Applied Thermal Engineering 236 (2024) 121761

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Applied Thermal Engineering

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/apthermeng

Research Paper

Experimental and numerical investigation on melting of phase change

material in a disc-shaped container via hot air jet impinging
Burak Kıyak a, Hakan F. Öztop a, b, c, *, İ. Gökhan Aksoy d
a
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Technology Faculty, Fırat University, Elazig, Turkey
b
Department of Mechanical and Nuclear Engineering, College of Engineering, University of Sharjah, 27272 Sharjah, United Arab Emirates
c
Department of Medical Research, China Med. University Hospital, China Med. University, Taichung, Taiwan
d
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Engineering Faculty, İnönü University, Malatya, Turkey

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: Experimental and numerical analyses were performed to investigate the control parameters of a Phase Change
Phase change material Material (PCM) melting by impinging a hot air jet. A novel container was designed to store PCM. The RT25HC
Energy storage was chosen as the PCM, with a 22–26 ◦ C melting temperature. Experiments were conducted under a constant air
Hot air jet
temperature (Tair) of 40 ◦ C with two different Reynolds (Re) numbers, 2235 and 4470. The analysis was per­
Container design
Thermal energy storage
formed for three jet length-to-container diameter ratios (H/D): 0.4, 0.5, and 0.6. The Finite Volume Method
(FVM) was used to solve three-dimensional and time-dependent governing equations. It was found that the
optimum melting time was attained when the H/D = 0.5. The measurements, thermal camera images and the
numerical results displayed good agreement. The influence of H/D on the melting time decreases as the Reynolds
number increases, decreasing the difference between the maximum and minimum melting rates from 23.05 % at
Re = 2235 to 7.67 % at Re = 4470. In the experimental comparison, when considering H/D = 0.5, which
corresponds to the case with the maximum stored energy at both Reynolds numbers, the energy stored by the H/
D = 0.6 cases is 26.4 % lower at Re = 2235. In contrast, this difference reduces to 5.03 % at Re = 4470.

et al. [13]). Over the last decades, several investigations have been
carried and numerous effective strategies have been developed to
1. Introduction
enhance the heat transfer performance of PCMs (Mourad et al. [14] and
Peng et al. [15]).
Thermal energy storage (TES) offers a way to store excess energy
Numerous researchers have extensively investigated the low thermal
produced during periods of low demand and use it when the demand is
conductivity problem in PCMs [16], employing diverse approaches such
high. TES systems store thermal energy in different forms, such as sen­
as the utilization of metal foam structures (Keshteli et al. [17], Sheikh
sible heat, latent heat or thermochemical reactions. Heat storage ca­
et al. [18] and Zhao et al. [19]) and implementation of fins with
pacity can be significantly enhanced by employing a phase change
different geometric shapes (Sharma et al. [20], Zhang et al. [21] and
material (PCM) within a latent heat thermal energy storage system
Mostafavi et al. [22]) and nanoparticles (Padmavathy et al. [23], Arıcı
(LHTESS) [1]. These systems utilizes the high energy storage density,
et al. [24], Nie et al. [25] and Hosseininaveh et al. [26]). Although the
superior thermal efficiency and energy-conserving properties of PCM
existing literature has limited studies [27], it is evident that both
through their latent heat of fusion during phase transition [2]. The PCMs
container geometry and material have a substantial impact as effective
have diverse applications in various fields, including buildings (Anter
parameters on the heat transfer efficiency to PCM. Qin et al. [28]
et al. [3] and Zhussupbekov et al. [4]), refrigeration (Gil et al. [5] and
researched to explore the significance of container geometry on the
Liu et al. [6]), solar thermal management (Pawar et al. [7] and Stalin
melting behaviour and heat storage performance of the PCM. For this
et al. [8]), and thermal management for electronics systems (Nirwan
purpose, they used varying geometries such as rectangular shape,
et al. [9] and Ali et al. [10]). Efficient heat transfer is vital for max­
concave folded sidewalls, and protruding folded sidewalls. They
imising PCM charging and discharging rates [11]. However, a notable
observed that container geometry significantly affects the system’s
drawback of PCMs is their low thermal conductivity, which conse­
melting behaviour, heat storage performance, and energy efficiency. On
quently decelerates the rate of heat transfer (Liu et al. [12] and Rawat

* Corresponding author.
E-mail address: hfoztop1@gmail.com (H.F. Öztop).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.applthermaleng.2023.121761
Received 26 July 2023; Received in revised form 14 September 2023; Accepted 6 October 2023
Available online 7 October 2023
1359-4311/© 2023 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
B. Kıyak et al. Applied Thermal Engineering 236 (2024) 121761

Nomenclature Greek symbols

β thermal expansion coefficient, [1/K]
Symbols ρ density, [kg/m3]
Amush mushy zone constant ν kinematic viscosity, [m2/s]
Cp specific heat of the PCM, [J/kg.K] µ dynamic viscosity, [kg/m.s]
H distance of jet-container [mm] γ liquid fraction
D diameter of container, [mm] ε small constant number
h height of the container, [mm] λ latent heat fusion, [J/kg]
Hent enthalpy of the PCM, [J/kg]
ΔHlh latent heat enthalpy, [J/kg] Subscripts
h1 sensible enthalpy, [J/kg] amb ambient
g gravitational acceleration, [m/s2] ini initial
k thermal conductivity, [W/m.K] l liquid
L melting heat of PCM, [J/kg] s solid
P pressure, [Pa] Abbreviations
S source term TES Thermal Energy Storage
t time, [s] PCM Phase Change Material
T temperature, [◦ C] FVM Finite Volume Method
V velocity, [m/s] HAJI Hot Air Jet Impingement
x coordinate
y coordinate
z coordinate

the other hand, the system’s inclination angle substantially affects the
development of natural convection within the PCM and its subsequent
melting process [29,30]. Bouzennada et al. [31] performed a compu­
tational investigation to examine how the inclination angle impacts the
thermal performance of a rectangular capsule filled with a PCM. They
concluded that the melting and energy storage rates are accelerated as
the inclination angle of the capsule decreases from 90◦ to 0◦ . In another
study, Korti et al. [32] conducted a numerical study to assess the incli­
nation angle (0◦ , 45◦ , and 90◦ ) influence of the thermal characteristics of
a capsuled PCM. They observed that the inclination angle is an effective
parameter on PCM melting and energy storage, and they further
observed that the optimal performance is achieved at an inclination
angle of 0◦ . An extraordinary approach to improving the PCM energy
storage rate was investigated by Mehrjardi et al. [33], who used an
auxiliary fluid in their study to increase the convection heat transfer of
the PCM during the melting process. They observed that the best per­
formance for five PCM/auxiliary fluid volumetric ratios (30, 40, 50, 60
and 70 %) was obtained for 30 % PCM/auxiliary fluid.
Generally, methods used to solve PCM’s low thermal conductivity
problem in the literature can be listed as nanoparticles, fins or metal
foam and modifying container geometries. However, impinging jets are
extensively employed in industrial applications for cooling or heating
due to their ability to generate high local heat transfer rates [34,35]. In
this context, Bharanitharan et al. [36] proposed a combined approach of
using PCM and jet impingement heat transfer for recovering exhaust
heat from industrial and automotive sources. Selimefendigil and Öztop
[37] conducted a numerical assessment of the convective heat transfer
performance in a confined multiple jet impinging system with a phase
change-packed bed (PCM-PB) sub-system, considering the effects of a
magnetic field. Zhang et al. [38] investigated the heat transfer charac­
teristics of jet impingement using a microencapsulated phase change
material (MEPCM) slurry as the working fluid.
Although numerous numerical and experimental studies have
explored PCM energy storage and jet impingement heat transfer indi­
vidually, there is a gap in the literature regarding using these combined
techniques. As can be seen from the literature, air jets are tools that

Fig. 1. Experimental setup (a) schematic diagram (b) actual view.

2
B. Kıyak et al.
Fig. 2. HAJI process on the surface of disc-shaped container (a) actual image of a segment of the experimental setup, (b) physical parameters and dimensions.
Fig. 3. Container structure (a) body (b) lid.
significantly increase heat transfer by providing forced convection. In
this study, PCM melting and energy storage performance by convective
heat transfer using hot air jet impingement (HAJI) were investigated
numerically and experimentally. This study’s primary objective and
originality is to control the melting time of the PCM problem in a
container by using an impinging jet. For this purpose, a comprehensive
investigation was conducted numerically and experimentally to assess
the melting and energy storage performance of PCM within a disc-
shaped container employing a hot impinging jet. The outcomes of this
study have the potential to contribute to advancements in thermal
management, design and optimization of various engineering systems.
2. Experimental setup
The primary focus of this study is to investigate the melting and
energy storage performance of PCM suffering from low thermal con­
ductivity, utilizing the impinging hot jet technique known for its effec­
tive heat transfer capabilities. The experimental setup consists of a radial
fan, two dimmers, a heater, an air tunnel, a pipe, a data logger, a PC,
thermocouples, a nozzle, a stabilizer and a disc-shaped container filled
with PCM, as shown in Fig. 1. The radial fan has a power rating of 550 W.
It is capable of delivering an airflow of 1580 m3/h. Furthermore, Fig. 2
3
Applied Thermal Engineering 236 (2024) 121761
(a) depicts an actual image of a segment of the experimental setup. A
novel container design in circular disc geometry was preferred to ach­
ieve a uniform airflow distribution across the container surface. The
disc-shaped container was made of plexiglass to observe the melting
process and RT25HC was used as the PCM due to its suitability for the
experimental operating temperature range and well-defined thermo­
physical properties. Based on the findings in the literature, it has been
observed that the best melting and energy storage performance occurs
when the container inclination angle is 0◦ . Therefore, a container
inclination angle of 0◦ was used in this study.
The experiments were conducted at an ambient temperature (Tamb)
of 19.8 ◦ C, which also corresponded to the initial temperature of the
PCM. The air temperature and velocity were adjusted using dimers and
stabilized before the melting began.
Fig. 2 (b) shows this study’s physical parameters and dimensions.
The yellow part indicates the PCM in this figure. Experiments were
conducted under a constant air temperature (Tair) of 40 ◦ C with two
different Reynolds (Re) numbers, 2235 and 4470. Other physical
quantities include the diameter of the nozzle outlet (d), which is 10 mm,
as well as the dimensions of the disc, with a diameter (D) of 100 mm and
a height (h) of 20 mm. Another parameter used is H/D, which represents
the ratio of the distance between the nozzle and disc to the diameter of
B. Kıyak et al. Applied Thermal Engineering 236 (2024) 121761

Fig. 4. Locations of thermocouples (a) view inside the disc-shaped container filled with PCM (b) fixed on the top lid of the disc (c) sectional view from the disc center.

the container. In this study, the analysis was conducted for three H/D approximately ± 1.19 %. These findings demonstrated the reliability of
ratios: 0.4, 0.5 and 0.6. the experimental data.
The container consists of two parts, the body and the lid, as shown in
Fig. 3. The lid and bottom surface of the container have a thickness of 2 3. Governing equations
mm. PCM is a material with leakage problems in the liquid phase. The
side wall of the container was designed with a width of 15 mm to solve This study investigates the energy storage effectiveness and melting
this problem and minimize heat transfer. In the final stage, the liquid behaviour of RT25HC as PCM within a disc-shaped enclosure using the
PCM was filled into the container and adhered to the body using HAJI method. The jet flow is modelled as turbulent and in this context,
chloroform. Zuckerman and Lior [39] compared different turbulence models in their
Fig. 4 (a) shows a disc-shaped container filled with PCM, Fig. 4 (b) numerical study on impingement heat transfer. They concluded that the
shows the thermocouples fixed to the top lid of the container and Fig. 4 SST model incorporates the advantageous aspects of the k-ω model at the
(c) shows a cross-sectional view taken from the center of the container, near-wall region and the k-ε model farther from the wall, resulting in
showing the locations of the thermocouples. In order to observe the improved accuracy for predicting fluid properties in impinging turbu­
temperature distribution in the PCM and verify the numerical study, lent jet flows, making it a recommended choice that balances solution
seven T-type thermocouples with a diameter of 1 mm were inserted into speed and accuracy. Therefore, the SST k-ω model is employed in this
the container symmetrically without causing any disturbance to the study to solve the governing equations.
PCM. Thermocouple probes were mounted along the x-axis at the center The governing equations for PCM are given as follows [40]:
of the container in a row and varying y-heights, as shown in Fig. 4 (b). Continuity
∂ρ 1 ∂(rρvr ) 1 ∂(ρvθ ) ∂(ρvz )
2.1. Uncertainty analysis + + + =0 (2)
∂t r ∂r r ∂θ ∂z
It is necessary to quantify the uncertainties associated with the where ρ is PCM density and v r, v θ and v z are velocities in r, θ and z
measurements and parameters involved in the experimental study to directions, respectively.
evaluate the accuracy and reliability of the obtained results. Thus, an Momentum.
uncertainty analysis was conducted using the following equation: r-direction:
( ) [ ( )
(1) ∂vr ∂vr vθ ∂vr v2θ ∂vr ∂P 1 ∂ ∂vr
1/2 ϑr
wF = [w2F1 + w2F2 ] ρ + ϑr + − + vz = − +μ r − 2
∂t ∂r r ∂θ r ∂z ∂r r ∂r ∂r r
The uncertainty analysis results indicated that the total uncertainty ] (3)
1 ∂2 vr 2 ∂vθ ∂2 vr
associated with the temperature measurements was approximately ± + 2 2− 2 + 2 + Sr
r ∂θ r ∂θ ∂z
0.67 %. Similarly, the total uncertainty for the mass flow rates was

4
B. Kıyak et al. Applied Thermal Engineering 236 (2024) 121761

Fig. 5. Schematic of computational geometry (a) isometric view (b) 2D view from the z-direction.

θ-direction: where, Tl and Ts are melting and solidification temperatures of PCM,

( ) respectively.
∂vθ ∂vθ vθ ∂vθ vr vθ ∂vθ
ρ + ϑr + + + vz Energy
∂t ∂r r ∂θ r ∂z
[ ( ) ] ( → ) ( )
1 ∂P 1 ∂ ∂vθ vθ 1 ∂2 vθ 2 ∂vr ∂2 vθ ∂(ρH) 1 ∂2 T 1 ∂ ∂T
= − +μ r − 2+ 2 + + + Sθ (4) + ∇. ρ V H = k 2 2 + (r ) (10)
r ∂θ r ∂r ∂r r r ∂θ2 r2 ∂θ ∂z2 ∂t r ∂θ r ∂r ∂r

z-direction: where, k is thermal conductivity, H is enthalpy and calculated as the

( ) sum of the sensible enthalpy, h1, and latent heat,
∂vz ∂vz vθ ∂vz ∂vz ∂P ( )
ρ
∂t
+ ϑr +
∂r r ∂θ
+ vz
∂z
= −
∂z
+ ρgβ T − Tref H = h1 + ΔH (11)
[ ( ) ] (5)
1 ∂ ∂vz 1 ∂2 vz ∂2 vz ∫ T
+μ r + 2 2 + 2 + Sz
r ∂r ∂r r ∂θ ∂z h1 = href + Cp dT (12)
Tref
In equations (2) – (5), the variables P, t and g represent the pressure,
time and gravitational acceleration, respectively. In addition, β is the where, href represents the enthalpy at the reference temperature and
thermal expansion coefficient, µ is the dynamic viscosity of PCM and Tref Cp denotes the specific heat of the PCM. Furthermore, ΔH in Equation
is the reference temperature (which is considered 19.8 ◦ C). On the other (11) represents the latent heat content, which can vary between 0 (for
hand, the terms Sr , Sθ and Sz are momentum source terms. The enthalpy- the solid phase) and L (for the liquid phase); the latent heat content can
porosity technique considers the partially solidified region (the mushy be expressed in terms of the latent heat of PCM as described below [41]:
region) a porous medium. Each cell’s porosity is determined by the ΔH = γL (13)
liquid fraction within that cell. When the zone is solid, the porosity is
assumed to be zero and effectively stopping the velocities in those areas. 3.1. SST k-ω model
The source terms resulting from the decreased porosity in the mushy
zone can be expressed as follows [41]: The SST k–ω model is a hybrid turbulence model that utilizes the k–ω
(1 − γ)2 model near the walls and the k–ε model to prevent freestream depen­
Sr = 3 Amush vr (6) dence in regions away from the walls [41] and eddy viscosity is given as
(γ + ε)
[42]:
(1 − γ)2 1
Sθ = Amush vθ (7) vt = ρa1 k (14)
(γ3 + ε) max(a1 ω, b1 SF2 )
Where, ρ is density, a1 is the experimental constant (with a value of
(1 − γ)2
Sz = Amush vz (8) 0.31), k is the turbulent kinetic energy. Furthermore, ω is the specific
(γ 3 + ε)
dissipation rate, b1 is set to 1.0, S is the strain rate, and the blending
where, γ represents the liquid volume fraction, ε is a small number function F2 is expressed as in ref. [42]:
(0.001) used to avoid division by zero, and Amush denotes the mushy zone
F2 = tanh (15)
constant; a value of 105 was chosen in this study. The liquid fraction,
denoted as γ, is defined as: The transportation equations that describe k and ω are formulated as
⎧ follows [42]:
⎪ 0ifT < Ts [( ]
⎪
⎪
⎨ ∂k ∂k ∂ ∂k
γ=
T − Ts
ifT < T < Tl (9) + uj = min(Pk , 10β*0 kω) − β* kω + v + vt σk )
⎪ T − Ts s ∂t ∂xj ∂xj ∂xj
⎪
⎪ l
⎩
1ifT > Tl

5
B. Kıyak et al. Applied Thermal Engineering 236 (2024) 121761

Table 1
Thermophysical properties of RT25HC [44] and container material (plexiglass) [45].
Material ρ [kg/m3] Cp [J/kg.K] k [W/m.K] Ts [◦ C] Tliq [◦ C] L [J/kg] β [K− 1] µ [kg/m.s]

RT25HC 880 (solid) 770 (liquid) 1800 0.19 22 26 230,000 0.0006 0.026
Plexiglass 1180 1464 0.19 – – – – –

Fig. 6. Mesh structure of CFD model.

[ ]
∂ω ∂ω ω c1 β*0 ω 3.3. Boundary and initial conditions
+ uj = ρα min G, max(a1 ω, b1 F23 S)
∂t ∂xj k a1
[( ] The air temperature at the inlet was set as Tin = 40 ◦ C (air temper­
∂ ∂ω σω ∂k ∂ω
− βω +2
v + vt σ w ) + 2(1 − F1 ) 2 ature at the jet outlet in the experimental study) and other thermal
∂xj ∂xj ω ∂xj ∂xj
boundary conditions were set as coupled. The velocity inlet boundary
where Pk = G = vt S2 and turbulence constants are: β*0 = β* = 0.09, condition was utilized for the air inlet, while the pressure outlet
σ k1 = 0.85,α1 = 5/9,σω1 = 0.5,β1 = 0.075,b1 = σk2 = 1,c1 = 10,α2 = boundary condition was applied to maintain a zero gauge pressure for
0.44,σω2 = 0.856 and β2 = 0.0828. the air outlet. The air inlet velocities were adjusted to correspond to Re
= 2235 and 4470. Additionally, at the initial time (t = 0 s), the PCM,
container, and air domain temperatures were uniformly set to Tini =
3.2. Numerical analysis 19.8 ◦ C, matching the experimental conditions.

The governing equations of mass, momentum and energy are solved
using commercial software of ANSYS FLUENT 2022 R1, which uses the
finite volume method to discretize the problem [43]. The melting pro­
cess was modelled using a solidification/melting model with double
precision to ensure precise numerical calculations. The momentum and
energy equations were discretized using the QUICK scheme, which
effectively captures flow and temperature gradients. In addition, the
pressure–velocity coupling was resolved using the widely adopted
SIMPLE algorithm. As an additional aspect of the numerical methodol­
ogy, the pressure correction equation is solved using PRESTO! scheme.
4. Physical model
The 3D model shown in Fig. 5 was developed to conduct numerical
simulations and investigate the PCM melting process within the disc-
shaped container using the HAJI method. The model consists of three
distinct domains: PCM and plexiglass, each with their thermophysical
properties listed in Table 1 and the air domain. PCM and plexiglass
domains were modelled to precisely match the dimensions of the
experimental sample used in this study. The analyses were repeated

Fig. 7. CFD analysis results with varying element numbers, (a) comparison of PCM temperature with the experimental result, (b) comparison of the liquid fraction.

6
B. Kıyak et al.
Fig. 8. Comparison of numerical results and experimental measurements of thermocouples at different time steps for H/D = 0.4 (a) Re = 2235 (b) Re = 4470.
using different air domain sizes to identify the optimal dimensions.
Choosing an appropriate size for the air domain is essential to ensure
that it does not significantly influence the boundary conditions while
avoiding excessive solution time. Thus, an air domain size five times
larger than the container diameter was employed, yielding results
consistent with experimental findings.
4.1. Grid sensitivity study and validation of CFD model
The mesh structure employed in the CFD model is shown in Fig. 6.
We used a denser mesh structure to enhance the accuracy in critical
regions involving the jet flow and conjugate heat transfer. In order to
determine the optimal number of elements, a grid sensitivity study was
conducted with a specific case. Analyses were conducted for three
different element numbers: 865,456; 1,724,658; and 2,577,065. Fig. 7
compares the analysis results obtained from the models with varying
element numbers. As can be seen from both graphs, no significant effect
was noted after 1,724,658 elements. Considering both computation time
and consistency, it is observed that this model gives optimal results.
Hence, this element size was utilized as a reference in the other models.
7
Applied Thermal Engineering 236 (2024) 121761
The precision and reliability of the current numerical scheme in the
PCM melting simulation were evaluated through comparison with
experimental data. Fig. 7 also illustrates a comparison between the
experimental and numerical results. When the figure is examined, there
is a difference of approximately 5.19 % between the temperature values
obtained from the CFD model and the experimental measurements in the
first time steps. However, this difference decreased to 1.83 % in subse­
quent time steps and showed good agreement.
Fig. 8 presents another comparison between the numerical and
experimental results. The figure also indicates the verification of CFD
results. This figure shows a comparison between the temperatures ob­
tained from the numerical simulations and the measurements from the
experimental thermocouple probes at three different time steps for H/D
= 4, Re = 2235 and Re = 4470. The figure also presents the maximum,
minimum and average differences between the numerical and experi­
mentally measured temperatures. Trends between both techniques
follow each other. Almost symmetrical peak points are occurred. It
shows good agreement and a similar trend at all the time steps. It can
also be seen that the difference between the numerical and experimental
measurements gradually decreases as the time steps progress.
B. Kıyak et al.
Fig. 9. Effect of H/D ratio on the variation of the average temperature of PCM over time for Re = 2235 (a) experimental, (b) numerical.
5. Results and discussion
This study investigates the impingement of a hot air jet onto a novel-
designed disc-shaped container filled with PCM. The effects of varying
Reynolds numbers and jet length-to-diameter ratios (H/D) on the
average temperature of the PCM were examined experimentally and
numerically.
Fig. 9 (a) presents the measured average temperature distribution
obtained from the experimental study, while Fig. 9 (b) shows the
calculated distribution from numerical simulations. The calculated and
measured temperatures exhibited similar profiles, with nearly linear
increments in both cases. However, the experimentally measured tem­
perature values were slightly higher than the corresponding CFD results.
This difference can be attributed to the idealized assumptions made in
the CFD model.
Similarly, Fig. 10 shows the average temperature of the PCM inside
the container at a higher Reynolds number. A comparison of Figs. 9 and
10 indicates that differences among temperature values according to the
Fig. 10. Effect of H/D ratio on the variation of the average temperature of PCM over time for Re = 4470 (a) experimental, (b) numerical.
8
Applied Thermal Engineering 236 (2024) 121761
H/D value decrease with increasing Reynolds number. This means that
for higher values of hot-air velocities, the effects of heating or melting
become insignificant. For all cases, a linear increase in the average
temperature of the PCM is observed and the highest temperatures were
recorded at H/D = 0.5, whereas the lowest temperatures were observed
at H/D = 0.6. This implies that there is an optimal value for the H/D
ratio to control the melting process. It is expected that as the distance
between the air jet and the container decreases (i.e. lower H/D ratio),
the temperature and thus melting of PCM speeds up. However, it is
worth noting that as the air jet gets closer, its impact becomes more
focused. A H/D = 5 could provide a perfect thermal distribution, while a
lower H/D might result in excessive interaction and uneven temperature
distribution. On the other hand, higher H/D ratios may cause inadequate
heat transfer. Therefore, an H/D ratio of 5 could serve as a balance
between these conflicting factors.
The effects of the H/D ratio on the variation in liquid fraction over
time for different Reynolds numbers are presented in Fig. 11. This figure
reflects the numerical results; as expected, the liquid fraction increases
B. Kıyak et al. Applied Thermal Engineering 236 (2024) 121761

Fig. 11. Effect of H/D ratio on the variation of liquid fraction over time (a) Re = 2235 (b) Re = 4470.

with time due to melting of PCM and the lines are steeper for higher
Reynolds numbers. The main reason for this phenomenon is that a
higher Reynolds number promotes accelerated melting owing to
enhanced convection heat transfer and higher heat transfer coefficients
due to increasing of kinetic energy. Thus, it reaches complete melting
faster at higher Reynolds numbers. When the Reynolds number
increased from 2235 to 4470, the melting times for H/D ratios of 0.4,
0.5, and 0.6 decreased by 18.68 %, 14.22 %, and 27.93 %, respectively.
Similarly, the fastest melting occurred for H/D = 0.5 for both Reynolds
numbers. The melting process is dominated by natural convection,
which is directly affected by the amount of liquid PCM, as reported by
Vogel et al. [46]. It is a strong function of temperature difference. As the
Reynolds number increased, the effect of the H/D parameter on the
melting time decreased. The difference between the maximum and
minimum melting rates is 23.05 % at Re = 2235, whereas this difference
is reduced to 7.67 % at Re = 4470.
Fig. 12 illustrates the effects of the Reynolds number for H/D = 0.4
on the changes in the average temperature of the PCM over time. This
figure compares the experimental and numerical results for each

Fig. 13. Effect of Re number on the variation of the average temperature of

PCM over time for H/D = 0.5.

Reynolds number. As shown in the figures, the temperature values

increased almost linearly, and complete melting occurred for t = 180
min. in case of Re = 4470. This means that a higher Reynolds number
leads to a faster melting rate due to increased kinetic energy. On the
contrary, the system needs too much time for the melting process due to
the lower heat transfer of the jet to the system. Similar trends can be
observed in Figs. 13 and 14 for the different values of H/D. These figures
demonstrate a good agreement between the experimental and numerical
values. Furthermore, comparing these figures highlights that H/D = 0.5,
which indicates the fastest melting rate among the tested values, is
optimal. A comparison of this finding showed that the H/D value is an
important control parameter based on heat transfer and jet flow theory.
A comparison of all figures indicates good agreement between the
experimental and numerical results.
Fig. 15 compares the experimental and numerical results of the PCM
melting inside the container for H/D = 0.4 and Re = 4470. This com­
parison aims to analyse the melting behaviour under these specific
Fig. 12. Effect of Re number on the variation of the average temperature of
conditions and observe any discrepancies or similarities between the
PCM over time for H/D = 0.4.

9
B. Kıyak et al.
Fig. 14. Effect of Re number on the variation of the average temperature of
PCM over time for H/D = 0.6.
experimental and numerical results. In the melting fraction contours,
red indicates the liquid phase, while blue represents the solid state.
Moreover, an instantaneous view captured from a v**ideo using a digital
camera provides a visual representation of the solid–liquid boundary of
the PCM inside the transparent container. When the melting contour
pictures obtained from the numerical simulation are examined, it can be
noticed that the hot jet directly impinges the middle of the container to
obtain an equal melt ratio inside the container. The solid–liquid inter­
face moved parallel to the bottom of the container from the lateral
surface during the melting process. However, when the center section of
the CFD model and the experimental bottom view are examined, it is
seen that this interface has a cone-like geometric shape. At the time step
of t = 100 min, the liquid phase of the phase change material (PCM)
Fig. 15. Comparison of the experimental photos and CFD simulations of liquid fraction for H/D = 0.4 and Re = 4470.
10
Applied Thermal Engineering 236 (2024) 121761
reaches the upper surface of the disc from the center. Comparison of
photographs of the PCM-filled container, numerical simulations showed
that the findings resemble each other and the numerical results support
the experimental results. A curvy solid–liquid boundary occurs inside
the container and this phenomenon is often seen in PCM melting with
bottom heating. Because, in this case, although the main direction of
heat transfer is parallel to the direction of gravity, it is in the opposite
direction and there is no preferred region for natural convection. When
the PCM is heated from the bottom, intermittent counter-rotating roll
cells (Benard cells) are formed at the heat source. As time passes, small
roll cells evolve and come together to create large circulations; this
process continues until the entire PCM is melted and reaches the top
[47]. As depicted in the figure, a thin layer of solid PCM is observed near
the upper corner of the cylinder. This phenomenon occurred because of
the limited penetration of hot air into this region.
Fig. 16 compares the sequential photographs of melting and nu­
merical simulation for the melting profiles of PCM at H/D = 0.5 and Re
= 4470 with different time steps. As shown in the figure, the melting
process starts from the hot-impinged surface and the solid–liquid
interface is almost parallel to the HAJI surface. Numerical results are
given from the lateral view of the CFD model (mid-column) and the
center section view (last column). Initially, the heat transfer mechanism
is provided by conduction and a cavity form is obtained owing to the
impingement effect of HAJI. Results are given up to t = 140 min. and at
this time step, there is no symmetrical distribution inside the container,
as seen from the lateral view of the CFD model. Because the system
reaches almost complete liquid phase at this time step. This result is seen
in Fig. 10 at different Reynolds numbers. As shown in the figure that
shape of melting resembles jet movement. The advantage of numerical
simulation is that it shows the melting shape inside the container.
Similar to Figs. 15 and 16, Fig. 17 shows the melting results for H/D =
0.6 and Re = 4470. A comparison of these three figures illustrates that
the H/D values are the most critical control parameters for the melting
time inside the container. After increasing the time step, a convection
current occurred inside the container. Interestingly, the PCM in the
upper corner of the container required a long time to melt
B. Kıyak et al. Applied Thermal Engineering 236 (2024) 121761

Fig. 16. Comparison of the experimental and CFD model melting profiles for H/D = 0.5 and Re = 4470.

Fig. 17. Comparison of the experimental and CFD model melting profiles for H/D = 0.6 and Re = 4470.

Fig. 18. Temperature distribution on the plexiglass container surface where the hot air jet impinges for H/D = 0.5 and Re = 4470, (a) experimental thermal image
captured by a thermal camera, (b) CFD model.

11
B. Kıyak et al.
Fig. 19. Experimental and numerical stored energies for Re = 2235 and Re = 4470 at t = 180 min.
(approximately 170 min in this case). In other words, the problem be­
comes an actual convection problem inside the closed space.
Fig. 18 shows the temperature distributions on the surface of the
plexiglass container impinged by the hot air jet as an experimental
measurement via a thermal camera image and a CFD model simulation.
The temperature distribution images obtained from the experimental
and numerical studies exhibit a similar pattern as shown in the figure. It
can be observed that at the center of the disc, where the hot air jet im­
pinges, the temperature reaches its maximum level of 40 ◦ C and grad­
ually decreases towards the edges as expected. As seen in the melting
images in Figs. 15, 16 and 17, this temperature distribution provides a
faster melting in the container center while the melting rate decreases
towards the lateral walls.
The amount of stored energy at t = 180 min for Re = 2235 and Re =
4470 is given numerically and experimentally in Fig. 19. According to
the obtained results, an increase in the Reynolds number is observed to
lead to an increase in the energy storage capacity as expected.
For both Reynolds numbers, the case that the maximum energy is
stored corresponds to H/D = 0.5. Upon examination of the numerical
results, this situation is the same for Re = 2235 as well. However, the
numerical results show that at Re = 4470, the case with the maximum
stored energy corresponds to H/D = 0.4. In general, the effect of H/D on
the energy storage capacity is even more evident at Re = 2235. Kinetic
energy plays an important role in energy storage. In the experimental
comparison, when considering H/D = 0.5, which corresponds to the case
with the maximum stored energy at both Reynolds numbers, the energy
stored by the H/D = 0.6 case is 26.4 % lower at Re = 2235, whereas this
difference reduces to 5.03 % at Re = 4470.
6. Conclusions
Numerical and experimental investigations were performed to study
the effects of various parameters on the melting time of the PCM within a
novel-designed disc-shaped container subjected to hot air jet impinge­
ment. The governing equations were solved using the finite volume
method, and the obtained numerical results were compared with the
experimental data for different hot-jet Reynolds numbers and height-to-
12
Applied Thermal Engineering 236 (2024) 121761
diameter (H/D) ratios. Remarkably, all cases strongly agreed with the
experimental and numerical results.
It was found that an optimal air jet height-to-container diameter
ratio (H/D) effectively controls the melting time. Specifically, a ratio of
H/D = 0.5 demonstrated optimum melting behaviour. This indicates
that the relative height of the jet and the diameter of the container play a
crucial role in determining the overall melting dynamics. It can be used
as a passive control parameter for energy efficiency. Furthermore, the
melting process initiated from the region where the jet impinged on the
container and gradually progressed towards the boundaries. This con­
firms the significant influence of the impingement point on the melting
behaviour and subsequent spreading of the melted PCM within the
container. Moreover, the results indicated that increasing the kinetic
energy of the hot fluid by varying the hot-jet Reynolds number led to
improved melting times.
This highlights the importance of considering the system’s flow
characteristics and energy transfer to optimize the melting process. The
effect of the H/D ratio on the melting time decreases as the Reynolds
number increases, resulting in a decrease in the difference between the
maximum and minimum melting rates from 23.05 % at Re = 2235 to
7.67 % at Re = 4470. In the experimental comparison, when considering
H/D = 0.5, which corresponds to the case with the maximum stored
energy at both Reynolds numbers, the energy stored by the H/D = 0.6
case is 26.4 % lower at Re = 2235, whereas this difference reduces to
5.03 % at Re = 4470.
As a suggestion for future work, it would be valuable to investigate
the effects of both the inclination angle of the container and the
impinged hot air jet. These factors could introduce additional com­
plexities and variations in the melting behaviour, thereby further un­
derstanding the system dynamics.
Declaration of Competing Interest
The authors declare that they have no known competing financial
interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence
the work reported in this paper.
B. Kıyak et al.
Data availability
No data was used for the research described in the article.
Acknowledgements
This study was supported by the Scientific Research Foundation of
Inonu University (Project No: 2022/3092)
References
[1] M.H. Hekmat, M.H.K. Haghani, E. Izadpanah, H. Sadeghi, The influence of energy
storage container geometry on the melting and solidification of PCM, Int. Commun.
Heat Mass Transfer 137 (2022), 106237, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
icheatmasstransfer.2022.106237.
[2] S. Xie, W. Wu, Effect of aspect ratio on PCM melting behavior in a square cavity,
Int. Commun. Heat Mass Transfer 143 (2023), 106708, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
icheatmasstransfer.2023.106708.
[3] A.G. Anter, A.A. Sultan, A.A. Hegazi, M.A. El Bouz, Thermal performance and
energy saving using phase change materials (PCM) integrated in building walls,
J. Storage Mater. 67 (2023), 107568, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.est.2023.107568.
[4] M. Zhussupbekov, S.A. Memon, S.A. Khawaja, K. Nazir, J. Kim, Forecasting energy
demand of PCM integrated residential buildings: A machine learning approach,
Journal of Building Engineering. 70 (2023), 106335, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
jobe.2023.106335.
[5] A. Gil, E. Oró, L. Miró, G. Peiró, Á. Ruiz, J.M. Salmerón, L.F. Cabeza, Experimental
analysis of hydroquinone used as phase change material (PCM) to be applied in
solar cooling refrigeration, Int. J. Refrig 39 (2014) 95–103, https://doi.org/
10.1016/j.ijrefrig.2013.05.013.
[6] G. Liu, Q. Li, J. Wu, R. Xie, Y. Zou, A. Marson, A. Scipioni, A. Manzardo, Improving
system performance of the refrigeration unit using phase change material (PCM)
for transport refrigerated vehicles: An experimental investigation in South China,
J. Storage Mater. 51 (2022), 104435, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.est.2022.104435.
[7] V.R. Pawar, S. Sobhansarbandi, Heat transfer enhancement of a PCM-porous metal
based heat pipe evacuated tube solar collector: An experimental study, Sol. Energy
251 (2023) 106–118, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.solener.2022.10.054.
[8] P.M.J. Stalin, K.S. Prasad, K.P. Kumar, G. Hemadri, M. Rajesh, K.P. Kumar,
Performance improvement of solar PV through the thermal management using a
nano-PCM, Mater. Today:. Proc. 50 (2021) 1553–1558, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
matpr.2021.09.111.
[9] A. Nirwan, D. Gupta, R. Matta, R. Kumar, B. Mondal, Evaluation of heat transfer
performance of PCM based composites for thermal management of electronics,
Mater. Today:. Proc. 57 (2022) 954–957, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
matpr.2022.03.234.
[10] M. Esapour, A. Hamzehnezhad, A.A. Rabienataj Darzi, M. Jourabian, Melting and
solidification of PCM embedded in porous metal foam in horizontal multi-tube heat
storage system, Energ. Conver. Manage. 171 (2018) 398–410, https://doi.org/
10.1016/j.enconman.2018.05.086.
[11] L.O.M. Firman, D. Ismail, R.A.R. Rahmalina, The impact of thermal aging on the
degradation of technical parameter of a dynamic latent thermal storage system,
International Journal of Thermofluids. 19 (2023), 100401, https://doi.org/
10.1016/j.ijft.2023.100401.
[12] D. Liu, K. Xie, H. Zhang, Y. Qiang, D. Yang, Z. Wang, L. Zhu, N. Akkurt, Y. Du,
M. Shen, L. Zhong, F. Yu, Q. Xu, Numerical evaluation of convective heat transfer
properties of two-dimensional rotating PCM melt in the unilaterally heated
rectangular container, Renew. Energy 193 (2022) 920–940, https://doi.org/
10.1016/j.renene.2022.05.009.
[13] P. Rawat, A.F.S. Ashwni, A numerical study on the impact of fin length
arrangement and material on the melting of PCM in a rectangular enclosure, Int. J.
Heat Mass Transf. 205 (2023), https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
ijheatmasstransfer.2023.123932.
[14] A. Mourad, N.A.A. Qasem, A. Abderrahmane, R. Marzouki, K. Guedri, O. Younis, N.
A. Shah, T. Botmart, Numerical study on n-octadecane PCM melting process inside
a pear-shaped finned container, Case Studies in Thermal Engineering. 38 (2022),
102328, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.csite.2022.102328.
[15] B. Peng, M. Qiu, N. Xu, Y. Zhou, W. Sheng, F. Su, S. Wang, Impacts of the
Thermophysical properties of the phase change materials (PCMs) on the melting
performance and optimum dimensions of fins, Comput. Chem. Eng. 165 (2022),
107929, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compchemeng.2022.107929.
[16] Z. Zhou, Z. Hu, D. Wang, H. Wu, Visualized-experimental investigation on the
melting performance of PCM in 3D printed metal foam, Thermal Science and
Engineering Progress. 31 (2022), 101298, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
tsep.2022.101298.
[17] A. NematpourKeshteli, M. Iasiello, G. Langella, N. Bianco, Enhancing PCMs
thermal conductivity: A comparison among porous metal foams, nanoparticles and
finned surfaces in triplex tube heat exchangers, Appl. Therm. Eng. 212 (2022),
118623, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.applthermaleng.2022.118623.
13
Applied Thermal Engineering 236 (2024) 121761
[18] Y. Sheikh, M. Fatih Orhan, M. Kanoglu, Heat transfer enhancement of a bio-based
PCM/metal foam composite heat sink, Thermal Science and Engineering Progress.
36 (2022), 101536, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tsep.2022.101536.
[19] C.Y. Zhao, W. Lu, Y. Tian, Heat transfer enhancement for thermal energy storage
using metal foams embedded within phase change materials (PCMs), Sol. Energy
84 (2010) 1402–1412, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.solener.2010.04.022.
[20] A. S, A. Sharma, H.B. Kothadia, Performance analysis of PCM melting in a fin-
assisted thermal energy storage system – A numerical study, International
Communications in Heat and Mass Transfer. 144 (2023) 106747. 10.1016/j.
icheatmasstransfer.2023.106747.
[21] F. Zhang, F. Lu, B. Liang, Y. Zhu, H. Gou, K. Xiao, Y. He, Thermal performance
analysis of a new type of branch-fin enhanced battery thermal management PCM
module, Renew. Energy 206 (2023) 1049–1063, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
renene.2023.02.083.
[22] A. Mostafavi, A. Jain, Thermal Management Effectiveness and Efficiency of a Fin
Surrounded by a Phase Change Material (PCM), Int. J. Heat Mass Transf. 191
(2022), 122630, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijheatmasstransfer.2022.122630.
[23] R. Padmavathy, T. Saravanan, S.A. Mohammed Kasim, M. Balachandar,
Experimental investigation on melting/freezing characteristics of nanocomposite
PCMs, Materials Today: Proceedings. (2023) 4–10. 10.1016/j.matpr.2023.04.021.
[24] M. Arıcı, E. Tütüncü, Ç. Yıldız, D. Li, Enhancement of PCM melting rate via internal
fin and nanoparticles, Int. J. Heat Mass Transf. 156 (2020), https://doi.org/
10.1016/j.ijheatmasstransfer.2020.119845.
[25] C. Nie, J. Liu, S. Deng, Effect of geometric parameter and nanoparticles on PCM
melting in a vertical shell-tube system, Appl. Therm. Eng. 184 (2021), 116290,
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.applthermaleng.2020.116290.
[26] H. Hosseininaveh, I. Rahgozar Abadi, O. Mohammadi, A. Khademi, M. Behshad
Shafii, The impact of employing carbon nanotube and Fe3O4 nanoparticles along
with intermediate boiling fluid to improve the discharge rate of phase change
material, Appl. Therm. Eng. 215 (2022), 119032, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
applthermaleng.2022.119032.
[27] B.M.S. Punniakodi, R. Senthil, A review on container geometry and orientations of
phase change materials for solar thermal systems, J. Storage Mater. 36 (2021),
102452, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.est.2021.102452.
[28] Z. Qin, C. Ji, Z.H. Low, W. Tong, C. Wu, F. Duan, Geometry effect of phase change
material container on waste heat recovery enhancement, Appl. Energy 327 (2022),
120108, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apenergy.2022.120108.
[29] S. Huang, J. Lu, Y. Li, Numerical study on the influence of inclination angle on the
melting behaviour of metal foam-PCM latent heat storage units, Energy 239
(2022), 122489, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.energy.2021.122489.
[30] A. Khademi, S.A.A. Mehrjardi, Z. Said, R. Saidur, S. Ushak, A.J. Chamkha,
A comparative study of melting behavior of phase change material with direct fluid
contact and container inclination, Energy Nexus. 10 (2023), 100196, https://doi.
org/10.1016/j.nexus.2023.100196.
[31] T. Bouzennada, F. Mechighel, T. Ismail, L. Kolsi, K. Ghachem, Heat transfer and
fluid flow in a PCM-filled enclosure : Effect of inclination angle and mid-separation
fin, Int. Commun. Heat Mass Transfer 124 (2021), 105280, https://doi.org/
10.1016/j.icheatmasstransfer.2021.105280.
[32] A. Illah, N. Korti, H. Guellil, Experimental Study of the e Ff Ect of Inclination Angle
on the Para Ffi n Melting Process in a Square Cavity 32 (2020) 1–12, https://doi.
org/10.1016/j.est.2020.101726.
[33] S.A. Abtahi Mehrjardi, A. Khademi, Z. Said, S. Ushak, A.J. Chamkha, Enhancing
latent heat storage systems: The impact of PCM volumetric ratios on energy storage
rates with auxiliary fluid assistance, Energy Nexus. 11 (2023), 100227, https://doi.
org/10.1016/j.nexus.2023.100227.
[34] F. Matthieu, E. Dorignac, R. Lantier, International Journal of Thermal Sciences
Heat Transfer and Flow Structure of a Hot Annular Impinging Jet 170 (2021),
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijthermalsci.2021.107091.
[35] H. Coşanay, H.F. Öztop, M. Gür, E. Bakır, Analysis of turbulent wall jet
impingement onto a moving heated body, Int. J. Numer. Meth. Heat Fluid Flow 32
(2022) 2938–2963, https://doi.org/10.1108/HFF-08-2021-0521.
[36] K.J. Bharanitharan, S. Kang, K.J. Sanjay, S. Senthilkumar, A combined technique
using phase change material and jet impingement heat transfer for the exhaust heat
recovery applications – A numerical approach, J. Storage Mater. 55 (2022),
105580, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.est.2022.105580.
[37] F. Selimefendigil, H.F. Öztop, International Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer
Multijet impingement heat transfer under the combined effects of encapsulated-
PCM and inclined magnetic field during nanoliquid convection, Int. J. Heat Mass
Transf. 203 (2023), 123764, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
ijheatmasstransfer.2022.123764.
[38] J.J. Zhang, C.H. Yang, Z.G. Jin, S.X. Ma, J.S. Zhang, X.M. Pang, Experimental Study
of Jet Impingement Heat Transfer with Microencapsulated Phase Change Material
Slurry 188 (2021), https://doi.org/10.1016/j.applthermaleng.2021.116588.
[39] N. Zuckerman, N. Lior, Impingement heat transfer: Correlations and numerical
modeling, J. Heat Transfer 127 (2005) 544–552, https://doi.org/10.1115/
1.1861921.
[40] M. Gür, H.F. Öztop, F. Selimefendigil, Analysis of solar underfloor heating system
assisted with nano enhanced phase change material for nearly zero energy
buildings approach, Renewable Energy. (2023) 119265. 10.1016/j.
renene.2023.119265.
B. Kıyak et al.
[41] ANSYS FLUENT, ANSYS Fluent Theory Guide, ANSYS Inc., USA. 15317 (2013)
1–759. http://www.pmt.usp.br/ACADEMIC/martoran/NotasModelosGrad/ANSYS
Fluent Theory Guide 15.pdf.
[42] H. Huang, T. Sun, G. Zhang, D. Li, H. Wei, Evaluation of a developed SST k-Ω
turbulence model for the prediction of turbulent slot jet impingement heat transfer,
Int. J. Heat Mass Transf. 139 (2019) 700–712, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
ijheatmasstransfer.2019.05.058.
[43] B. Buonomo, O. Manca, S. Nardini, R.E. Plomitallo, Numerical study on latent heat
thermal energy storage system with PCM partially filled with aluminum foam in
local thermal equilibrium, Renew. Energy 195 (2022) 1368–1380, https://doi.org/
10.1016/j.renene.2022.06.122.
[44] M. Emam, S. Ookawara, M. Ahmed, Thermal management of electronic devices
and concentrator photovoltaic systems using phase change material heat sinks:
Experimental investigations, Renew. Energy 141 (2019) 322–339, https://doi.org/
10.1016/j.renene.2019.03.151.
14
Applied Thermal Engineering 236 (2024) 121761
[45] M. Kabbara, A.C. Kheirabadi, D. Groulx, Numerical modelling of natural
convection driven melting for an inclined/finned rectangular enclosure, ASME
2016 Heat Transfer Summer Conference, HT 2016, Collocated with the ASME 2016
Fluids Engineering Division Summer Meeting and the ASME 2016 14th
International Conference on Nanochannels, Microchannels, and Minichannels. 2
(2016). 10.1115/HT2016-7068.
[46] J. Vogel, J. Felbinger, M. Johnson, Natural convection in high temperature flat
plate latent heat thermal energy storage systems, Appl. Energy 184 (2016)
184–196, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apenergy.2016.10.001.
[47] A. Ghahremannezhad, H. Xu, M.R. Salimpour, P. Wang, K. Vafai, Thermal
performance analysis of phase change materials (PCMs) embedded in gradient
porous metal foams, Appl. Therm. Eng. 179 (2020), 115731, https://doi.org/
10.1016/j.applthermaleng.2020.115731.