radial 117] [59], having speeds around 100 to 200 m/min; however, the interlam­
calculations compression
inar shear strength of the dry wound products is relatively low [93] and
8. GFRP, ±45o, Repeated unit cell Internal pressure [118]
tube considering mosaic is also expensive [90]. Cygnet Texkimp provides fiber speeds upto 60
pattern in FEM analysis m/min in their 4-axes wet winding module [129]. Cygnet’s 3D winder is
9. CFRP, ±60o, The mosaic pattern in Radial [119] built for high speeds, winding dry carbon fiber in 24K or 48K grades
tube FEM with the influence of compression [59]. Large fiber bundles take much longer impregnation time to get
the ’zig-zag’ area
fully impregnated than small-fiber bundles [126].

7
M. Azeem et al.
3.5. Material utilization
The optimal design of CPVs demands that the constituent materials,
particularly the fiber, be used effectively. A type 3 or 4 pressure vessel’s
cost, weight, and strength are dominated by fiber utilization. Usually,
the fiber used is more costly by weight than the matrix (resin) compo­
nent. The carbon fiber density is approximately 1.8 g/cc, while the
density of typical matrix resins for epoxy resins is lower, e.g., about 1.2
g/cc [130].
Hybridization of various fibers fetches better results than a single
fiber in filament wound structures. The hybrid effect of various fiber
types in tandem was studied against axial loading and crashworthiness
in [97,131–136], torsional characteristics in [137]. The stacking
sequence of various fiber types also influences the drilling properties, as
in [138,139]. The effect of hybridization and stacking sequence on
composite pipes produced using carbon and glass fiber has been studied
experimentally in [138–140]. It was reported that stacking sequence in
hybrid pipes influences the impact response, ring-tensile strength,
damage formation against leakage, and machinability characteristics. In
addition [8], the burst pressure was found unaffected by the hybridi­
zation of the hoop layers.
The resin/matrix binds the reinforcement fibers in a filament wound
composite structure and spreads the load together. Most resins are
polymeric, but inorganic binders are also useful [141]. The resin system
should have two relevant characteristics to be used effectively: an
acceptable viscosity to wet the reinforcement before initiating the cure
reaction and a sufficiently long pot life to allow all the reinforcement
layers to be applied with no premature gelling of the resin [142]. The
standard resin systems are epoxy and polyester. Epoxy resin is used in
structures that require a high level of physical qualities and resistance,
while the low-cost polyester resin is suitable for most applications [143].
Additionally, the resin should show resistance to creep, ultraviolet
degradation and cannot be affected by the fluids in automotive use.
Furthermore, the curing of resin must be done below the softening point
of the plastic liner. Hence, proper selection of resin is essential for type 4
pressure vessels.
The extensive selection of materials encompasses a wide variety of
high-tech properties that smoothly integrate with critical requirements
in the production of high-pressure vessels [143].
4. Types of pressure vessels
High-strength and lightweight PVs made through the FW process are
commonly used in various applications, including fuel tanks, rocket
engine cases, portable oxygen storage, etc. Conventional pressure ves­
sels constitute cylindrical drums with end domes [144]. The cylindrical
construction eliminates the stress concentrations in the sharp-cornered
structure. A considerable evolution has taken place in the construction
Fig. 9. Time development of pressure vessel use.
8
Journal of Energy Storage 49 (2022) 103468
and other features of pressure vessels. Fig. 9 shows the timeline of the
development of pressure vessels. Various types of pressure vessels and
comparative constructional details are shown in Fig. 10.
4.1. Type 1
Type 1 is the metallic cylinder, usually steel or aluminium. The
manufacturing costs are measured at approximately $5 per liter. There is
a vast international selection of metalworking expertise and the tools
required to manufacture type 1 vessels. These vessels weigh about 1.4
kg/liter and are the heaviest. Seamless steel cylinders have been the
most frequently used in automotive gas storage since the 1940s. In the
late 1970s, it was a crucial step for the industry’s growth to introduce
Italian high-strength lightweight cylinders, and this product has been
raised worldwide ever since. Welded steel cylinders are also available,
but there is a more considerable protection aspect. Also used for onboard
CNG storage are aluminium cylinders, giving a lighter weight option. In
hydrogen storage, type 1 steel cylinders are susceptible to hydrogen
embrittlement, which may cause fatigue cracks. A catastrophic failure
may occur during service due to the evolution of the fatigue cracks.
Although aluminium tanks are not susceptible to hydrogen embrittle­
ment, a fine surface finish is required to avoid any fatigue crack growth.
Fatigue failure occurs in metallic tanks due to the tank’s cyclic pres­
surization and depressurization while refilling and using the fuel gas.
Type 1 CNG container manufacturers include White Martins, Inflex,
and Faber. In addition, Luxfer sells a limited collection of CNG
aluminium cylinders.
4.2. Type 2
A thick metal liner wrapped in fiber makes type 2 pressure vessels.
The composite fiber wrap is done on the container’s cylindrical straight
side while the domes remain unwrapped. Steel or aluminium liners are
usually wound by glass, aramid, or carbon fiber in the hoop direction
[146,147]. Metallic liners were previously manufactured through roll­
ing and welding processes [148]. However, techniques for making
seamless tanks were later devised [77]. Metal liners were made using a
deep drawing and ironing technique, and the cylinder is then strength­
ened with a composite layer wound and bonded to the liner using a
curing process [149]. Even if the composite wrap is removed, the metal
liner shares a part of the pressure load beside the gas containment. This
vessel’s cost is about 50% higher than type 1 but has about 35% less
weight.
Since only the cylindrical portion of the PV is reinforced with com­
posite wrap, the domes should be sturdy enough to withstand load
without fiber overwrapping [150]. Mannesman and faberTM manufac­
ture type 2 tanks.
M. Azeem et al.
Fig. 10. (a) Pressure vessel types (Source: Faber, Italy) and (b) Sectional details [145].
4.3. Type 3
Type 3 is built up of a metal liner and is wholly overwrapped in a
fiber resin system, including the domes. Generally, a seamless
aluminium liner is used. Much of the structural loads are borne by the
composite overwrap, while the liner shares the load partially. Type 3
significantly decreases the metal liner thickness, then type 2, which
leads to considerable weight savings. However, the vessel’s strength is
retained due to lightweight composite layers. As a result, the composite
overwrap provides between 75% to 90% of vessel strength. In contrast,
the liner provides the remaining strength and serves as a rigid barrier in
which the gas is stored and gives additional impact resistance to the
product.
In compact products such as breathing equipment, medical handling
of oxygen, and fluid slides, over 2 million fully wrapped cylinders are in
service. Fig. 11(a) and (b) dictate the difference between the type 2 and
type 3 tank sections and compare different pressure-ratings [151]. The
pressure vessels used in automobiles and buses have a 350 bar or 700 bar
service pressure, while many industrial tanks are rated at 200 bar [152].
The cylinders/liners in type 1-3 tanks are commonly manufactured
by deep drawing, hot-spinning, machining, and heat treatment pro­
cesses in subsequent steps [145]. The metallic cylinder/liner is never­
theless prone to corrosion and fatigue. Type 3 is used in several
applications, such as transit buses and delivery trucks, where weight
reduction is essential. These are used in different OEM cars, such as
Volvo and Volkswagen CNG vehicles. The makers include Structural
Composites, faber™, Luxfer, Raufoss, Worthington Industries, and
Dynetek. Inc.
4.4. Type 4
Type 4 CPVs comprise the polymeric liner fully wrapped with a fiber-
resin system, typically carbon fiber or hybrid carbon/glass fibers [153].
Fig. 11. (a) type 2 and 3 tank sections [151] and (b) 350 bar and 700 bar
cylinder sections (Source: energy.gov).
9
Journal of Energy Storage 49 (2022) 103468
The gas is contained in a plastic liner, which also serves as a mandrel for
the FW operation [154] and is often manufactured by blow moulding
and rotational moulding (rotomoulding) processes. The domes may also
be welded to the extruded cylindrical part [145]. Better gravimetric
performance is sought because of plastic liners [155]. Fig. 12 shows the
fabrication of a thermoplastic liner through the rotational moulding
process.
For CPVs exposed to mild temperatures and pressures, elastomers
such as butyl rubber are used as a lining material. However, at cryogenic
temperatures or elevated pressures, elastomers are ineffective. Elasto­
mers show brittle behaviour at cryogenic temperatures and do not strain
without breaking along with the composite overwrap. The commercially
available elastomers offer high degrees of gas permeability at high
pressures. As elastomers absorb the gases, they may cause extreme
blistering in the liner when the gases are released during vessel
depressurization. The liner may also be made of polyamide (PA) or high-
density polyethylene (HDPE).
The perfect lining material must be impermeable to the fluid or gas in
the vessel. The liner must be chemically compatible with the fluid and
impervious to it [120]. Permeation is regarded as a normal condition,
especially in type 4 tanks. On the other hand, maximum permeation
thresholds are set by industry standards and are shown on the cylinder
certification mark. Metallic cylinders/liners have reduced hydrogen
permeation levels compared to polymeric-lined cylinders [157]. In type
4 vessels, the permeation rates with CNG are considered appropriate.
However, gas permeation is a concern for hydrogen storage as the
hydrogen atoms have a smaller size. Until 500 bar HDPE works well for
hydrogen storage; nevertheless, polyamides offer lower permeation for
higher pressures. In automotive and industrial applications, HDPE has a
proven track record. As a liner material, the material properties of HDPE
make it an optimal option due to low cost, affordability, efficiency
Fig. 12. Fabrication of plastic liner through rotational moulding (a) Rotational
mould (b) Open mould (c) Final product [156].
M. Azeem et al. Journal of Energy Storage 49 (2022) 103468

[154], high cyclic fatigue life, availability, low permeation, and is easily
moulded and extruded [150]. A liner of sufficient thickness and strength
is formed to maintain minor gas pressure even without the composite
overwrap. Fig. 13(a) and (b) shows the constructional and sectional
details of a type 4 vessel, respectively.
The liner must strain or elongate with the composite during pres­
surization and return to a stable and non-buckled state after reducing the
vessel’s pressure. The liner’s straining capability must match the com­
posite overwrap to achieve the optimal life-cycle ability [121]. The thin
resin gaps between the fibers in the CPV can become porous due to being
overly locally strained, allowing the enclosed fluid to pass through. To
avoid such leakage, a non-porous liner is required that is capable of
tensioning with the composite and reverting to its previous stable state
after the pressure is relieved [47].
The leading members to carry loads in type 4 are the composite
overwrap fibers that bear structural and pressure loads, although the
surrounding matrix holds them at optimum location and orientation. A
continuous fiber reinforcing agent such as glass, carbon, aramid, etc.,
and a liquid resin impregnation agent such as polyester, epoxy, etc., are Fig. 14. (a) Spinformed aluminium liners for type 3 tanks (Maker: Steelhead
used to manufacture type 4 vessels. However, CNG tank manufacturers Composites™), (b) and (c) Plastic liners for type 4 tanks, (d) and (e) Fiber
may seek an alternative due to the high cost and recent shortage of overwrapping process (f) Finished composite tanks.
carbon fiber. Basalt fiber is among various fibers under research and
discussion as an alternative to high-priced carbon fibers. Basalt fibers Development Inc. (CTD, Lafayette, Colo.). and has been successfully
outperform E-glass in mechanical properties and are less expensive than tested [160]. CTD tanks allow firefighters’ breathing devices that are
carbon fiber [153]. Type 4 cylinders are usually equipped with dome 10% lighter and smaller than standard equipment, Fig. 17(b). Type 5
protection against impact, as the plastic liner does not sustain the features all-composite construction with composite fiber wound over a
composite overwrap rigidly. collapsible or sacrificial mandrel. However, scarce research is available
A threaded metallic boss or end nozzle is made integral with the liner for type 5 PVs [36].
for refilling the gas, Fig. 13(b) and (c). The proper design of an end Table 3 provides a comparison of various PV types. Each cylinder
nozzle highly affects the performance of a liner [159]. Aluminum alloy form has its advantages and features; however, weight reduction re­
or stainless steel is commonly utilized as a boss material [147]. mains a prime concern in many applications. Type 1 vessel is well suited
Designing and connecting a metallic polar boss with the plastic liner to for 200/300 bar pressures to a maximum of 500 bar. Type 2 has no
allow a leakproof joint is another challenge, as the polar boss influences pressure limits [161]. Type 3 and 4 can sustain cyclic pressures of 450
the pressure ratings of the tank. Several patents are registered regarding bar and static pressure of 700 bar [162]. Natural gas is compressed and
the design of the end nozzle. High-strength necks and domes with the stored in tanks at 200 bar / 250 bar service pressures. The pressure
polar bosses are designed while maintaining leak-proof gas sealing ratings for hydrogen storage have evolved as 250 bar in 1994, then 350
against repeated pressure loads. bar in 2000, many automakers now have 700 bar onboard storage fa­
Fig. 14(a) shows the metallic liner for type 3 tanks, (b) and (c) are the cilities [163]. There is currently some study on producing high pressure
plastic liners for type 4, (d) and (e) shows fiber winding process on liner hydrogen storage systems where type 4 vessel is identified as the best
and in (f) the finished composite vessel is shown. Type 4 cylinders, such solution for hydrogen gas storage at 700 bar [92,164].
as on buses, trucks, and OEM vehicles (Honda Civic), are used where
weight is significant. These containers’ suppliers include Optimum
5. Finite element methodologies for CPVs
Composite Technologies, Quantum fuel systems, Ullit, Hexagon group
(Lincoln, Ragasco, Agility), faber™, and Gastank™ [146,147]. Type 4
The design of the filament-wound pressure vessels is a cumbersome
CPVs features less weight, high-pressure storage, large cylinder di­
task. There are a bunch of parameters that could be considered. The
ameters, and susceptibility to fatigue failures. However, the plastic
most basic method is netting analysis [15,166], which has been used
liners have some challenges like aging at extreme temperatures, buck­
since the middle of the previous century. However, few assumptions
ling, cracking at the liner/end boss interface.
must be adopted when using netting analysis [167]: (1) equal strain in
fibers and matrix; (2) equal deformations under tension and compres­
4.5. Type 5 sion; (3) negligible or low shear stresses in the interface between fiber
and matrix; (4) Hooke’s law is obeyed in structure, and the fibers are
Liner-less type 5 tanks were introduced by Composites Technology assumed straight and continuous. Unfortunately, these assumptions are

Fig. 13. (a) Type 4 constructional details (b) Sectional view of HDPE lined vessel [158] (c) Liner with the metallic boss (Source: Hansho composites).

10
M. Azeem et al. Journal of Energy Storage 49 (2022) 103468

Table 3 regarded as valid if the composite has such lay-up that reflects balan­
Comparison of various pressure vessels [145,146,165]. ced/symmetric angle ply laminate in every helical layer with some
Vessel Built Weight Cost/Liter Liner Composite initial assumptions. This practice is uncertain and should be used with
Type features (Kg/Liter) and; material; layers load prudence, as all assumptions do not satisfy every application when the
and; Comparison Comparison Load bearing sharing loads are non-axisymmetric.
Pressure
The three-dimensional model can be shell models as well as solid
limits
models. Shell elements should be used to model those structures, with
Type 1 Full metal; 0.80 - 1.4 $3 - $5 Aluminium __ one dimension notably smaller than the others [171]. Conventional shell
Limited to (Heaviest) /liter or steel (or
500 bars their alloys)
elements are defined using a reference surface, leading to easier
100% load modelling. The engineer needs to specify only one surface for every
bearing layer; however, this can lead to errors in thick composites. Exemplary
Type 2 Composite 0.50 - 0.68 $5 - $7/ Aluminium 45% load works using conventional shells to define a pressure vessel model are
hoop (15 to 35% liter or steel (or bearing
[172–174]. Alternatively, shell elements can be based on
wrapped lighter than (50% their alloys)
on metallic type 1) costly than 55% load three-dimensional cells, a hybrid method between the conventional
liner; type 1) bearing shell and solid three-dimensional models. The thickness is determined
No pressure by three-dimensional geometry, but their kinematic and constitutive
limit behaviour is comparable to conventional shell elements. This method is
Type 3 Composite 0.41 - 0.45 $9 - $14/ Aluminium 80% load
hoop and (44% - liter or steel (or bearing
used in [175]. A similar concept is reported with the use of an axisym­
helically 48% lighter (twice of their alloys) metric model considering only half [176], quarter [177], or even octant
wrapped than type 1) type 2) 20% load [178] of the entire model.
on metallic bearing All these approaches are non-realistic due to a lack of material
liner;
symmetry. However, the presented results are often good enough to
Pressure
upto 450 justify such models partially. These methods are mainly beneficial for
bar (cyclic) cutting down on computing time during the early stages of pressure
and upto vessel design. Still, the final analysis probably should use the complete
700 bar model, not just part of it with symmetry assumed.
(static)
Type 4 Composite 0.25 - 0.39 $11 - $18/ HDPE, 100% load
hoop and (70% - liter Polyamide; bearing 5.2. Boundary conditions
helically 75% lighter (3.5 times 0% load
wrapped than type 1) of type 1) bearing The burst analysis should be conducted so that the vessel is ensured
on
stable and fixed; the resultant force from internal pressure should be
polymeric
liner; zero. However, even a tiny numerical error can lead to convergence
Up to 1000 problems. This problem is solved by restraining some degrees of freedom
bar and should be done with attention because of possible errors due to
Type 5 Composite 10 - 20% __ Linerless 100% load overstraining and introducing additional reaction forces. The so-called
hoop and lighter than bearing
helical type 4
‘3-2-1 fixture theory’ should lead to a converged model with no addi­
composite tional reaction forces. It is based on choosing 3 points in one plane that
layers are non-collinear and then fixing 3 DOFs at the first point (1 displace­
ment and two other rotations), 2 DOFs at the second point (second
displacement and last rotation), and 1 DOF in the third point (last
not always satisfied. Besides this, other than cylindrical parts of the
displacement). In practice, this approach is implemented more or less
vessel can also be in the spotlight. That is why the finite element method
strictly. When half or quarter of the model is used, the symmetry
(FEM) is often involved in the filament-wound pressure vessel’s design
boundary conditions (BCs) ensure some DOFs are restrained. In [179],
process [168]. In this section, some aspects of the numerical modelling
the authors removed the axial degree of freedom at the end domes on
of pressure vessels will be described.
both sides. Additional BCs are considered in the second model as buckle
clamping, which influences the first damaged layer in the presented
5.1. Model and element selection results. In [180] local cylindrical system of coordinates was used, and
displacements in the plane perpendicular to the axis were restrained.
The first issue is the type of model used. If the researcher assumes that Besides boundary conditions, the definition of loads is equally essential.
material is symmetrical around an axis, it cannot affect burst pressure While storing liquids and gases in pressure vessels at high pressure, the
results due to Lekhnitskii’s assumption [10]. The simplest approach is to hydrostatic pressure is negligible compared to the induced pressure
use the axisymmetric model. Such models have fewer elements than (uniform and perpendicular to the surface).
shell or solid ones and offer a reduced computational time to get the
solution. However, such models should be employed when the problem 5.3. Material model and interface
has an axis of symmetry. That means that geometry, boundary condi­
tions, loads, and material properties should be independent of azimuth Another issue is to define the material model properly. For com­
angle. The first three can be satisfied; however, the last one is not true in posites, the assumption of being orthotropic material is often made
filament-wound pressure vessel analysis because the composites are [179] because quantities like ʋ13, ʋ23, and E3 can be hard to obtain.
usually not isotropic. The layers might have different winding angles in According to [181], the composite can be modelled in three ways: in
filament-wound structures, and the material properties differ in radial macroscopic scale (after homogenization of the whole composite),
and tangential directions. In such a situation, it would not be possible to mesoscopic scale (with each layer homogenized separately), and
consider all three directions of material orientation in the axisymmetric microscopic scale where each matrix and fiber is modelled indepen­
model. The winding angle which influences the material orientation dently. The macroscopic approach is not good enough to significantly
cannot be modelled in the axisymmetric model. Thus, the axisymmetric reflect the behaviour of a composite material. The microscopic scale
model does not reflect reality. However, some researchers used significantly increases modelling and computational cost, so the
axisymmetric models [169]. In [170], the axisymmetric model is consensus is to use the mesoscopic approach.

11
M. Azeem et al.
The added challenge is representing the interface between composite
layers and the liner. In most cases, the interface is assumed to be
perfectly bonded [169]. If researchers consider this issue, they can use
special gap/friction elements with translational DOFs by defining stiff­
ness in three directions [97], however used by authors, such interface’s
stiffness is significantly larger than that of other materials.
5.4. The variable thickness of composite layers
Another concern is the composite layers’ variable thickness while
winding fibers at variable angles, especially at the dome. In the dome
area, the thickness of fiber layers is the highest due to the significant
overlapping of numerous bands. The composite thickness and winding
angle substantially influence the burst pressure [180]. The often-used
method for dealing with such a problem is partitioning the model into
slices and assigning thickness and band angle values to each slice sepa­
rately [172,174]. For achieving a smoother function, the number of
slices can be increased [180], the 0.5o increment of winding angle in the
dome area was used. It is also possible to use an analytical function in
ABAQUS™ or a similar solution to get a proper value at each node. The
thickness distribution can be predicted, especially when the winding is
done using geodesic or semi-geodesic paths using an appropriate for­
mula [182]. This issue can also be addressed using special tools to
generate proper geometry like the Wound Composite Modeller plug-in
for Abaqus [180]. Additionally, the differences can be spotted be­
tween layers, even in the same ‘slice’. In [183], authors report that
discrepancies in the winding angle between the first and last layers in
the stack can reach nearly 20%. The reason for that is the outcome of the
winding process. Each layer is wound on the top of the previous (or with
the first ply on top of the liner). This effect should be analysed, especially
during simulations of thick lay-ups.
5.5. Burst pressure analysis
Generally, the pressure vessels’ analysis goal is to determine burst
pressure. Burst pressure is the pressure that bursts/explodes/crack the
vessel and leaks internal fluid. It is essential to know the burst pressure
to ensure the stable functioning of the PVs. The burst pressure to service
pressure ratio is kept to a minimum of 2.25 for any container [150];
European union and ISO/DIS 15869.2 suggest safety coefficients as 2.35
and 2.25, respectively [184]. In burst pressure analysis, different dam­
age criteria are used. The most popular one’s are Hoffman [169,180],
Tsai-Hill [169,179,180], and Tsai-Wu [169,172,174,180] and Hashin
(which is reported to be more liberal) [175,177,180]. Other used criteria
are Sun, Rotem, Maximum strain, and Maximum stress [176,185].
However, most of these criteria cannot properly find the burst values
because these criteria show the burst when the failure in the first ply or
first ply failure (FPF) occurs. A significant difference between predicted
strength and the experimental results is reported in [10,186]. However,
the burst pressure was higher than the pressure at the FPF, so this
approximation is safe enough during the design process but leads to
vessel over-sizing [187].
Fig. 15 shows burst test failure modes in various PVs. The failure has
occurred in the cylindrical part Fig. 15 (a), (b), (c), which was regarded
as a safe burst mode [8]. Delamination and matrix cracking damage
modes were least noticed in safe burst mode [92]. The unsafe burst mode
occurs at the dome where the metallic boss is ejected and may cause
serious hazards/injury [188]. Matrix cracking was primarily observed in
this mode [92], Fig. 15 (d) and (e).
5.6. Mesh sensitivity
The mesh sensitivity study is widely used to determine the correct
number of nodes in the problem under investigation [119,178,180,189].
However, it is worth underlining that even minor changes to parameters
(like distribution of thickness or wound angle) of the winding process
12
Journal of Energy Storage 49 (2022) 103468
Fig. 15. Safe burst mode occurs at cylindrical part (a) Steel tank, (b) Glass fiber
CPV, (c) Hybrid fiber CPV [8], Unsafe burst mode occurs at dome region (d) and
(e) [92].
can significantly influence the results. That can be problematic during
the design process, which often involves checking many combinations of
these parameters and can be addressed using a parametric model. That
was used for the cylindrical part [169,190]. In [178], the authors
developed a parametric model and used the unit load method to opti­
mize pressure vessel construction. Table 4 carries the summary of the
various studies involving FEA.
5.7. Temperature
The influence of temperature and hydrothermal conditions may be
significant in some cases [10,30,192,193]. Therefore, It should be
underlined that the temperature range can significantly affect material
data and should be concerned during the design of a vessel working in a
wide range of temperatures by finding the most critical temperature
level and carrying out simulations in those conditions.
6. Optimization and algorithms
In this section, some optimization procedures and algorithms used by
researchers are discussed. The combination of optimization techniques
such as artificial neural network (ANN) and design of experiment (DOE)
with finite element analysis (FEA) has been used for optimizing the
design of complex structures in terms of specific strength, failure
behaviour, geometrical parameters, and hence for reducing the overall
cost of the composite structure.
In a study, the optimal design of CPV included an objective function
defined in terms of Pressure (P), Volume (V), and Weight (W) as PV/W,
with the design parameters being winding angle, dome shape, slippage,
and the Tsai-Wu failure criterion was used [79]. Response surface
techniques (RST), genetic algorithm (GA), and DOE combined with
sequential quadratic programming (SQP) have been utilized for the
optimization of design parameters and estimation of the safer design
[194]. A 3D tensile coupon sample optimized based on the Tsai-Wu
failure criterion was used to evaluate the best stacking sequence with
fiber orientation [195]. The residual performance of 700 bar, type 4 CPV
was assessed by performing a fatigue and burst test experimentally to
check the damage and weak region in CPV using data analysis. The
polymeric liner coupon samples from various CPVs’ parts are tested for
hardness, crystallinity, and mechanical performance [196]. The weight
optimization for CPV was performed based on first ply failure (FPF),
considering the fiber orientation, laminate thickness, lay-up sequences,
and the number of layers in MATLAB and ANSYS for various materials
like S-glass, Kevlar™, and carbon fiber [197]. The filament wound
composite tube optimization under internal pressure, and axial
M. Azeem et al. Journal of Energy Storage 49 (2022) 103468

Table 4 Table 4 (continued )

The summary of literature considering finite element analysis of filament wound S. Model / features Analysis Software Refs.
structures. no
S. Model / features Analysis Software Refs. Tsai-Wu, Max.
no stress and Max.
1. Vessel, 3D Progressive Abaqus [185] strain theorems
model; solid damage, stochastic 13. Vessel 3D Stress prediction, Abaqus [183]
elements in case modelling, a wide model; solid including dome
of a liner, range of criteria elements (and area. The analysis
continuum shell used (Max. stress, gasket elements included methods
element in case Hashin, Max. to represent the of stiffening using
of composite strain, Tsai-Wu, rubber layer). wafer and dome-
layers Sun, Tsai-Hill, Element’s cap
Rotem, Hoffman) orientation was
2. Vessel, 3D Prediction of burst Abaqus 6.5 [172] set using
model; shell pressure. Tsai-Wu subroutine
elements. and Max. stress ORIENT based
Variable criteria on the
thickness and orientation of
angle other layers and
3. Vessel, 3D Tsai-Wu and Tsai- ANSYS + Workbench [173] axial position
model; shell Hill criteria were 14. Vessel, 3D Burst pressure Abaqus 6.12 [186]
elements used model; shell prediction using
4. Vessel, 3D Tsai-Wu failure Abaqus 6.4 and Algor [174] elements Max. stress, Tsai-
model; shell criteria in the V13.4 Wu, and Tsai-Hill
elements. composites and criterions
Variable Von-mises stress in 15. Vessel, 3D Analysis with MATLAB [191]
thickness and the steel liner. model progressive damage
angle Soderberg criterion evolution done by
used in the fatigue updating pressure
analysis of the liner and checking
5. Pipe, 3D model; Dynamic explicit Abaqus [175] failure criteria
shell elements with progressive based on last ply
damage analysis (Tsai-Wu)
using Hashin
failure criterion
6. Vessel 3D model Prediction of burst ANSYS [176] compression was done using a GA. The stacking sequence and winding
– shell elements pressure using Max. angle variation were considered, and manufacturing restrictions were
stress criterion implemented in the Abaqus FE analysis using the UMAT subroutine to
7. Vessel, 3D Progressive damage Abaqus [177]
model (quarter); analysis. Prediction
predict more realistic results [108]. Optimizing filament wound com­
shell elements of burst pressure posite tube for burst pressure was done numerically using shell theory
using Hashin and classical laminate theory (CLT) based on Tsai-Wu failure theory.
criterion. The study Variable thickness and number of layers are considered to be the design
includes
parameters for maximization of burst pressure and minimization of
autofrettage
pressure. weight [198]. The optimization was performed using the differential
8. Vessel, 3D Unit load method. Abaqus (stress [178] evolution method (DEM) for different carbon fiber material grades,
model; solid The analysis analysis), ANSYS winding angle, stacking sequence, the thickness of each ply, and the
elements with included fatigue (dome contour study) number of plies for type 3 CPV subjected to internal pressure [199]. The
the variable research and
angle on the dependency on
700 bar type 4 CPV optimization was performed using the GA and
dome area mesh size, crack simulated annealing (SA) and analyzed using ANSYS. An objective
density, and stress function was defined to determine the failure index based on the
amplitude. Tsai-Wu failure theory, thickness, safety, and penalization factors [200].
9. Vessel, 3D Stress distribution ANSYS [179]
To realize the orthotropic nature of composite and include the material
model; shell analysis and
elements assessment of and geometrical non-linear effects, a UVARM (user variable) subroutine
failure using the was developed to implement in FEA of type 4 CPV [201]. Combined
Tsai-Hill criterion. usage of ANN-FE-GA can reduce the computational time to achieve the
10. Vessel, 3D Criterions of Max. Abaqus + WCM [180] desired objective of cost and weight reduction for the given loading
model; shell stress, Max. strain,
elements, a Tsai-Hill, Tsai-Wu,
conditions and constraints [202]. Multi-sequencing dome lay-up was
quarter model and Hashin optimized for 700 bar type 4 CPV based on damage caused to the
with the progressive damage composite when subjected to burst pressure and thermo-mechanical
variable angle in were used to loading. DOE, FE, GA are considered to optimize design parameters
the dome area determine the burst
such as winding angle, the number of the hoop and helical layers, and
strength of the
vessel lay-up sequencing using direct and indirect optimization techniques
11. Vessel, 3D Determination of NISA-II [182] [203].
model; stresses with Progressive damage analysis was performed using python scripting
laminated variable thickness in Abaqus user material (UMAT) and MATLAB based on Puck’s failure
general shell analysis
elements
criterion. The optimum composite pressure hull is designed for geodesic
12. Vessel, 3D Determination of ANSYS 10.0 [10] winding, similar to filament wound CPVs [204]. Progressive failure
model; solid optimal angle-ply criterion was used for evaluating degradation to study the effect of FE
elements orientations using model mesh sensitivity and load step size at burst pressure of 11 MPa for
CPV [205]. Particle swarm optimization (PSO) with FEA gives an

13
M. Azeem et al. Journal of Energy Storage 49 (2022) 103468

optimized and reliable design of CPV, as it offers good stability and ef­ Table 5
ficiency for composite structure design optimization. It was used for The summary of optimization work performed on pressure vessel.
stress analysis, reliability estimation, and optimization of lay-up thick­ S. Model and Algorithm used / Software/ Refs.
ness and fiber reinforced plastic (FRP) orientation in MATLAB [206]. no Optimization Constraints / Loading Method
Inertia weight PSO (IPSO) optimization algorithm was used for the CPV Parameter
hybrid dome shape optimization based on Tsai-Wu failure criterion to 1. CPV; thickness of RST, SQP, GA, DOE & ANSYS [194]
maximize the shape factor to obtain a more robust structure and greater cylinder, fatigue life tangential stress,
internal volume [207]. The adaptive response surface (ARS) method and autofrettage pressure
2. 3D coupon sample of Tsai-Wu failure Experimental [195]
GA, along with FEA, solve the highly nonlinear objective function using 700 bar type 4 CPV: criterion, uniaxial and Abaqus
the six-hump camel back (SC) problem to get the optimal design of CPV stacking sequence, loading, orientations
[208]. fiber orientation, of fibers, numbers of
Additinally, the dome shape optimization analysis was done, based number of layers layers
3. 700 bar type 4 CPV; Fatigue and burst test, Data Analysis [196]
on genetic algorithms (GAs), an analytical method using Claurit’s
polymeric liner hardness, and
principle, rational B-spline curve, and so on [200,209]. Generally, the coupon sample crystallinity, experimental
semi-geodesic, geodesic, and non-geodesic domes are used to design mechanical
various trajectories based on applications. The dome contour design and performance
optimization were performed based on shape factor, stress ratio, and 4. CPV; Weight, Tsai-Wu failure MATLAB, [197]
material (S-glass, criterion for FPF, total ANSYS
Tsai-Wu failure. In literature, there are various definitions available for Kevlar™, carbon thickness of the
stress ratio such as minimum stress divided by maximum stress, the ratio fiber), fiber laminate is obtained
of stress values at the outer boundary to inner boundary, axial stress to orientation, laminate resulting in factor of
hoop stress, and so on, and its value should be less than one [144,167, thickness, lay-up safety > 2
sequences, number of
200].
layers
Despite the benefits of the above optimization techniques, imple­ 5. Type 4 CPV; stacking GA for global optimal Fortran in [108]
menting these techniques also poses some challenges for researchers. sequence and angle, layer and Abaqus FE
First, these are computationally intensive techniques and need modifi­ winding angle using manufacturing
cations in terms of application. Second, defining a proper objective FPF approach restrictions
6. Maximization of Tsai-Wu failure Numerical [198]
function is critical, based on which we can decide which algorithm
burst pressure for criterion using shell
method would best fit. Moreover, these optimization algorithms inte­ fiber orientation and theory and CLT,
grated with FEA approaches do not offer a complete solution. Finally, minimum weight of variable thickness and
the design has to be validated using experimentation. The summary of PV number of layers
7. Type 3 CPV; winding DEM & Hashin-Rotem, Numerical [199]
optimization literature is shown in Table 5.
angle, stacking Maximum Stress, and
sequence, thickness Tsai-Wu FPF criteria
6.1. Simulation platforms of each ply, number
of plies, different
Various pattern generation and simulation platforms are available carbon fiber material
grades
for filament wound components. Modern FW machines incorporate 8. 700 bar type 4 CPV; GA and SA, Tsai-Wu ANSYS [200]
versatile software such as EasyWinder™, FiberGrafiX™, and CAD­ thickness, factor of failure index
WIND™, producing different winding patterns. Specific platforms for safety, penalization
composite pressure vessels are also devised, namely ComposicaD™, factor
9. Type 4 CPV; material, Orthotropic nature of Abaqus [201]
Wound Composite Modeller (WCM), ESAComp, WoundSIM™, etc. The
geometrical composite, constant UVARM
WCM plug-in developers have launched a new plug-in named Wound­ nonlinear effects specific volume for
Sim™, which can be considered a substitute for the WCM plug-in created each helical layer,
by SIMULIA™. WoundSim™ is a next-generation program for designing fiber deformation 5
and simulating filament wound PVs. With over a decade’s experience in mm
10. Composite laminate GA, ANN, reduce FEM [202]
CPVs, WoundSim architects and engineers have discussed the numerous for optimum design, computational time
problems and uncertainties during the construction and simulation of cost and weight for in-plane loading
CPVs. WoundSim™ is a tool that offers a modern user interface that is optimization with varying
easy, convenient, and significantly simplifies the design process for CPVs orientation and
material
compatible with Dassault SIMULIA Abaqus Unified FE solver. Altair’s
11. Type 4 CPV; 700 bar Weight, fatigue life, GA, DOE and [203]
ESAComp™ offers a toolbox for composite designers and researchers hydrogen storage, thermo-mechanical FE
conducting activities such as linear static stress/strain estimation, non- optimization based loading under damage
linearity, buckling, and collapse of laminates and shell systems, along on damage and dome constraints
with various other evaluations. Also, ESAComp™ has close integration multi-sequencing
12. Optimum composite Puck failure criterion, Abaqus, [204]
with ComposicaD™, an FW simulation program by the Seifert and
pressure hull progressive failure, MATLAB
Skinner Group that allows the analysis of CPVs. designed for geodesic and the failure occurs
winding angle due to weakness of
7. CPVs in various applications matrix
13. FEA performed for Progressive failure, ANSYS [205]
property degradation degradation model
This section discusses the CPVs in natural gas vehicles and cryogenic for CPV at burst used for mesh
applications. pressure of 11 MPa sensitivity, and load
step size
7.1. Natural gas vehicles 14. Type 3 CPV; design Global optimization GA, ARS, FE [208]
optimization algorithm model
15. Reliability design ANSYS, [206]
Natural gas vehicles (NGVs) were first introduced in Italy in the mid- optimization of MATLAB
1930s, and by the early 1940s, they had spread worldwide. The 1970s (continued on next page)
energy crisis promoted natural gas powered vehicles [210] and

14
M. Azeem et al. Journal of Energy Storage 49 (2022) 103468

Table 5 (continued ) benefits, making vehicles’ procurement easier for more expensive tanks.
S. Model and Algorithm used / Software/ Refs. Their weight saving increases to 0.45 kg/L for type 3 and type 4.
no Optimization Constraints / Loading Method However, type 3 and type 4 are about two times costly than type 2 and
Parameter 3.5 times to type 1 [146].
thickness, wrap angle PSO method Furthermore, type 3 and 4 vessels extend the true containment
of CPV development for pressure limit and maximize energy storage density and are the most
optimum design feasible choice for specific high-pressure systems that use 5000 psi
16. Dome shape Tsai-Wu failure IPSO, FEA [207]
(344.7 bar) or more. Composite materials also significantly increase the
optimization of PV to criterion, winding
get the strongest angle, and geometric resistance to corrosion and overall pressure vessel safety [146]. The CNG
structure for limitations storage cylinders come in a wide range of diameters and capacities with
optimized shape varying burst pressure limits. Table 3 provides a comparison of different
factor vessels based on features, cost, weight, etc. A decade ago, only about a
17. Maximum internal Winding angle, dome Analytical tool [79]
pressure, internal shape, slippage, Tsai-
dozen firms sold CNG type 3 and type 4 pressure vessels. However, the
volume, and Wu failure criterion production base is rising with the demand; now, at least 30 firms
minimum weight of participate in this business [91]. The demand and forecast of pressure
CPV vessels are shown in Table 6. The forecast is done until 2023. The steady
growth in composite pressure vessels (type 2, 3, 4) seems to surpass type
1 tanks. Type 1 shows a weakening demand, while type 2, 3, 4 indicate
hydrogen-powered vehicles [211]. The oil and gas industry’s market
an increasing growth.
dynamics, as well as rising regulatory pressure to reduce vehicle emis­
Nonetheless, the demand for NGVs faces several challenges,
sions, have prompted several countries around the world to pay more
including a lack of refueling stations, the relative cost of vehicles, and
attention to exploiting their natural gas resources [1]. As a result, nat­
engine development [215]. In addition, several financial, technical,
ural gas use as an energy source has risen significantly compared to
administrative, regulatory, and physical barriers were identified in the
other common energy sources. NGVs are pollution-free vehicles
NGV industry [216]. Leakage hazards are another challenge, and auto­
compared to gasoline-powered vehicles [159]. The cost of NG is the
matic fire extinguishers are additional security investments [217].
significant factor to choose over gasoline. NG is $0.80 per gallon, while a
gallon of gasoline is sold at $1 to $1.60 [150]. Fig. 16. shows the trend of
NGVs use in various countries in the last few decades. 7.2. CPVs in Cryogenics
Many countries show a steep increase while some illustrate a gradual
rise. NG has a high hydrogen-carbon (H/C) ratio among fossil fuels; a Some cryogenic CPVs for launch vehicle applications, performance,
high H/C ratio is desired for low carbon dioxide emissions. The con­ safety, and testing are discussed in this section. The long-term storage
taminants from NG are very low, making it a clean fuel. The hazardous and performance estimation of hydrogen, cryogenic and cryo-
secondary emissions like nitrogen oxides, benzene, lead, particulates, compressed fluid in material behaviour study is essential as per the
carbon oxide are reduced by using NG [212]. The high octane number of application [145]. The liquid hydrogen (LH2) storage capacity, PV
CNG and its adaptability to gasoline and Diesel engines is another weight, and dormancy vary with temperature. Temperature 80 K,
advantage [213]. Furthermore, the diminished contaminants in NG fuel pressure 350 bar, and type of material of cryo-adsorption such as pow­
increase the engine oil’s life, lowering the related maintenance cost. der MOF-5 and MIL-101 are the main parameters of PV design [218].
However, the storage tank’s inspection cost for detecting damage is The cryo-compressed PVs can store liquid oxygen (LO2), liquid nitrogen
added to maintenances. The gasoline-powered vehicles can be converted (LN2), or liquid argon (LAr) under desired cryogenic conditions.
to work on CNG, although some automotive manufacturers have started Analytical calculations were performed for capacity, inner shell, inner
providing NGVs [150]. However, due to low flame propagation and dished ends, inner cylindrical shell, outer shell, and ring design for PV
volumetric efficiency, there is a 15-20% reduction in vehicle brake design code. Cryogenic temperatures give rise to the thermal contraction
horsepower [213,214]. in fiber and resin differently; thermal stresses evolve, altering the me­
The most common CNG vessels are type 1, in CNG-powered vehicles chanical properties of unidirectional (UD) carbon fiber composite ma­
that operate in emerging economies. However, the projected growth terial under fatigue loading conditions. The performance of
rate of 7% for the vessels of type 2, 3, and 4 represents an increasing fiber-reinforced plastics (FRP) material under cryogenic situations was
market for composite, manufacturing, and process technologies, studied to estimate strength, toughness, and characterization based on
considering the overall growth rate for future NGV sales. The CPVs residual stress, micro-crack, permeability, burst, fiber delaminations for
eliminate fuel systems and reduce vehicle weight. For example, vessels cryo storage [219].
type 3 and 4 could potentially reduce vehicle weight by over 1000 lb. The development of cryogenic CPVs should focus on mechanical
(454 kg) the gas containment system’s weight for the regular transit properties of the resin, fiber, interface, apparent hoop strength, PV static
buses or commercial vehicles. This weight reduction would improve fuel burst test, and cyclic burst test in the ambient temperature (298K), LN2
economy, increase the potential for load transport, and add operational (77K), LH2 (20K), and LHe (4K). The linerless cryo PV is sensitive to a
range of temperatures and cyclic loading, resulting in permeation,
change in mechanical properties, failure in the lamina, etc. The
extended FE method and cohesive zone (CZ) method are used for
damage analysis. Combining the hoop and high-angle helical plies re­
duces transverse stresses, and a high helical angle causes leakage [220].
The burst pressure of 45 MPa PV for liquid nitrogen storage (LNG) with a
structure of basalt, carbon, and organic fibers is usable at cryogenic
temperature. Failure was noticed without fragmentation [221]. The
thermo-mechanical effect was investigated at cryogenic temperatures
for cryo type 3 CPVs based on micro and mesoscale. FE analysis was used
to estimate effective elastic and thermal expansion coefficient (TEC) and
fiber-matrix failure based on thermo-mechanical deformation [222].
The coupon sample of a hybrid composite comprising 24 layers of car­
Fig. 16. Changing trend of NGVs in various countries [210]. bon and Kevlar™ fiber used as a cryo PV to store liquid rocket fuel was

15
M. Azeem et al.
Table 6
Pressure vessels type demand/forecast [91].
CNG vessel type 2007 2009 2011
Type 1 89% 88% 84%
Type 2 9% 11% 14%
Type 3 2% 1% 1%
Type 4 1% 1% 1%
Type 5 - - -
tested. The optimal hybrid configuration was investigated against
delamination [223]. The tensile sample of carbon fiber reinforced plastic
(CFRP) in slot milling in the presence of LN2 showed improvement in the
tensile strength, needs higher cutting force and offered reduced
delamination [224]. Due to safety assurance, a multi-cell hydrogen
storage type 4 CPV’s mechanical performance was tested for hydrostatic
assessment and pressure cycling using LN2 instead of LH2 [225]. The LH2
storage cryogenic PV was investigated for damage evaluation in the
driving car. The low-temperature operation for the damage test was
evaluated by cyclic and burst testing using FEA. For liquid and gaseous
hydrogen systems, thermal cyclic, pressure cycling, gunfire, bonfire,
drop test, cryogenic drop test, flame test was performed as per Depart­
ment of Transportation (DOT), Society of Automotive Engineers (SAE),
and International Standards Organization (ISO) [226]. A dynamic model
able to characterize the storage of supercritical LH2 (for initial PV
temperature > 120 K) and sub-cooled LH2 (for initial PV temperature <
120 K) in the insulated vessel. Thermodynamic properties were evalu­
ated using the Benedict-Webb-Rubin (BWR) equation of state imple­
mented in the REFPROP algorithm [227]. Vacuum insulation failure
increases heat transfer into the cryo-compressed vessel for venting and
rapid pressurization to avoid maximum allowable operating pressure
(MAOP) [228]. The thermal and mechanical behaviour of
multi-spherical CPV with an inner polymeric liner under ambient and
cryogenic fluid storage was investigated using coupled FE and pro­
gressive failure analysis (PFA). Internal pressure results in material
failure on edges, and transient analysis results in heat transfer, tem­
perature contour, strain estimation, respectively [229]. A cryogenic tank
produced by the INFINITECPV™ is shown in Fig. 17(c). The summary of
cryogenic PVs literature is displayed in Table 7.
Various types of failures are mentioned in the literature related to
cryogenic temperature and high-pressure gas storage in cryo PV systems.
Therefore, it needs more research to make more robust and efficient
CPVs that can safely store high-pressure gas and cryo fluids.
7.3. Other Applications
Weight is almost as critical as strength in many applications while
maintaining stability. The use of filament wound products has gained
widespread attention in NGVs, replacing conventional materials in
aerospace, marine, radar systems [231]. The removal and substitution of
metallic parts with something less bulky is one way that makes aircraft
lightweight. The planes are 10% lighter when carbon fiber and com­
posite elements provided by FW are substituted for metal parts [46].
Defense products must be as light as possible. Filament wound compo­
nents would help meet the desired strength-to-weight ratios. Aerospace
Fig. 17. (a) Undercarriage tank (Source: jeccomposites), (b) SCBA for fire fighters [64], (c) Cryogenic tank (Source: INFINITECPVTM).
Journal of Energy Storage 49 (2022) 103468
2013 2015 2017 2019 2021 2023
82% 72% 67% 65% 56% 54%
16% 25% 26% 24% 30% 31%
1% 2% 5% 5% 7% 8%
<1% 1% 2% 5% 7% 7%
- <1% <1% <1% <1% <1%
missile cases and rocket motor cases can be well manufactured using the
FW technique. Table 8 enlists some applications of filament wound
products.
Filament-wound CPVs are being used in both aerospace and com­
mercial applications. The potential uses of CPVs include self-contained
breathing gear in scuba diving kits, firefighting equipment, and out
space equipment. A self-contained breathing apparatus (SCBA), also
referred to as a compressed air breathing apparatus (CABA), is a device
used to distribute breathable air in an environment that is directly
hazardous to life. These are universally used in the firefighting industry,
as in Fig. 17(b). An undercarriage water tank was successfully designed
for train commuter coaches in India by Kineco, as shown in Fig. 17(a).
The air-conditioning unit is roof-mounted in such trains, leaving no
space for overhead water tanks. Thus, every air-conditioned passenger
coach has two undercarriage water tank modules, each of which has two
450-liter tanks and saves 120 kg per coach.
8. Conclusion
Filament winding is an effective fabrication technique for creating
cylindrical composite structures such as tubing, chemical and fuel
storage containers. Asymmetric components like tee pipes, elbows can
also be effectively made. This technique provides the best fiber/matrix
ratio for aerospace, shipping, medical applications, etc. Type 1 tanks are
cheap to produce but are the heaviest, while type 4 vessels are lightest
and can hold significant pressures but are expensive due to large vol­
umes of composite layers. Continuous reinforcing fibers such as glass,
carbon, aramid, and a liquid resin impregnation such as polyester, epoxy
are used to manufacture CPVs. Apart from material engineering prop­
erties, a few other factors are essential to control when designing fila­
ment wound composites that influence product quality. Determining an
effective winding angle, fiber tension, and winding speed are critical
factors influencing the quality and structural efficiency. Mosaic patterns
are an inevitable effect of FW technology. Although often disregarded, it
influences the mechanical response of the component, depending on the
case of loading. The mosaic patterns may be considered to obtain the
most optimal composite structure for the most demanding applications.
Modern FW machines incorporate compliant software capable of
generating diverse patterns.
In FE analysis of CPVs, the following issues should be considered: the
complexity of the type of model (3D, shell, axisymmetric), material
model, variable thickness, and angle (especially at domes). A compro­
mise between the accuracy of the FEA and the time costs must be found
to obtain the optimal solution. A handful of simulation tools are
designed to easily simulate and analyze the composite pressure vessel.
16
M. Azeem et al. Journal of Energy Storage 49 (2022) 103468

Table 7 Table 8
The cryogenic pressure vessel work summary. Various applications of filament wound products (excerpted from [7,59,68]).
S. Model and Studies and Result and Refs. Application Product
no Motivation Loading Conclusion
Space services PVs for the propellant tank, auxiliary power, missile cases,
1. Cryo-compression Materials, Magnesium hydride [145] engine purging, cold gas thruster, rocket engines, astronaut life
include the qualification tests, is one of the support,
properties of and operating promising ways to Aircraft and PVs for inflation of escape slides and life rafts, hydraulic
compressed gaseous conditions solid-state hydrogen helicopter accumulator, actuation of emergency high-altitude gaseous
and liquefied responsible for storage oxygen, fire extinguisher, pneumatic gun drive power, and
hydrogen storage types of hydrogen oxygen bottle
storage system Ground services PVs for breathing apparatus for firefighters, rescue workers,
2. Cryo-compression Liquid hydrogen Storage capacities, [218] miners; ducting, pipes, CNG tanks, highway trailer tubes for
and cryo-adsorption at 100 bar and PV weight, industrial compressed gas, water desalination process, and
hydrogen storage cryo-compressed dormancy varies medical compressed gas,
methods powder hydrogen at 350 with temperature Sports services Other FW products as a mast for sailboats, shafts for golf clubs,
MOF-5 and MIL-101 bars tennis rackets, scuba diving kits, driveshafts, oars/paddles,
3 Performance of FRP Residual stress, Residual stress, [219] bicycle rims and forks, and car wheels
material under micro-crack, micro-crack,
cryogenic situation burst, fiber characterization for
for various tests delamination material CPVs in NGVs reduced the vehicle’s weight, which has evolved
reviewed steadily, saving transport and shipping costs. Using type 4 CPV, around
4. Type 5 cryo CPV Resin-fiber Resistance to [220]
tested for damage interface, leakage and
75% weight reduction is achievable. However, refueling time and
and permeability in apparent hoop microcrack infrastructure are some challenges for NGVs. In addition, due to thermal
tape-laid strength & static formation under loading, the composites experience a change of mechanical properties at
thermoplastic for burst test, and working conditions low temperatures; hence critical design measures are required for
LN2 (77K), LH2 cyclic burst test at
making CPV for cryogenic applications. Finally, the filament winding
(20K), LHe2 (4K) 298K
storage technology requires research and development to reduce costs and
5. Type 3 cryo PV Pressure till burst Failure without [221] enhance existing products’ efficiency, reliability, and durability to
tested mechanically pressure 45 MPa, fragmentation and achieve extended commercial implementations.
for LN2 storage in grows in PV formation of the
materials like basalt, caused due to main crack for LNG
carbon, organic gaseous phase storage
Declaration of Competing Interest
fibers upon boiling
6. Thermal effects Thermo- Effective elastic, [222] The authors declare that they have no known competing financial
based on micro-and mechanical TEC, thermo- interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence
macro-scale for cryo response and mechanical
the work reported in this paper.
type 3 LH2 CPVs fiber-matrix deformation
failure
investigated using Acknowledgement
FEA
7. Coupon sample of a Hybrid of carbon Few optimal [223]
The authors would like to acknowledge and thank the Ministry of
hybrid composite and Kevlar™ as combinations
with 24 layers, liquid materials tested deduced for cryo
Higher Education (MOHE), Malaysia, and Universiti Teknologi PET­
fuel for rocket under thermo- fuel tank RONAS for supporting this study under the Fundamental Research Grant
mechanical load Scheme FRGS/1/2019/TK08/UTP/02/1. We also extend our acknowl­
8. CFRP slot milling Manufactured Improved tensile [224] edgment to Mr. Imtiaz Ali, Universiti Technology PETRONAS, for his
machining and CFRP was strength needs
kind suggestions in various aspects regarding this study.
tensile cryo investigated higher cutting
treatment in LN2 against machining forces and lower
delamination References
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