MOTION DESIGN GUIDE

PROFILED-RAIL
LINEAR GUIDES

Sponsored by: brought to you by:

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PROFILED-RAIL LINEAR GUIDES DESIGN GUIDE

Linear-motion systems are essential in everything from manually operated industrial

drawers to advanced Cartesian robots. Mechanisms that include the former operate
without power, using inertia or manual power to move loads. Components to
complete the latter include ready-to-install drive and guidance designs … in the
form of self-contained actuators or linear-motion machinery subsections. Some
designs simply rely on the rotary-to-linear mechanism or actuator structure for
total load support. However, most industrial linear designs have pneumatics, linear
motors or motor-driven, rotary-to-linear mechanisms to advance attached loads, as
well as rails that guide and support the loads.

In this Design Guide, the editors of Design World detail the linear rails, guide rails, ▼
linear slides and linear ways used to facilitate single and multi-axis linear motion LISA EITEL
— and the disparate ways these components support and guide load with minimal Executive editor
friction along the way.

TABLE OF CONTENTS
▼

Definitions and common linear guide variations.............................................. 3

Roller-bearing rail guides: Where they excel................................................... 8

Linear Bearing Seals: Options and Applications............................................ 10

How raceway geometry affects profiled rail guide performance.................. 12

Difference between dynamic load capacity and static load capacity............ 15

Miniature linear guides for OEM and plant designs...................................... 16

Five things to consider in vertical applications.............................................. 17

Hertz contact stresses in linear bearings....................................................... 19

Sponsored by:
Primer on needle-roller linear bearings......................................................... 21

Appendix: Engineering review of repeatability,

accuracy, and inertial values........................................................................... 22 www.deltron.com

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@designworld /DesignWorldNetwork @linear_motion
Definitions and common
linear-guide variations
L
inear bearings are included in linear actuators and the axes
of other motion systems to guide and support machine
assemblies and payloads over the linear stroke. All linear
bearings fall into four categories:
1. A carriage or comparable table rides on a linear rail or track via
plain (sliding) elements
2. A carriage rides on linear rail via wheel-type track rollers
3. A carriage rides on a profiled linear rail via carriage-contained
arrays of ball bearings or cylindrical rollers
4. A bushing studded on its inner diameter with rolling elements
rides on a round shaft
The interrelated functions of these linear-motion components to
both support (bear) loads and guide loads is the core reason why
they’re called both linear bearings and linear guides — depending
on which function is being emphasized by the source. Both terms
are so generic that they can refer to any products from the four
categories listed above — including such disparate designs
as plain linear bearings, ball bushings, and recirculating-roller
linear bearings. Confusing matters is the fact that industry makes
inconsistent use of even more specific linear-motion terms. For
example, the term slide is often used to refer to the carriages of
linear bearings based on rolling (not sliding) bearing elements. The
term rolling-contact guide is often used to refer to profiled-rail
linear bearings even though track-roller linear guides also include
rolling contact (at their track wheels).
That said, linear guide often indicates a standalone guide rod, ball
slide, or mechanism solely for guiding loads. The term profiled
rail nearly always indicates some linear bearing with roller or ball
Profiled-rail linear guides are
incorporated into various linear
actuators and linear-motion designs.
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elements. Many manufacturers use the terms linear slide (whether
based on rolling or sliding action) and linear rail (whether plain,
track-roller, or profile) to indicate a linear-motion guide element
that’s incorporated into a build complete with some mechanical
drive. Though the terminology surrounding plain linear bearings
is probably the most consistent, various manufacturers use plane
bearing (as in one dimension in 3D space) instead plain bearing.
While the two terms are often used interchangeably, the American
Bearing Manufacturers Association encourages use of the term
plain bearing.
The term linear stage generally implies a design has guided
elements as well as some mode of mechanical linear actuation and
reinforced body — often sans inclusion of the motor.
TRADITIONAL ELECTRIC ACTUATORS
These actuators include fully self-supporting
single-axis stages — and are more common on
factory-automation equipment. Such designs usually
include a motor-driven screw and a frame with linear
bearings to both bear and guide the load.
RACK-AND-PINION ACTUATORS
These linear actuators excel on
gantries, seventh-axis systems for
roboticized facilities, and other
long-axis installations. A unique
feature of rack-and-pinion sets is
their ability to independently drive
multiple carriages.
LINEAR MOTOR ACTUATORS
Linear-motor actuators are servo devices
with programmable position and speed.
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 MOTION DESIGN GUIDE I PROFILED-RAIL LINEAR GUIDES
(continued)
common linear-guide variations

Motorized rails (more commonly called linear actuators) abound — though

the distinction here is that there are countless linear actuators sold without
any linear-guide element. That’s useful for OEMs aiming to employ some
specialized linear guide or omit guides altogether.

APPLICATIONS FOR LINEAR GUIDES

Linear rails are linear assemblies that have tandem tracks (usually on one
monolithic run) containing load-supporting balls or rollers. The backbone
of many industrial applications, they provide low-friction guidance and high
stiffness for loads that can range from just a few grams to thousands of
kilograms. Their variety of sizes, accuracy classes, and preloads make linear
rails suitable for virtually any performance requirement.

The reasons for using linear rails are numerous, but their most obvious benefits
over other types of guides are load capacity, travel accuracy, and rigidity. For
example, round shaft guides can withstand only downward or liftoff loads,
ROLLING-ELEMENT LINEAR BEARINGS whereas linear rail guides can withstand downward loads and liftoff loads …
as well as moment loads. Unlike crossed-roller guides for which travel is often
limited to 1 meter or less, linear rails can provide very long travel lengths.
1. PROFILED-RAIL When compared to plain bearing guides, linear rails also have higher stiffness
LINEAR BEARINGS
and rigidity, and often have better load and life characteristics.
NON-RECIRCULATING
ROLLING ELEMENTS
Linear guides also provide a high level of travel accuracy, thanks to precise
machining of one or both edges of the rail, which act as reference surfaces.
With two, four, or six rows of rolling elements — either spherical balls or
RECIRCULATING
cylindrical rollers — stiffness is also high … and deflection of the bearing
ROLLING ELEMENTS
block is minimal.
CARRIAGE
All of these attributes combine to provide a linear guide system that is
perfectly suited for applications that require high precision, high rigidity,
and long life. So here we outline common applications for these linear
GUIDEWAY
RECIRCULATING
SET OF RETAINED BALLS components in typical sizes; the special case of miniature guides is covered
RAIL
in a separate section of this Design Guide.

TRACK ROLLER
2. LINEAR BEARING
V-SHAPED TRACK-ROLLER
WHEEL AND TRACK
SINGLE-RAIL APPLICATIONS

Because profiled-rail linear rails have load-supporting balls (or rollers) on

GOTHIC-ARCH TRACK-ROLLER each side of the rail assembly, they can withstand overhung loads, even when
WHEEL AND ROUND TRACK
just a single rail is used. In contrast, round shaft linear guides must be used
in pairs when overhung loads are present. Because of this feature, numerous
3. ROUND RAIL applications use a single linear rail, to save space or to prevent issues with
LINEAR BEARINGS misalignment among other components in the system. Here are a few
LINEAR BUSHING BALL SPLINE examples of applications that use a single linear rail.

SLIDING-ELEMENT (PLAIN)
4. LINEAR BEARINGS

BOXWAY DOVETAIL BUSHING

PLAIN BEARING PLAIN BEARING PLAIN BEARING

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(continued)
common PROFILED-RAIL uses

Linear actuators: Linear rails are often the guide mechanism

of choice for actuators that are driven with belts, screws, or
pneumatic cylinders, because of their ability to withstand moment
loads. They can also accommodate travel speeds up to 5 m/sec,
which is important in belt or pneumatically driven systems.

Overhead transport systems: When loads are centered below the

rail and bearing block, as is often the case with overhead transport
systems, linear rails are a good choice for guidance. Their high load
capacity allows heavy loads to be transported, and the rigidity of
the linear rail helps to stiffen the entire system.

Gantry robots: The defining feature of a gantry is that it has two X

(and sometimes two Y and two Z) axes. The individual axes typically
incorporate a single linear rail and are driven by a screw or a belt
and pulley system. With two axes working in parallel (X and X’, for
example) very good moment capacities are realized, even though
each axis has just one linear rail.

DUAL-RAIL APPLICATIONS

When high moment loads are present, linear rails can be used in
pairs, which allows the moment load to be resolved into forces on
the bearing blocks. In this configuration, the drive mechanism can
be mounted between the linear rails, making the overall system
very compact. Dual linear rail applications include …

Linear stages: Stages are typically very high precision systems,

meaning that high travel accuracy and minimal deflection are
paramount. Even if the load is centered on the stage with little or
no moment loading, dual linear rails are often used to ensure that
stiffness and bearing life are maximized.

Machine tools: Like stages, machine tools require very high levels
of travel accuracy and stiffness, to ensure that the tool produces
high-quality parts. Using two rails in parallel — typically with two
bearing blocks per rail — ensures that deflection is minimized.
Machine tools also experience very high loads, so resolving the
load over four bearing blocks helps to maximize bearing life.

MINIMIZING MOMENTS
Right: Profiled-rail linear guide
M rails are indispensable in
automated stoarage and retrieval
(AS/RS) systems.

Left: Linear actuators with dual

guide rails provide high roll
moment capacity.

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 MOTION DESIGN GUIDE I PROFILED-RAIL LINEAR GUIDES
(continued)
common profiled-rail uses

DUAL-GUIDE RAILS AND MOMENTS

When dual profiled-rail guide rails
F Z (X Z Y Z Z Z ) with one bearing each are used,
F r1
no roll moments Mr are induced;
Y only pitch Mp and yaw My moments.

MP F Y (X Y Y Y Z Y )

F X (X X Y X Z X )
F r2 F r1

F S1 F S1

X
MY
F r2
CENTER OF
DRIVE
F S2 F S2

Cartesian robots: Because Cartesian robots typically use just one
linear system per axis, it’s important that each axis can withstand
high moment loads. This is why most Cartesian robot axes are
constructed from linear actuators that incorporate two linear
guides in parallel.
Robot transport units: Six-axis robots provide flexible motion for
applications that require reach and rotation in many directions.
But if the robot needs to move to another station or work area,
dual-rail systems can act as a seventh axis, transporting the entire
robot to a new location. A significant benefit of linear rails in these
applications is the ability to join multiple rails for very long travel
lengths — often exceeding 15 meters.
Of course, linear rails aren’t the perfect solution for every
application. For example, linear rails aren’t generally suitable for
applications in the consumer space — such as door guides and
drawer slides — often due to cost. Plus linear rails require very
precise mounting surfaces, not only to reap the benefits of their
high travel accuracy ... but also to avoid binding of the bearing
block, which can lead to reduced life.
They must also be fully supported, unlike linear shaft systems,
which can be only end-supported. This means that not only is
the upfront cost of a linear rail typically higher than that of a
round shaft or plain bearing system, the cost of preparation and
mounting is also higher.
Linear rails can also be perceived as less smooth or notchy in their
running properties than other bearing types. This is because of the
contact that occurs between the load-carrying balls (or rollers) and
the raceways. Preloading a linear rail system, which is often done
to increase stiffness, can exacerbate the feeling of notchiness when
the bearing block is moved along the rail. (This effect goes away as
load is applied to the bearing, but the perception often remains.)

DUAL-GUIDE RAIL FORCES

F Y (X Y Y Y Z Y )

F r2 F r1 F X (X X Y X Z X )
Z F Z (X Z Y Z Z Z )
F r3 F r2
F r4 F r1
CENTER LINE
F S2 F S1 OF DRIVE

Dual guide rails with two bearings

each induce only downward Fr F r4 F r3
and side Fs forces — and no pitch, F s3
Y
roll, or yaw moments. F s4 F S1 F S2

F s4 F s3

CENTER OF DRIVE
XB YB ZB

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 MOTION DESIGN GUIDE I PROFILED-RAIL LINEAR GUIDES
(continued)
common profiled-rail variations

For applications that don’t require the load capacity, stiffness, or shorter moment arm along which overhung loads are applied,
travel accuracy of a linear rail, other linear guides such as round which reduces moment load capacity. The back-to-back
shaft systems, plain bearing guides, or even crossed roller slides arrangement (also known as the O arrangement) provides a larger
may be suitable and less expensive. moment arm and gives higher moment load capacities.

MORE ON THE GEOMETRY OF DUAL GUIDE RAILS
Profiled-rail linear guide rails and bearings offer high stiffness and
good travel accuracy. They can support downward, upward, and
side loads ... and they can also withstand overhung or moment
loads. Of course, the larger the linear rail and bearing system, the
more moment capacity it has. Besides size, the arrangement of the
profiled-rail rolling elements — face-to-face or back-to-back —
also influences the amount of overhung load that it can support.
While the face-to-face design (also known as the X arrangement)
provides equal load capacities in all directions, it results in a
Many linear actuator designs include two rails in parallel with the
drive mechanism — belt, screw, or linear motor — incorporated
between the rails. While it’s not imperative that the drive be
centered between the guide rails, centering does help ensure
even loading on all of the bearings — and reduces cogging
... the uneven drive forces on each rail and bearing set. This
arrangement also reduces the height of the actuator, making
it relatively compact given the high load and moment capacity
provided by the dual guide rails.
Another linear-guide option — that of recirculating bearings
(bushings) that ride on round shafts — are unable to handle roll
moments. This is why most linear bushing applications require
that two shafts be used in parallel.

BACK-TO-BACK RACEWAY: FACE-TO-FACE RACEWAY:

LONGER MOMENT ARM SHORT MOMENT ARM
The face-to-face raceway arrangement
results in a shorter moment arm and
lower moment capacities. The face-to-
face design is also known as the X
arrangement because the contact lines
between the balls and the raceways
point inward, forming an X inside the rail.

a The back-to-back raceway arrangement

produces a longer moment arm and higher
moment capacities. The back-to-back design is
also known as the O arrangement because the
contact lines between the balls and the raceways
point outward, forming an O around the rail.

The BSGS type consists of a block and a guide rail,

both having two R-shape raceway grooves machined
by precision grinding. The block consists of a main
body having raceway grooves and a resin return cap
ensuring smooth circulation of balls. These precision
steel balls roll in the respective raceway groove with
contact at four points. Image courtesy of Del-Tron

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 Roller-bearing rail guides: Where they excel

Image courtesy of Del-Tron

R
oller rail guides, which use cylindrical or barrel-shaped rollers For example, a size-25 ball rail guide with a load capacity of 20,000
instead of spherical balls for the load–bearing elements, are N and an applied force of 2,000 N will have a dynamic travel life of
typically associated with machine-tool applications. But the 100,000 km.
performance benefits that rollers bring to machining centers
can be worthwhile in other applications as well. If you’re designing a
machine or system that requires linear motion, consider these three
advantages that roller rail guides offer.
A roller rail guide of the same size, with 24,000 N load capacity and
2,000 N applied force will have a dynamic travel life of 395,600 km.
FIRST — HIGHER LOAD CAPACITY

When subjected to a load, rollers form line contact with the guide
surface, which is much larger than the point contact that is formed
when balls are subjected to a load. This gives roller rail guides higher
load capacities than ball rail guides of the same size.
This higher load capacity is further amplified by the bearing life
equation for rollers. Rather than being raised to the 1/3 power as with
ball rail guides, the life equation for roller rail guides is raised to the
10/3 power. This means that even a small premium in load capacity
for a roller bearing versus a ball bearing translates to a much higher
travel life for the roller version.
Ball rail guide life equation:
In applications where ball rail guides would fail to provide sufficient
life, or where the required size would be too large to be practical,
roller rail guides can provide a solution. Consider an injection-
molding application implementing automated part loading and
unloading, but with a machine design having limited equipment
access. Here, roller rail guides might support the axis’ linear motor
from the bottom to open the top area to more loading and unloading
access. Here, roller rail guides might be the only linear bearing
option with sufficient load capacity and travel life.

Roller rail guide life equation:

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(continued)
Roller-bearing rail guides: Where they excel
SECOND — ABILITY TO DOWNSIZE
As our example illustrates, the higher load capacity and longer life
of roller bearings mean that designers can often use roller bearings
that are one or two sizes smaller (for example size 25 rather than
size 45) than the ball bearings that would be needed to get an
equivalent travel life.
Downsizing of the linear bearings can be especially beneficial in
multi-axis or gantry applications, where weight saved on one axis has
a trickle-down effect on the supporting axes, potentially saving tens
of thousands of dollars in component costs.
In a three-axis Cartesian or gantry system, reducing the mass of the Z
axis reduces the static and dynamic forces on the Y axis, which means
that the Y axis can potentially be downsized. Likewise with the X axis,
reducing the mass of the Y and Z axes may allow downsizing of the
X axis, because the forces acting on it are reduced. This downsizing
applies to the linear guides and drive mechanism (whether linear
motor, ball screw, or otherwise) and motor along with other
components such as couplings, gearboxes, and cable carriers. This
provides savings in material cost, energy usage, and space.
THIRD — HIGHER RIGIDITY
The line contact formed by rollers also provides higher rigidity than
the point contact formed by balls, which is the primary reason that
roller rail guides are so widely adopted in machine tools. However,
Balls under load develop point contact with the raceway,
whereas rollers under load develop line contact.
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MOTION DESIGN GUIDE I PROFILED-RAIL LINEAR GUIDES
printing processes that involve pressing, such as flexographic printing
and narrow web printing, also benefit from the rigidity of roller rail
guides. Less deflection of the guide block means less deflection of
the printing head, resulting in a higher quality print.
Some in the woodworking industry use roller rail guides for their
higher rigidity, especially in processes with high shock loads, such
as veneering. He also points out that sealing is even more critical for
roller rail guides than for ball rail guides. This is because in a ball rail
guide, the balls can push debris to a location outside the contact
zone ... because the balls only have point contact with the raceway.
But the line contact that rollers form with the raceway leaves nowhere
for the debris to go outside the load zone, so any amount of debris
that makes its way into the bearing will affect life and performance.
When comparing ball and roller rail guides, designers will find that
roller rails are more expensive than ball rails. But as mentioned
earlier, the best metric for comparing cost is not the price of the
components, but the cost per km of travel. In the example above, if
the ball bearing costs $1,000 and has a travel life of 100,000 km, its
cost per km of travel is $0.01. If the roller bearing costs 25% more at
$1,250 but has a travel life of 395,600 km, its cost per km of travel is
only $0.003 — less than half a cent.
If your application requires very high load capacities or significant
rigidity, or if you’re designing a gantry-type arrangement where
weight and space savings are critical, be sure to compare the
performance and cost of roller rail guides with that of ball rail guides
before making a final linear-guide selection.
GUIDE RACEWAY AND CARRIAGE DEFLECTION
Fdown
δdown
DOWNWARD LOAD
Fside
SIDE LOAD δside
Fliftoff
δup
Deflection can be caused
by downward, upward, or
sideways forces.
LIFTING LOAD
AS IN A
SUSPENDED ARRANGEMENT
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▼
Linear bearing seals: options and applications

S
eals for recirculating linear
bearings serve two functions
— keeping contamination
out and keeping lubrication
in — to ensure the system operates
properly without premature wear or
failure. Because sealing is so critical to
linear bearing systems, manufacturers
offer a variety of sealing designs and
materials to meet a wide range of
applications and environments.

STANDARD LINEAR
BEARING SEALS

Ball slide design offers the following advantages:

The basic seal offered by most recirculating linear guide
manufacturers is either a single- or double-lipped style.
These seals make positive, line contact with the rail, for good
protection against both fine particulates and liquids.
• Self cleaning (point contact of balls and shafts does not allow foreign
material to interfere.
• Low cost (Ball and shaft materials are common and easily manufactured).

Double-lipped seals provide two barriers between the external
environment and the internal components of the bearing and
are often used for very fine dust — such as ceramic or glass —
and hazardous chemicals. Some manufacturers also offer triple-
lipped seals as an optional accessory.
Crossed roller slide design offers the following advantages:
• Line contact of roller to shafts offer 8 x 10 times the load capacity of balls.
• Higher over hanging load capacity and low axial play.
Image courtesy of Del-Tron

When contamination includes large, coarse debris that could

damage the lip seals — such as metal or wood chips or welding
slag — a metal scraper can be used in addition to the standard
lip seals. Metal scrapers leave a small gap between the seal and
the guide rail, but they do a good job of wiping, or scraping,
larger debris from the rail. It’s important to note that because
they’re non-contacting, metal scrapers aren’t typically suitable
for use on their own, without additional sealing options.

Most recirculating linear bearing designs also include internal

(sometimes referred to as universal) seals, which protect against
any contamination that makes its way past the front seal or that
may collect in or around the rail mounting holes.

When we think of linear bearing seals, we typically think of

the front seals, located on each end of the bearing block.
But most recirculating linear bearings also include side seals
(also referred to as longitudinal or lateral seals) as a standard
component. These prevent contamination from entering from
below, along the sides of the bearing block — particularly
when the assembly is mounted on its side, vertically or upside-
down. However, while side seals provide an additional layer of
protection, the front seals typically do the bulk of the work in
terms of keeping contaminants out.

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 MOTION DESIGN GUIDE I PROFILED-RAIL LINEAR GUIDES
(continued)
Roller-bearing rail guides: Where they excel

SEALS FOR SPECIAL APPLICATIONS AND
ENVIRONMENTS
Standard seals for recirculating bearings are made of thermoplastic
material (TEEE) such as Hytrel from Dupont. And most
manufacturers offer versions made of fluoroelastomer (FPM or
FKM) such as Viton from Chemours, which are compatible with a
wide range of chemicals and lubricants. Fluoroelastomers also have
a large range of operating temperatures, so can be used in both
high- and low-temperature environments.
Keep in mind that the more contact the seal makes with the running
surface, the more force is required to overcome the seal friction. This
additional friction can affect the sizing and selection of the system’s
drive components. Manufacturers often publish (or can provide) the
amount of force required to overcome friction due to seals.
Although seals are recommended for profiled rail linear guides,
due to their importance in maintaining proper lubrication, round
shaft linear guides and cam roller guides can be operated without
seals. Plain bearing linear guides are also typically used without
seals, unless the environment contains significant contamination.

In some environments — particularly in cleanrooms — the

particulate released to the environment due to seal drag is a greater
concern than contamination from the operating environment
entering the bearing block. For these cases, manufacturers offer
low-friction versions of bearing seals. These are typically contacting-
type seals, but with less preload between the seal and the rail
surfaces than a standard contacting-type seal. Low-friction seals are
also used in applications where seal drag (friction due to the bearing
seals) should be minimized to meet application requirements, such
as low running torque or force.

Straight line, or non-recirculating slides, have rolling elements which move on a straight track and are separated by a retainer.
The slide reaches the end of its travel when the retainer or rolling element contacts a limiting component, (either a screw head
or end cap). This travel limitation is determined by the relationship of the retainer length to the carriage length. Standard slides
usually have travel equal to 1/3 the carriage length. Maximum total travel can be as much a 1x the carriage length. Therefore,
for more travel, you must specify a longer slide. This design offers extremely low friction and stiction characteristics.

Recirculating slide designs offer travel which is not limited by carriage size. In this design the rolling elements revolve within an
oval track inside the carriage. Image courtesy of Del-Tron

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 How raceway geometry affects
profiled-rail guide performance

Extra wide type (BSGSW) is also available. With its

increased number of rolling elements and increased
width, this unit can replace the use of two linear
guides. Stiffness in regard to moment load is
increased, thus creating an effective compact linear
motion mechanism. Image courtesy of Del-Tron

I
n the context of profiled rail guides with recirculating balls, the raceway geometry
defines how the load-carrying balls are positioned relative to the raceways of the rail
and the bearing (aka carriage or slide). The two most common raceway geometries O
are referred to as circular arc and Gothic arch, but some manufacturers have adopted
a third raceway design, referred to as offset Gothic arch. While neither design can be
deemed better than the others, the raceway geometry affects performance factors such
as stiffness, friction, and moment load capacity. CIRCULAR ARC CONTACT

Circular arc raceway geometry provides

two-point contact between the ball and
CIRCULAR ARC RACEWAY GEOMETRY the raceways.

The defining feature of circular arc raceway geometry is that it allows the load-carrying balls to make contact with the
raceways at two points. This results in less differential slip, and therefore, lower friction, than the other geometries. An
important design parameter of profiled rail guides with circular arc contact is that the raceway curvature is in the range
of 51 to 52% of the ball diameter. This relatively low curvature means bearings with circular arc geometer generally have
higher load capacities than other designs.

The two-point contact of circular arc

designs also allows some self-adjusting
capability, so the requirements for precision
and rigidity of the mounting base are less
stringent than the requirements for other
geometries.

ROLLER RACEWAY TRACK PROFILES Raceway geometry affects

axis stiffness, friction, and
moment load capacity.

CIRCULAR ARC
OFFSET
GOTHIC ARCH
GOTHIC ARCH

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 MOTION DESIGN GUIDE I PROFILED-RAIL LINEAR GUIDES
(continued)
How raceway geometry affects profiled rail guide performance

Note that because the circular arc geometry has only two-point contact, two rows of
balls on each side of the carriage (bearing) are required to support liftoff loads.

R
There are two sub-types of profiled rail guides with circular arc geometry, specified by
how the contact lines between the load carrying balls and the raceways are oriented:
in a back-to-back (also known as O) arrangement or a face-to-face (also known as X)
O arrangement. The geometry and length of these contact lines determine how well the
bearing can support overturning, or moment, loads.

The back-to-back arrangement provides a larger moment arm between the raceways,
GOTHIC ARCH CONTACT
so it has a better roll moment capacity and is better suited for use in a single-rail
arrangement with moment loads present. On the other hand, the lower moment rigidity
of the face-to-face arrangement allows it to withstand some amount of distortion, or
inaccuracy, in the mounting surface. The face-to-face arrangement also provides equal
load capacities in all directions — downward, liftoff, and side loads.

GOTHIC ARCH RACEWAY GEOMETRY

The Gothic arch raceway geometry provides four-point contact for each load-carrying ball, which provides higher
rigidity. However, bearings with a Gothic arch geometry — despite having four-point contact — generally have lower
load capacities than similar circular arc designs. This is because the raceway curvature is higher — at 55 to 60% of the
ball diameter. (Recall from above that a higher raceway curvature means lower load capacity.) The four-point contact
also reduces the bearing’s ability to compensate for inaccuracies in the mounting base, so mounting requirements for
bearings with Gothic arch geometry are generally more stringent than for those with circular arc geometry.

The main benefits of Gothic arch designs are their ability to withstand loads from any direction and their relatively high
moment load capacities. That means bearings that use only two rows of recirculating balls (one row on each side of the
bearing) will typically have a Gothic arch arrangement.

Differential slip limitation of Gothic arch geometry: The most significant limitation of the Gothic arch design is
a phenomenon known as differential slip. In a recirculating ball bearing, the contact area between the ball and the
raceway is often referred to as point contact, but because of the conformity between the ball and the raceway, the
contact area is actually an ellipse along the outer diameter of the ball. (The circular arc geometry presents two elliptical
contact areas, and the Gothic arch geometry provides four elliptical contact areas.)

CONTACT FOOTPRINT AND FOOTPRINTS

With circular arc geometry, the difference in

D2 D1 diameters along which the ball can roll (D1-D2)
D1 D2
is relatively small. With Gothic arch geometry,
the difference in rolling diameters is large,
resulting in higher differential slip ... and
therefore higher friction.

CIRCULAR ARC GOTHIC ARCH

TWO CONTACT POINTS FOUR CONTACT POINTS

D1 - D2
PERCENT SLIP = × 100
D1

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 MOTION DESIGN GUIDE I PROFILED-RAIL LINEAR GUIDES
(continued)
How raceway geometry affects profiled rail guide performance

An elliptical contact area means the diameter along which the ball rolls
(and therefore the rolling speed) will vary, depending on what portion of
the ellipses are engaged. This presents an opportunity for the ball to slip,
MASS MOMENT OF INERTIA
or slide, rather than roll — meaning the bearing will experience sliding

M
friction. This phenomenon is referred to as differential slip.
ass moment of inertia (also referred to
The larger the difference between these two diameters, the more as second moment of mass, angular
differential slip the ball with experience. The Gothic arch design results mass, or rotational inertia) specifies
in much larger difference between the rolling diameters, and therefore, the torque needed to produce a desired
higher differential slip and higher sliding friction. In addition, differential slip angular acceleration about a rotational axis
increases with increased contact area, so Gothic arch designs are somewhat and depends on the distribution of the
limited in the preload they can withstand before sliding friction becomes object’s mass (including a shape) around
the axis. It has the same relationship to
detrimental to the running characteristics.
angular acceleration that mass has to linear
acceleration. Mass moment of inertia like
planar moment is typically denoted I ... but
OFFSET GOTHIC-ARCH RACEWAY GEOMETRY
unlike planar moment, the units for mass
moment of inertia are slug-ft2 or kg-m2 mass-
distance squared.
Some manufacturers use what is referred to as offset Gothic arch geometry.
The offset Gothic arch design uses four rows of recirculating balls (two on The mass moment of inertia equation for a
each side of the bearing) in a Gothic arch geometry, but the centers of the point mass is simply I = mr2 where I = mass
top and bottom raceways are offset. This gives the balls two-point contact moment of inertia; m = point mass; and r =
(similar to the circular arc design). distance to axis of rotation.
For a rigid body, the mass moment of inertia
Under normal loading and low preloads, the top rows of balls sustain the
is calculated by integrating the mass moment
load. But under very high loading, or when there are impact loads, the
of each element of the body’s mass I = ∫ r2
bottom two rows of balls become engaged and provide additional load-
dm where I = mass moment of inertia; dm =
carrying capacity. The offset Gothic arch design provides low friction under element of mass; and r = distance to axis of
normal loading, but under heavier loads and higher preloads, rigidity — rotation.
and friction — are increased.
When sizing linear systems, the most
important use for mass moment of inertia is
probably in motor selection, where the ratio
IMPACT AND HEAVY LOADING between the load inertia and the motor inertia
is a critical performance factor.
NORMAL AND
NORMAL LOADING IMPACT LOADING

Under normal loads, the top rows of balls carry

the load with two-point contact. But under
heavy loads or impact loading, the bottom rows
become engaged to help support the load.

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▼
Difference between dynamic load
capacity and static load capacity
SURFACE FATIGUE CAUSES
FRACTURES

W
ith so much of the design of linear systems dependent
on load capacity, it makes sense to review exact
definitions surrounding this parameter. Recall that
rolling-element linear bearings such as round shafts ABRASION CAUSES
GROOVES
and bushings, profiled rail guides, crossed roller slides, and even
ball screws have two load capacity specifications. These values are
dynamic load capacity and static load capacity — which are based
on different operating parameters and performance criteria and are
independent of each other.

To accurately size and select a rolling element linear bearing or ball
screw, it’s essential to understand the differences between them and
when each one is used.
Note that the Rockwell scale hardness of a linear guide is relevant
here: Many raceways have a Rockwell scale value (Rc) around 60 or
so. Softer raceways tend to degrade static and dynamic-load ratings.
Dynamic load capacity C is based on empirical testing in which a
load that is constant in magnitude and normal to the load-bearing
surfaces allows the bearing to achieve a defined travel distance
(linear guide) or number of revolutions (ball screw) without fatigue.
Fatigue is defined as the presence of flaking on the surface of the
rolling elements or the raceways.
The dynamic load capacity is used to determine the rated life of a
rolling element bearing. This life is commonly referred to as the L10
life, because it is the life that 90% of a group of identical bearings
is expected to achieve under set conditions of load and speed. As
mentioned earlier, for linear bearings that use balls:
For linear bearings that use rollers:
ADHESION CAUSES
MATERIAL TRANSFER
TRIBOCHEMICAL REACTIONS CAUSE
PARTICLE SHEDDING
Fatigue failure contributes to raceway degradation.
on 100,000 m is being compared to a linear guide whose dynamic
load capacity is based on 50,000 m, one of the following conversions
should be applied: Divide the 50,000 m load capacity by 1.26 or
multiply the 100,000 m load capacity by 1.26.
Keep in mind that the rated L10 life is a theoretical life based on a clean
environment, proper lubrication, and correct mounting. The bearing’s
actual operating life can be negatively affected by contamination, lack
of lubrication, improper mounting, and other factors.
Static load capacity C0 is the amount of load a bearing can withstand
before the sum of the ball and raceway deformation equals 0.01%
of (0.0001 times) the ball diameter as defined by ISO 14728-2. Static
load capacity is almost always higher than dynamic load capacity
because its limitation is plastic deformation of the ball and raceway
material, which occurs when the load is applied to the bearing in a
static (non-moving) or slow-moving state.

Where L10 = Calculated (rated) life of the bearing; C = Basic dynamic
load capacity; F = Applied load
Dynamic load capacity and the L10 life calculation are defined by the
ISO 14728-1 standard for linear bearings, and by the ISO 3408-5
standard for ball screws. The ball screw standard specifies that dynamic
load capacity is based on an L10 life of 1 million revolutions. However,
the linear bearing standard allows the dynamic load capacity to be
specified for an L10 life of either 50,000 m or 100,000 m.
Static loads are often the result of shocks to the bearing that are
unplanned and difficult to quantify. Therefore, linear bearing and
ball screw manufacturers recommend applying a static safety factor,
depending on the type of application and the operating conditions.
The static safety factor is the ratio between the basic static load
rating and the maximum combined static load applied to the
bearing. It can range from 2 for smooth operating conditions with a
low risk of vibrations, to as high as 5 or 6 for applications that may be
subjected to severe shock loads.

The basis of the L10 life for linear bearings is important to note
— especially when comparing linear guides from different Where S0 = static load safety factor; C0 = static load capacity; F0max =
manufacturers, or even of different series from the same maximum combined static load.
manufacturer. If a linear guide whose dynamic load capacity is based

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Miniature
linear guides
for OEM And
plant designs
M
iniature profiled-rail linear guides complete many motion
designs requiring long-term performance and accuracy to
within just a couple μm or even better in some cases. The
majority of these slides are at most just a couple inches
wide; strokes however range widely — from just a few millimeters to
a couple meters or more. Besides being simply smaller than other
linear guides, miniature guides can also bear high loads offer features
necessary to the operation of specialty designs. The most common
applications are on axes associated less with processing workpieces
and more with the transport of items in machines for packaging;
semiconductor manufacture; electron microscopes; printing and
office equipment; laboratory and test and measurement installations;
medical equipment; and precision industrial settings.
When specifying miniature linear guides, engineers must balance
design objectives related to payload, speed, precision, compactness,
efficiency, and cost. Sometimes called the price-performance ratio,
this quantifies a design’s performance level for a given price.
Where miniature linear slides operate in dirty locations, dustproof
variations (complete with end seals for hermetic sealing) can extend
machine life. Thanks to low-friction seal lips doing double duty, some
such designs exhibit minimal lubrication consumption as well. In
addition, bottom seals on the carriage of some linear-guide designs
can prevent environmental particulate (such as iron shavings or dust)
from entering the ball runners from below — which makes for longer
overall life. Complementary lubrication pads along with the carriage
seals fully contain lubrication grease.
There are two other factors that make the design of many miniature
guides slightly different than that of traditionally sized guides. Miniature
guides are less forgiving of mounting error — especially when employed
in twin-rail arrangements. In addition, allowable preload is limited to
a few micrometers … and in many cases, zero preload or even slight
clearance is recommended where suitable to extend design life.

Often a lower price-to-performance ratio indicates a higher-value

component ... though where the value is expressed as cost-benefit
ratio, the term expresses quantified performance divided by price,
and larger values are better.

Just consider miniature linear slides on semiconductor-manufacturing

equipment needing high speed and precision for wire-bonding
processes. Here, of utmost importance is controlling overall costs
while ensuring that the machine’s inaccessible linear axes can operate
for thousands of strokes without relubrication.

This and other miniature-slide applications typically necessitate
customized solutions — from suppliers that custom-cut and grind
rail to length and offer slides to many feet long. Multi-carriage
arrangements (for bearing more than one independently moved load)
are possible. Other customizable features from some suppliers include
rail and carriage width and height; seals and lubrication systems;
reinforcement plates; and special materials and coatings. The latter is
particularly relevant to the rail, which can be carbon steel or stainless
steel where necessary to prevent corrosion. Of course, carbon steel
rail is cost effective … especially over very long runs. Reinforcing end
plates tend to let the linear assembly run at higher speeds.
Many Del-Tron slides allow the preload to be set to a specific amount to
accommodate the needs of the application. A light, medium, or heavy
preload may be ordered. The amount of preload can expressed as grams
of force needed to move either the base or carriage. Contact the Del-Tron
engineering staff to discuss your special preload requirements. Slide preload
and axial play are related.
• Increased preload = less axial play
• Decreased preload = more axial play
Image courtesy of Del-Tron

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Five things to consider in
vertical applications
LOADING IN VERTICAL SETUPS

M
ounting orientation is one of the core considerations
when sizing and selecting a linear actuator. Depending
on the type of linear guides used, some actuators can
support higher downward or liftoff loads than side loads F
… or can handle pitch and yaw moments better than roll moments
— all important factors when evaluating an actuator for vertical
duty. The type of drive mechanism also influences an actuator’s
suitability for vertical operation. Screws, whether ball screws or
lead screws, are generally preferred over belts or linear motors for
carrying loads vertically, but they do have some limitations.

The unique challenges of working against (and sometimes with)

gravity go beyond just loading. Below are five factors that designers
and engineers should consider when choosing a linear actuator for
vertical duty.
Vertical applications experience different loading
conditions in the upward and downward strokes.
LOADING IN VERTICAL APPLICATIONS

even distributed, or from external forces due to the process. The

While load placement and orientation are two of the first best scenario, if space allows, is to choose an actuator that uses two
parameters to examine in any application, it is worth emphasizing guide rails with two bearing blocks each.
for actuators mounted in a vertical orientation. Because the actuator
will be working against gravity during the upward stroke and will
be assisted by gravity on the down stroke, the loads in each case LUBRICATION IN VERTICAL APPLICATIONS
will be different, regardless of the process (pressing, pulling, or
transporting, for example). This will affect not only the bearing life
of the guides and drive mechanism, but also the required motor
Most bearings and actuators have lubrication ports on all four
torque. In addition, the force of gravity on the load when starting
sides, primarily to accommodate access in case there are obstacles
and stopping will influence the
that block one or more port. For some designs, orientation of the
inertia of the system, which
LUBRICATION assembly also dictates which lubrication ports should be used.
also plays a role both actuator
Because gravity is a hindrance to lubricating the upper tracks of a
selection and motor sizing.
linear guide or the uppermost raceways of a screw, it’s key to check
In a vertical application, it is manufacturer lubrication guidelines for vertical mounting. Often
generally recommended to use manufacturers recommend against using oil in vertical applications.
two bearing blocks on each For grease, many assemblies have specially metered lubrication
guide rail. This ensures that the pathways to ensure the grease reaches all critical surfaces.
assembly can support the pitch
and yaw moment loads that
arise during acceleration and BUCKLING LOAD IN VERTICAL APPLICATIONS
deceleration. Similarly using an
actuator with two guide rails in
parallel will enable the actuator When using a ball screw or lead screw in a vertical application, the
to handle any roll moments that full load is experienced as an axial force, which can cause the screw
arise from a load that is not to bend and eventually buckle under the load.

Using the correct ports is key to ensuring linear guides

stay properly lubricated in vertical applications.

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(continued)
Five things to consider in vertical applications
Buckling load is determined by the screw’s root diameter,
unsupported length, and end bearing arrangement. The end
bearing arrangement has a significant influence on buckling
load. The more rigidly fixed the screw assembly is, the higher its
permissible buckling load will be. For example, a screw with a fixed-
fixed bearing arrangement has 16 times the permissible buckling
load than a screw with fixed-free end mounting.
Where Fc = maximum compressive load (N); fb = end bearing factor;
d1 = root diameter of screw (mm); L = unsupported length (mm)
Arranging the screw with the fixed bearing on the top will put the
screw in tension, avoiding excessive compressive forces on the
screw. Most ball or lead screw actuators are constructed with the
fixed bearing on the driven (motor) end ... but it’s important to
check the bearing arrangement and ensure the actuator is mounted
in such a way that the fixed bearing is on the top.
BACKDRIVING IN VERTICAL APPLICATIONS
For safety reasons, screws are usually preferred over belts or linear
motors in vertical applications, as they help prevent a load from
catastrophically crashing if there’s a loss of power to the motor.
However, they can and often will backdrive — depending on the
screw’s friction, lead angle, and efficiency. (In general, leadscrews
have a lower tendency to back drive due to their lower efficiencies.)
The likelihood of a screw assembly to back drive can be determined
LOAD ANGLE AND LIFE
1.5
APPROXIMATE EQUIVALENT LOAD
1.0
ACTUAL EQUIVALENCE LOAD
0.5
0 10%
LIFE COMPARISON CHART (AS PERCENT)
FOR VARIOUS ANGLES UNDER SAME LOAD
Load acting at a 45° angle
degrades system life most.
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MOTION DESIGN GUIDE I PROFILED-RAIL LINEAR GUIDES
by calculating the backdriving torque and comparing it to the
friction force of the assembly (drag torque of the nut, friction from
the seals, and friction from the end bearings). If the backdriving
torque is less than the assembly’s friction, the load is unlikely to
cause backdriving.
Where Tb = back driving torque (Nm); F = axial load (N); P = screw
lead (m); η2 = reverse efficiency (0.8 to 0.9 for ball screws)
Note that efficiency when back driving is typically less than the
efficiency for normal operation. Be sure to check the manufacturer’s
specification for the back driving efficiency.
CONTAMINATION IN VERTICAL APPLICATIONS
Actuators in a vertical orientation have the benefit that liquid
contamination will typically drain away, reducing the risk of
corrosion. However, very fine and light particulates such as
fiberglass and ceramic powder are more likely to adhere to bearing
surfaces and simply be pushed along by end seals, causing a
build-up of contamination and increasing the risk of entry into the
bearings.
To ensure the best protection in vertical applications, linear guides
with both front and side seals should be used. Also choosing an
actuator with its own sealing or covering mechanism (preferably a
full-contact seal rather than just a cover plate) provides additional
protection against both airborne and liquid contamination.
100%
90%
80%
70%
These example linear-slide life plots map actual
60% and equivalence load for myriad loading angles.
50%
40%
30%
20% For horizontally or vertically applied load (0°
0%
or 90° or 180° or 270°) actual and equivalent
loads are equal. But loading at 45° makes the
equivalent load (blue line) about 1.414 times that
of actual load.
In short, linear-system service life is longest when
linear bearings are correctly oriented with the
Ball Roller
application’s load.
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Hertz contact stresses in
linear bearings

© Phuchit • Dreamstime

L
inear bearings that use balls or rollers to carry a load (as
opposed to plain linear bearings) are subjected to Hertz
contact stresses. This is a type of material stress that
significantly impacts bearing load capacity and fatigue life.
When two surfaces of different radii are in contact and a load is
applied (even an extremely small load) a small contact area is formed
— and the involved regions experience very high stresses. These
stresses are known as Hertz (or Hertzian) contact stresses. In rolling-
element linear bearings, Hertz contact stresses occur on the balls (or
cylinders) and the raceways.
In theory, the contact between two spheres occurs at a point,
and the contact between two cylinders occurs as a line. In either
case — point or line contact — the resulting pressure between the
two surfaces would be infinite and the surfaces would experience
immediate yielding.
In real-world applications, when two surfaces are pressed together
with a force, some elastic deformation occurs at each surface ... and
a contact area forms. The stresses occurring on the two surfaces
may still be very high (sufficient to initiate spalling or other forms of
failure) but not actually infinite.
Analysis of Hertzian contact stresses relies on four assumptions:
• The surfaces are smooth and frictionless
• The bodies are isotropic and elastic
• The contact area is small relative to the contacting bodies’ sizes
• Strains on the bodies are small and within the elastic limit
Hertzian stresses are present when any two surfaces with different radii
are in contact — even if one surface is flat or if one surface is convex
and the other is concave — the case for rolling-element bearings. In
this case, the ball or roller is convex, and the raceway is concave. In the
analysis of Hertz contact stresses, a convex surface (the ball or roller)
has a positive radius, and the concave surface (the raceway) has a
negative radius. Of course, flat surfaces have an infinite radius.
Because the surfaces have different radii, the contact area between
a spherical ball (or a cylindrical roller) and a bearing raceway has an
elliptical shape. Under these conditions, the maximum pressure between
the two surfaces is given by separate geometry-based equations.

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 MOTION DESIGN GUIDE I PROFILED-RAIL LINEAR GUIDES
(continued)
Hertz contact stresses in linear bearings

HERTZ CONTACT STRESSES AND LINEAR BEARINGS

Hertz contact stresses have a significant effect on bearing

dynamic load capacity and L10 life. Shear stresses, which cause
fatigue — a primary mode of failure of rolling elements — are
proportional to the maximum Hertz pressure between the two NORMAL
LOAD F
bodies.
L
Hertz contact and the resulting deformation of surfaces is also
what causes bearings to skid rather than roll. This is because CYLINDRICAL
the Hertz contact areas have different diameters than the rolling ROLLER

elements themselves, so the rolling elements slip. Hertz contact

has implications for bearing preload as well. Preloading the 2b
rolling elements gives them a larger — and finite — Hertz contact d
LINEAR TRACK
area, which increases stiffness. But the increased contact results in (RACEWAY)

high heat generation.

That’s why a preload amount of just 8% is considered high

preload for linear bearings ... and preload greater than 10 to 15%
being extremely rare. Plus because Hertz contact is nonlinear,
a small amount of preload can provide a significant increase in
stiffness without resulting in unacceptable slip, friction, and heat.

NORMAL
LOAD F

SPHERICAL
ROLLER

LINEAR TRACK
2b 2a (RACEWAY)

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▼
primer on needle-roller linear bearings
M
ost engineers are familiar with rotary needle roller
bearings — often called simply needle roller bearings.
These are used extensively in automotive and industrial
power transmission applications due to their compact
size and high load-carrying capability. But needles rollers aren’t just
for rotary bearings. They also find use in linear bearings as well.
For profiled-rail linear bearings, needle rollers were first incorporated
into non-recirculating linear guides.
Now, manufacturers have recently introduced recirculating profiled
rail guides with needle roller bearings to meet ever-increasing
demands for rigidity and smoothness of motion.
So how do needle rollers differ from traditionally sized cylindrical
rollers? The key difference is the roller’s length-to-diameter ratio. To
be categorized as a needle roller, the roller’s length must be at least
3 times its diameter. In fact, needle rollers can have a length-to-
diameter ratio between 3:1 and 10:1, whereas cylindrical rollers have
a length-to-diameter ratio of less than 3:1.
The traditional load-carrying components in linear bearings —
both recirculating and non-recirculating types — are either balls
or cylindrical rollers, both of which provide high load capacity, low
friction, and good rigidity for linear motion applications. But just as
cylindrical rollers offer a boost in performance over balls — especially
in terms of load capacity and rigidity — needle rollers offer even better
performance than cylindrical rollers in some respects.
In radial bearings, one of the main reasons for using needle rollers
is their compact size, but in linear bearings, the main benefits of
needle rollers over balls or cylindrical rollers are even higher load
capacities and better rigidity. This is because when needle rollers
are used, the load is distributed among smaller and more numerous
rollers — each of which has a larger contact area than a cylindrical
roller due to the needle roller’s longer length. This reduces the
pressure per roller and allows the bearing to carry higher loads. Less
load per roller also means less deformation and higher rigidity. In
fact, the rigidity of a needle roller linear bearing can be up to 50%
higher than that of a cylindrical roller version.
SMALLER ROLLERS SMOOTH LOAD-BEARING TRANSITIONS
MORE VIBRATION
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For recirculating profiled rail bearings, needle rollers also provide
smoother motion in two regards. First, needle rollers have higher
dynamic (running) friction than balls or cylindrical rollers. Although
higher running friction is, in some applications, a negative trait,
in the case of high-load, high-rigidity linear guides, the increased
running friction can be a benefit since it serves to dampen vibrations
due to external forces. Plus with the load dispersed over more
rollers, vertical pulsation of the bearing caused by motion of the
rollers is also reduced.
Rotary needle bearings can be made with or without a cage. In
contrast, the vast majority of recirculating and non-recirculating
linear bearing designs contain the needle rollers in a cage. The
cage prevents skewing and misalignment, ensures the needle rollers
are evenly loaded, and prevents de-rating of speed capabilities. In
addition, for non-recirculating designs, cages are offered with anti-
creep or cage control mechanisms to ensure the cage remains in its
centered position.
Because needle roller linear bearings use a higher count of rollers
than ball or cylindrical roller designs, there is less space inside the
bearing for lubrication to be retained. Therefore, proper lubrication
can be even more critical with needle roller linear bearings than with
ball or cylindrical roller versions.
In non-recirculating linear bearings, needle roller designs fit
applications that require higher load capacities and better rigidity
within the same (or similar) dimensions as traditional ball or cylindrical
roller versions. In recirculating profiled rail bearings, needle roller
designs meet application demands — often found in the machine tool
industry — for extreme rigidity and the smoothest motion possible.
LESS VIBRATION
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▼ Appendix: Engineering review of repeatability,
accuracy, and inertial values
ACCURACY
T
here are numerous ways to classify the performance of
linear positioning devices such as ball screws, belts, and
rack and pinion systems, but the terminology can be
confusing. The two most common terms, accuracy and
repeatability, and are often used interchangeably. When someone
says that a ball screw is very accurate, they may really mean that
it’s repeatable. In fact, accuracy and repeatability are unrelated. A
system can be very accurate but not very repeatable, or vice-versa.
Here’s the difference …
The formal definition of accuracy is the degree to which a
measurement, calculation, or specification conforms to the correct
or known value or standard. In relation to a linear drive system,
this can be taken to mean the degree to which the final position
matches the commanded position.
So if we command a rack and pinion system to travel 535 mm,
its accuracy is determined by how closely it achieves 535 mm of
motion. But how accurate is it?
That depends on the amount of error you’re able to accept. If the
application will allow a result of 535 mm ±2 mm, then as long as
the ball screw achieves a position between 533 and 537 mm, it can
be considered accurate.
Accuracy is most influenced by mechanical factors such as backlash,
windup (lack of torsional stiffness), and flexing of components.
On the electrical side, the bandwidth of the control system and
the resolution of the measuring system (encoder or resolver) can
also affect the accuracy of the drive’s movement, since these
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REPEATABILITY
components are responsible for commanding, reading, and
correcting the actual position of the system.
Repeatability is a drive mechanism’s ability to return to the same
position multiple times under identical conditions. Repeatability
can be defined as unidirectional, in which the point is always
approached from the same direction, or bidirectional, in which the
point can be approached from either direction. Unlike accuracy,
which is somewhat subjective depending on the application
requirements, repeatability is an absolute value. For example,
a ball screw can be described as being repeatable to ±0 µm.
Just as a system can be accurate but not repeatable, it can also
be repeatable but not accurate. For example, if the specified
movement is 535 mm ±2 mm, and the system consistently moves to
537.5 mm over several attempts, it is repeatable, but not accurate.
Factors that most influence repeatability are in the mechanics of
the drive system — backlash in a rack and pinion system or lead
deviation of ball screw threads. Repeatability can also be affected
by changes in the system such as expansion or contraction of
components due to temperature fluctuations. While accuracy can
be compensated for by programming within the drive amplifier and
control, repeatability generally cannot be.
For an example from sports, let’s consider a basketball player. If
the player is accurate, he’ll always get the ball close to the hoop. If
his shooting is repeatable, he’ll always shoot to the same location
(hopefully in the basket). The best players are both accurate (hitting
the basket) and repeatable (doing it every time).
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(continued)
Appendix: repeatability, accuracy, And inertia
One last note: The term precision is often used to describe linear
systems. However, precision is more applicable to measuring
systems, where it refers to the variation between repeated
measurements of the same quantity or subject. But when used in
reference to linear motion systems, precision can reasonably be
assumed to mean repeatability, although technically it is just a
qualitative term in this context.
DIFFERENCE BETWEEN INERTIA AND MOMENTUM
The concepts of inertia and momentum are often confused —
possibly due to the similarity of their definitions. Inertia is generally
described as an object’s resistance to motion, with momentum
being the tendency of an object to continue moving. Both have
implications for linear motion applications, but while inertia is a
fundamental sizing parameter, momentum isn’t directly addressed
in system calculations. To distinguish between the two and find out
why that is, we’ll look at the definitions and uses of each.
INERTIA IS RESISTANCE TO CHANGE IN SPEED
Inertia is a body’s resistance to change in speed and is related to
its mass and the distance of that mass from the axis of rotation.
The classic illustration of inertia is a figure skater spinning on the
ice. When her arms are outstretched, a part of her mass is far from
the axis of rotation, and therefore she spins at a relatively slow
speed. But if she pulls her arms in close to her body, her rate of
spin increases, because her entire mass is now close to the axis of
rotation I = mr2 where I = mass moment of inertia (kg·m2 or lb·ft2); m
= mass (kg or lb); and r = distance from axis of rotation (m or ft).
Note that this is a general equation for the inertia of a point mass.
Specific equations are available for various shapes, such as hollow
cylinder, solid cylinder, disc, and so on.
MOMENTUM: MASS IN MOTION
Momentum, on the other hand, is the product of an object’s mass
and velocity, and is sometimes referred to as mass in motion. While
a change in shape — the distance of mass from the axis of rotation
— will change a system’s inertia, the momentum of a system cannot
be changed unless an external force acts on it.
This principle is known as the conservation of momentum. The
classic example of momentum is a game of billiards. Think of a
moving ball, such as the cue ball, colliding with a non-moving
ball. If the cue ball stops moving (v = 0) its momentum has been
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MOTION DESIGN GUIDE I PROFILED-RAIL LINEAR GUIDES
completely transferred to the second ball. If the collision results in
both balls moving, then the cue ball’s momentum is shared by the
two balls.
The equation of momentum for a linear system is simply P = mv
where P = momentum (kg·m/sec or lb·ft/sec); m = mass (kg or lb);
and v = velocity (m/sec or ft/sec).
This equation neatly correlates with the earlier description of
momentum as “mass in motion.” But when the motion is rotational,
the distance of the mass from the rotational axis comes into play.
Therefore, angular momentum is expressed as the product of
rotational inertia and angular velocity: L = I ω where L = angular
momentum (kg·m2/sec or lb·ft2/sec); I = rotational moment of inertia
(kg·m2 or lb·ft2); and ω = angular velocity (rad/sec).
For motion applications, inertia is an important factor in motor
sizing calculations. If the motor’s inertia is significantly smaller than
the inertia of the load or system, the motor will have difficulty
driving and controlling the load, and response time and resonance
will be high. Conversely, if the motor inertia is much greater than
the load or system inertia, then the motor is likely oversized, and
the system will be inefficient.
Although momentum is not directly considered when sizing motion
components, its effect is evident. Back to the ice skater example:
it’s the conservation of angular momentum principle that dictates
that the skater’s speed must increase when her arms are pulled in
close to her body. By reducing her inertia (I = mr2 where r has been
decreased) her angular velocity ω must increase in order for the
angular momentum to remain constant.
MOMENT OF INERTIA: AREA OR MASS?
Moment of inertia is an important parameter when sizing and
selecting a linear system. But it’s critical to know which type of
inertia — planar moment of inertia or mass moment of inertia — is
given and how it affects the performance of the system.
Planar moment of inertia: Planar moment of inertia (also referred
to as second moment of area, or area moment of inertia) defines
how an area’s points are distributed with regard to a reference axis
(typically the central axis) and, therefore, its resistance to bending.
Terminology varies, and sometimes overlaps, for planar moment
and mass moment of inertia. If it’s unclear which type of moment is
specified, just look at the units of the term.
Planar moment of inertia is expressed as ft4 or m4 — length to the
fourth power. I = ∫∫ x 2 dA where I = planar moment of inertia; x =
distance to reference axis; and dA = element of area.
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 MOTION DESIGN GUIDE I PROFILED-RAIL LINEAR GUIDES
(continued)
Appendix: Engineering review of repeatability,
accuracy, and inertial values

The second moment of area can be either MOMENT OF INERTIA

planar or polar. Polar moment of inertia CANTILEVER BEAM WITH LOAD AT FREE END
describes an object’s resistance to torque,
or torsion, and is used only for cylindrical
P
objects. The equation for polar moment of
inertia is essentially the same as that of planar
moment of inertia, but the distance used is
distance to an axis parallel to the area’s cross-
θ
section: I = ∫∫ r2 dA where I = polar moment
of inertia; r = distance to reference axis; and
dA = element of area. y

The planar moment of inertia of a beam

cross-section is an important factor in beam
deflection calculations, and it is also used to
calculate the stress caused by a moment on
P = load
the beam. In linear systems, beam deflection
= length of beam (distance to load)
models are used to determine the deflection E = modulus of elasticity
of cantilevered axes in multi-axis systems. I = planar moment of inertia
Unsupported shafts are also analyzed using
beam deflection calculations. This cantilever beam with a concentrated load
at the free end shows the values associated with
expressions of beam deflection.

Straight Line Accuracy = possible runout in any plane. Measured by

comparison of the line of travel to a master straight edge, using a gauge
or indicator mounted on the slides. Image courtesy of Del-Tron

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