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Advances in Agronomy
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CHAPTER TWO
Contents
1. Introduction 66
2. Greenhouse Effect and Global Warming 67
3. Agents of Global Warming 68
3.1 Carbon dioxide 69
3.2 Methane 69
3.3 Nitrous oxide 69
3.4 Water vapor 70
3.5 Ozone (O3) 70
4. Evidence for Climate Change and Impacts on Agriculture 70
5. Projected Climate Change in India 72
6. Impact of Global Warming on Agriculture and the Food Supply 75
6.1 Effect of elevated concentrations of CO2 on crop growth 76
6.2 Effect of ozone on plants 80
6.3 Effect of increasing temperature on crop growth 81
6.4 Interactive effects of changing climatic factors on crop production 86
6.5 Effect of climate change on the quality of produce 90
6.6 Agricultural surfaces and climate change 91
6.7 Soil erosion and soil fertility 93
6.8 Potential effects of climate change on pests 97
7. Key Adaptation and Mitigation Strategies to Reduce the Effects of Climate Change 103
7.1 Crop-based approaches 105
7.2 Crops and cultivars that fit into new cropping systems and seasons 106
7.3 Cultivars suitable for high temperature, drought, inland salinity, and
submergence tolerance 107
7.4 Cultivars that respond to high CO2 concentration 109
7.5 Mitigation of the impact of climate change 109
7.6 Other strategies 111
7.7 Policy issues for managing climate change 112
8. Conclusions 113
Acknowledgment 114
References 114
Abstract
Progress has been significant in climate science and the direct and indirect influences of
climate on agricultural productivity. With the likely growth of the world's population
toward 10 billion by 2050, demand for food crops will grow faster than demand for
other crops. The prospective climate change is global warming (with associated
changes in hydrologic regimes and other climatic variables) induced by the increasing
concentration of radiatively active greenhouse gases. Climate models project that
global surface air temperatures may increase by 4.0–5.8 C in the next few decades.
These increases in temperature will probably offset the likely benefits of increasing
atmospheric concentrations of carbon dioxide on crop plants. Climate change would
create new environmental conditions over space and time and in the intensity and fre-
quency of weather and climate processes. Therefore, climate change has the potential
to influence the productivity of agriculture significantly. Climate variability has also
become a reality in India. The increase in mean temperature by 0.3–0.6 C per decade
since the 1860s across India indicates significant warming due to climate change. This
warming trend is comparable to global mean increases in temperature in the past
100 years. It is projected that rainfall patterns in India would change with the western
and central areas witnessing as many as 15 more dry days each year, whereas the north-
ern and northwestern areas could have 5 to 10 more days of rainfall annually. Thus, dry
areas are expected to get drier and wet areas wetter. It is projected that India's popu-
lation could reach 1.4 billion by 2025 and may exceed China's in the 2040s. If agricultural
production is adversely affected by climate change, livelihood and food security in India
would be at risk. Because the livelihood system in India is based on agriculture, climate
change could cause increased crop failure and more frequent incidences of pests.
Therefore, future challenges will be more complex and demanding. This chapter
focuses on the variability of climate change and its probabilistic effects on agricultural
productivity and adaptation and mitigation strategies that can help in managing the
adverse effect of climate change on agricultural productivity, in particular for India.
1. INTRODUCTION
Climate is the synthesis of weather conditions in a given area, charac-
terized by long-term statistics (mean values, variances, probabilities of
extreme values, etc.) for the meteorologic elements in that area (World
Meteorological Organization, 1992). Generally, the quantities measured
are surface variables, such as temperature, precipitation, and wind. More
broadly, the “climate” is the description of the state of the climate system
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absorb most of the short-wave radiation from the sun, but also it reradiates
some of this radiation as long-wave radiation. The atmosphere is more effi-
cient at absorbing long-wave radiation, which is then emitted both back to
space and downward toward the Earth. This downward emission heats Earth
further. This further warming by reradiated long-wave radiation from the
atmosphere is known as the greenhouse effect. The amount of long-wave
radiation that is absorbed and then reradiated downward is a function of
the constituents of the atmosphere. Certain gases in the atmosphere are
particularly good at absorbing long-wave radiation and are known as GHGs.
These include water vapor, CO2, CH4, N2O, and CFCs. (Table 2.1). If the
makeup of the atmosphere changes and the result is an increase in concen-
trations of GHGs, then more of the infrared radiation from Earth will be
absorbed by the atmosphere and then reradiated back to Earth. This changes
the radiative forcing of the climate system and results in increased temper-
ature of Earth’s surface, which affects crop growth and production. Global
warming results from the increase in greenhouse effect in the atmosphere. It
is a blanket of gases that wraps around the Earth and holds the heat in. CO2 is
the most common gas that causes global warming. The more the global tem-
perature increases, the more the climate changes.
3.2. Methane
The total annual output of CH4 into the atmosphere from all sources in the
world is estimated to be 535 Tg year1 (Khan et al., 2009). India’s total con-
tribution to global CH4 emissions from all sources is only 18.5 Tg year1.
The increase in annual load of CH4 in the atmosphere is much less than that
of CO2, but its higher absorption accounts for a major contribution to global
warming. Agriculture, mainly continuously flooded rice (Oryza sativa L.)
fields and ruminant animals, is the major (68%) source of CH4 emissions.
Global annual CH4 emissions from rice paddies are less than 13 Tg year1
and the contribution of Indian paddies to this is estimated to be only 4.2 Tg
year1 (Bhattacharya and Mitra, 1998; Sinha et al., 1998). Low CH4 emis-
sions from rice fields in India are mainly because the soils of the major rice-
growing areas have very low organic carbon and are not continuously
flooded.
to the release of this gas. The estimates of total N2O released from Indian
agriculture are low because of relatively low native soil fertility and lower
amounts of fertilizer used than in many developed countries (Khan
et al., 2009).
The major contributor to global warming is the energy sector (which
includes fossil fuel burning), which is responsible for 61% of the total con-
tribution toward global warming. Agriculture and its allied activities con-
tribute to 28% of global warming, followed by the industrial sector (8%),
wastes (2%), and land-use changes (1%).
recently, however, these values have increased to 369 ppm, 1750 ppb, and
316 ppb, respectively.
The global mean annual temperature at the end of the twentieth century
was almost 0.7 C above that recorded at the end of the nineteenth century
and it is likely to increase further by 1.8–6.4 C by AD 2100, with a best
estimate of 1.8–4.0 C (IPCC, 2001, 2007a,b). The decade 1990–2000
was the warmest in the last 300 years and was 0.5 C warmer than the mean
temperature of 1961–1990. Warmer summers have included record hot
spells and high sunshine hours, and the warm winters have reduced the
number of frosts. The quantity of rainfall and its distribution are also greatly
affected by climate change and these are expected to increase the problems of
flooding and soil erosion. Moreover, the sea level has risen and snow cover is
also gradually decreasing due to glacier meltdown, especially near the poles,
and arable land is decreasing near coastal regions due to inundation.
The Panel on Advancing the Science of Climate Change, set up by the
National Research Council (United States) (2010), arrived at several conclu-
sions, whose important ones were (1) that several different research groups
had shown that the planet’s mean temperature was 0.8 C higher during the
first decade of the twenty-first century than during the first decade of the
twentieth century; (2) that much of the warming during the past several
decades could be attributed to anthropogenic activities that released into
the atmosphere CO2 and other GHGs that trap heat and burning of fossil
fuels (coal, oil, and natural gas) for energy was the largest contributor to cli-
mate change; and (3) that agriculture, forest clearing, and certain industrial
activities also made significant contributions to climate change.
The United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) and the WMO
established the IPCC in 1988 to periodically assess the state of the global
environment. A report of the IPCC during 2001 projected that the global
mean temperature above Earth’s surface would rise 1.4–5.8 C during the
next 100 years (IPCC, 2001).
Climate change is a well-recognized, significant, man-made, global
environmental challenge and agriculture is strongly influenced by it
(Hillel and Rosenzweig, 2011; Kang and Banga, 2013). A team of experts
from the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) concluded that each
1 C rise in mean temperature would cause annual wheat (Triticum
aestivum L.) yield losses in India of about 6 million tons (US$ 1.5 billion
at current prices), and, when losses of all other crops were taken into con-
sideration, farmers were projected to lose US$ 20 billion each year (FAO,
Food and Agriculture Organization, 2008; Swaminathan, 2012). Such losses
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Table 2.2 Global share of some countries in CO2 emissions (Sathaye et al., 2006)
CO2 emissions (%)
Country 1990 2003
Canada 2.19 2.39
China 10.41 14.07
France 1.80 1.63
Germany 4.24 3.35
India 2.63 4.07
Italy 1.91 1.85
Japan 5.54 4.79
Russia 9.67 6.38
United Kingdom 2.76 2.24
United States 23.04 23.06
Rest of the world 38.61 36.17
Table 2.3 Per capita carbon emissions from energy for the year 2003
(Sathaye et al., 2006)
Country Carbon emissions (t person1)
Canada 5.19
China 0.78
France 1.86
Germany 2.78
India 0.26
Italy 2.21
Japan 2.58
Russia 3.06
United Kingdom 2.60
United States 5.44
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Andhra Pradesh, and Odisha. However, the parts of the country covering
eastern Uttar Pradesh, eastern Madhya Pradesh, the west coast, and greater
parts of northwest India did not show any changes. Among the rainfed dis-
tricts, 40% of the stations showed a negative trend, 48% showed a positive
trend, and 12% showed no changes in rainfall.
Based on observations from 73 stations, an analysis of the mean annual
surface air temperature across India for 1901–1988 showed a significant
warming of about 0.4 C per 100 years (Hingane et al., 1985). This warming
trend was comparable to the global mean temperature change of 0.5 C in
the last 100 years. Later on, using the all-India mean surface air temperature
for 1901–2000 from a network of 31 well-distributed, representative sta-
tions, the trends in mean annual temperatures across the country were deter-
mined (Rupa Kumar et al., 2002). Warming trends were observed during
four seasons (winter, premonsoon, monsoon, and postmonsoon) with a
higher rate of temperature increase during winter (0.04 C per decade)
and postmonsoon seasons (0.05 C per decade) compared with the
premonsoon (0.02 C per decade) and monsoon seasons (0.01 C per
decade). The warming across the Indian subcontinent was mainly contrib-
uted by the postmonsoon and winter seasons. The monsoon temperatures
did not show a significant trend in most parts of India, except for a significant
negative trend across northwest India (De and Mukhopadhyay, 1998). The
diurnal temperature range has also decreased, with nighttime temperature
increasing at twice the rate of the daytime maximum temperature (Sen
Roy and Balling, 2005).
In a regional study in Punjab, Prabhjyot-Kaur and Hundal (2010)
reported gradual increases in minimum temperature across a recent
30-year period. The maximum temperature, however, showed no signifi-
cant trend at most locations in the state. A 5-year mean of annual rainfall-
variability analysis in Punjab revealed that rainfall decreased significantly
during the past five decades at the rate of 5.5, 3.4, 7.1, 4.3, and 5.5 mm
year1 at Amritsar, Gurdaspur, Ferozepur, Bathinda, and Sangrur, respec-
tively, and rainfall increased significantly at 1.4 mm year1 during the past
108 years at Ludhiana (Prabhjyot-Kaur et al., 2011). However, no significant
trend in rainfall variability was observed in Kapurthala, Jalandhar,
Hoshiarpur, Rupnagar, Patiala, and Faridkot districts. The IPCC compiled
data on the magnitude of change in temperature, rainfall, and CO2 for dif-
ferent parts of the world, according to which CO2 was expected to increase
to 397–416 ppm by 2050 and to 605–755 ppm by 2070 (Watson et al.,
1998). By the end of the twenty-first century, there could be a change in
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Table 2.4 Changes in temperature and rainfall projected for India (Lal et al., 2001)
Temperature change ( C) Rainfall change (%)
Year Season Lowest Highest Lowest Highest
2020 Annual 1.00 1.41 2.16 5.97
Rabi 1.08 1.54 1.95 4.36
Kharif 0.87 1.17 1.81 5.10
2050 Annual 2.23 2.87 5.36 9.34
Rabi 2.54 3.18 9.22 3.82
Kharif 1.81 2.37 7.18 10.52
2080 Annual 3.53 5.55 7.48 9.90
Rabi 4.14 6.31 24.83 4.50
Kharif 2.91 4.62 10.10 15.18
Table 2.5 Change in simulated wheat yield due to varying CO2 concentration under
optimal and suboptimal (stressed) moisture conditions (Pandey et al., 2007)
Change (%) from
Simulated grain yield base suboptimal and
(kg ha1) optimal yield
CO2 concentration (ppm) Suboptimal Optimal Suboptimal Optimal
330 (base value) 3112 3837 – –
440 3695 4630 19 21
550 4327 5687 39 48
660 4876 6465 57 68
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Table 2.6 Effect of CO2 increase on growth and yield of rice (Hundal and Prabhjyot-
Kaur, 1996)
Deviation from normal (%)
Parameters 330 ppm (normal) 400 ppm 500 ppm 600 ppm
Maximum leaf area index 5.22 þ 1.9 þ 8.5 þ 11.1
1
Biomass yield (kg ha ) 12495 þ 1.1 þ 6.1 þ 7.7
Grain yield (kg ha1) 7563 þ 1.5 þ 6.6 þ 8.7
Table 2.7 Number of grains, percent of filled grains, grain weight, grain yield, and
harvest index of rice grown under elevated (570 ppm) and ambient (370 ppm) CO2 in
open-top chambers and in open-field conditions (De Costa et al., 2006)
Treatments
Parameters Elevated CO2 Open-field Ambient CO2
2
Grains (no. m ) 47007 (11) 41793 42336
Filled grains (%) 82.9 (9) 72.1 76.0
Grain weight (mg) 24.9 (2) 24.0 24.5
2
Grain yield (g m ) 871 (24) 723 783
Harvest index 0.47 0.41 0.45
The values in parentheses represent percentage increase over ambient CO2 concentration.
the ambient CO2 concentration. Individual grain weight and harvest index,
however, did not differ significantly between the elevated and ambient CO2
treatments. Grain yield under elevated CO2 was 24% higher than under
ambient CO2 concentration. Panicle dry weight in the elevated CO2 treat-
ment was significantly higher than that under the ambient CO2 and open-
field treatments throughout the grain-filling period (De Costa et al., 2006)
(Table 2.8). This was attributable to the crop’s significantly higher panicle
growth rate during the early grain-filling period, that is, 54–67 days after
transplanting. The partitioning coefficient in the elevated CO2 treatment
did not exceed that of the ambient and open-field treatments during the
early and late grain-filling periods. In cotton (Gossypium spp.), an increase
in CO2 from subambient to ambient and then to elevated concentrations
resulted in a significant increase in total dry matter production by cotton
plants (Reddy et al., 2004) (Table 2.9). This response was mainly attributable
to increased boll dry weight and lint dry weight per boll.
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Table 2.8 Variation of partitioning coefficient and panicle dry weight at different times
after rice transplanting under elevated (570 ppm) and ambient (370 ppm) CO2 in open-
top chambers and in open-field conditions (De Costa et al., 2006)
Days after transplanting Elevated CO2 Ambient CO2 Open-field
Partitioning coefficient
54 0.14a 0.12b 0.15a
67 0.30a 0.33a 0.34a
94 0.49b 0.51a 0.47b
2
Panicle dry weight (g m )
54 165a 118b 167a
67 693a 428b 418b
94 1036a 884b 833b
Partitioning coefficient was calculated as ratio between panicle dry weight and total dry weight.
For each time (days after transplanting), horizontal means with the same letters are not significantly dif-
ferent at p ¼ 0.05.
Table 2.9 Effect of different CO2 concentrations on total dry matter, boll dry weight, lint
dry weight, and seed dry weight of cotton (Reddy et al., 2004)
CO2 Total dry weight Boll dry Lint dry weight Seed dry weight
concentration (g plant1) weight (g) (g boll1) (g boll1)
Subambient 165c 5.6b 1.8b 2.7b
(180 ppm)
Ambient 233b 5.8a 1.8ab 2.8ab
(360 ppm)
Elevated 309a 5.9a 1.8a 2.9a
(720 ppm)
Means with the same letters within the same column are not significantly different at p ¼ 0.05.
The growth and yield response of black gram (Vigna mungo) to CO2 con-
centrations (550 and 700 ppm) was investigated and compared with ambient
CO2 concentration (365 ppm) using open-top chambers (Vanaja et al.,
2007). The growth parameters (root and shoot length, leaf area, and root
volume) were significantly greater at 700 ppm CO2 than at 550 ppm. Com-
pared to the ambient (chamber) control, the increase in total biomass at 700
and 550 ppm CO2 was 65% and 39%, respectively (Table 2.10). The
increase in seed yield at 700 ppm (129%) was attributable to an increase
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Table 2.10 Yield parameters of black gram (of 10 plants) under 365, 550, and 700 ppm
CO2 (Vanaja et al., 2007)
Parameter values Increase (%)
550 vs. 700 vs. 700 vs.
Parameters 365 ppm 550 ppm 700 ppm 365 ppm 365 ppm 550 ppm
Pods (#) 158 187 239 18 51 28
Pod weight (g) 35.6 66.5 78.2 87 120 18
Seed weight (g) 17.4 32.9 39.9 89 129 21
100-seed weight (g) 2.6 2.7 3.9 2 51 48
Harvest index (%) 28.5 38.7 39.5 36 38 2
Total biomass (g) 61.1 84.9 101.1 39 65 19
in the number of pods per plant and 100-seed weight, whereas the increase
in total seed yield at 550 ppm (89%) was caused by a higher number of pods
per plant and seeds per pod. The harvest index, a very important parameter
in pulses for breaking the yield barrier, increased to 36% and 38% at 550 and
700 ppm, respectively (Table 2.10).
In rice, mean biomass increment, leaf area duration, and net assimilation
rate increased with increasing CO2 concentrations (Baker et al., 1990)
(Table 2.11). In the same study, net assimilation rate decreased and leaf area
duration increased in rice with the progression of growth stages. Grain yield
increased by nearly 32% when the CO2 concentration increased from 330 to
660 mmol CO2 mol1 air (Baker et al., 1990; Table 2.12). The number of
panicles per plant was mainly responsible for the observed differences in
grain yield among the CO2 concentrations (Table 2.12). The number of
filled grains per panicle was the most variable yield component, whereas
individual grain weight was stable across different CO2 concentrations.
Therefore, it was concluded that grain yield depended mainly on the num-
ber of panicles on rice plants.
Table 2.11 Effect of CO2 enrichment on mean biomass increment (DW), leaf area
duration (LAD), and net assimilation rate (NAR) in rice in controlled-environment
chambers (Baker et al., 1990)
NAR
LAD (g m2 LAD NAR
DW (g) (m day ) day1) DW (g) (m2 day1) (g m2 day1)
2 1
CO2 concentration
(ppm) 19–44 days after sowing 44–71 days after sowing
160 1.2 0.37 4.9 1.3 1.0 1.4
250 2.1 0.50 6.0 2.2 1.2 1.8
330 2.5 0.55 6.1 2.7 1.2 2.2
500 2.5 0.51 6.5 3.9 1.2 3.2
660 3.2 0.65 6.7 2.0 1.4 1.5
900 3.9 0.76 7.1 3.8 1.6 2.4
Standard error 0.4 0.07 1.1 1.2 0.1 0.9
Table 2.12 Mean grain yield and components of yield of rice in controlled-environment
chambers (Baker et al., 1990)
CO2 concentration Grain yield Panicles Filled grains 1000-grain
(ppm) (g plant1) (no. plant1) (no. panicle1) weight (g)
160 1.4 3.6 22 17.4
250 1.3 4.6 17 18.2
330 1.9 5.4 19 17.9
500 3.0 7.3 23 18.1
660 2.8 6.0 25 18.4
900 3.3 6.4 28 18.1
Standard error 0.6 0.9 5.5 0.83
Table 2.13 Change in simulated wheat yield due to varying temperature under optimal
and suboptimal moisture conditions (Pandey et al., 2007)
Change in simulated
Simulated grain yield grain yield relative to
(kg ha1) base yield (%)
Change in maximum temperature
relative to base temperature ( C) Suboptimal Optimal Suboptimal Optimal
þ3 2398 2646 23 31
þ2 2668 3091 14 19
þ1 2841 3546 9 8
1 3190 4206 3 10
2 3358 4485 8 17
3 3641 4817 17 26
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to 4 days and its maturity was delayed by 2 days (Table 2.14). Deviation
(increase) in temperature from the normal temperature greatly influenced
flowering and maturity in gram. With an increase in temperature of 3 C
compared with the normal temperature, for example, flowering and matu-
rity in chickpea (Cicer arietinum L.) advanced by 23 and 24 days, respec-
tively (Table 2.14). A study analyzed the relationship between the yield
of rice and minimum temperature across the range of 22.1–23.7 C using
a quadratic equation and reported that rice yield declined by 10% with each
1 C rise in minimum temperature and yield declined by 15% with each
1 C rise in mean temperature (Peng et al., 2004).
Reddy et al. (1992) reported that cotton plants grew faster at 30/22 C
(maximum/minimum temperatures) than at either higher or lower temper-
atures. However, the plants at 35/27 C had more boll weight than those
grown at 30/22 C and they were more advanced in fruiting-structure for-
mation (Table 2.15). The time required to produce the first square was only
2 days longer at 40/32 C than at 30/22 C. At 20/12 and 25/17 C, squares
abscised at a very early stage, whereas the maximum number of squares was
Table 2.15 Effect of temperature on days to appearance of first flower bud (square),
days to first flower, and biomass of different parts of cotton seedlings at 56 days after
emergence (Reddy et al., 1992)
Day/night temperature ( C)
Parameters 20/12 25/17 30/22 35/27 40/32
Days to first square 38 33 27 24 29
(day)
a a b
Days to first flower 53 43
(day)
Stem biomass 3.6 0.3 18.0 1.9 33.9 3.7 31.1 17.2 2.1
(g plant1) 11.2
Leaf biomass 9.0 0.7 22.7 2.0 33.7 2.0 31.5 9.6 19.8 2.1
(g plant1)
Root biomass 1.3 2.9 6.5 6.2 4.5
(g plant1)
Boll biomass a a
1.3 0.4 4.1 0.6 b
(g plant1)
Square biomass 0.04 0.01 0.61 0.1 2.27 0.3 2.70 0.3 b
(g plant1)
Total biomass 13.5 0.9 44.2 4.0 77.7 6.9 75.3 41.5 4.2
(g plant1) 21.7
a
Squares were abscised at very early stage.
b
Flowers were not formed at final harvest due to slow growth.
30
Deviation in LAI and yield from normal (%)
25
Grain yield
Biomass yield
20
Max. LAI
15
10
0
−3 −1 Normal 1 3
−5
−10
−15
Deviation in temperature from normal (°C)
Figure 2.1 Effect of temperature change on growth and yield of rice using CERES-wheat
model (Hundal and Prabhjyot-Kaur, 2007).
50
Deviation in LAI and yield from normal (%)
40
Grain yield
30 Biomass yield
Max. LAI
20
10
0
−3 −1 Normal 1 3
−10
−20
−30
−40
−50
Deviation in temperature from normal (°C)
Figure 2.2 Effect of temperature change on growth and yield of wheat using CERES-
wheat model (Hundal and Prabhjyot-Kaur, 2007).
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by 14–23% in wheat (Fig. 2.2), and grain yield decreased by 3–10% in rice
(Fig. 2.1) and by 10–18% in wheat (Fig. 2.2). A decrease in temperature by
1.0–2.0 C increased the simulated maximum LAI by 3–5% in rice and by
12–28% in wheat, biomass yield increased by 4–10% in rice and by 9–16% in
wheat, and grain yield increased by 8–15% in rice and by 7% in wheat vis-à-
vis the normal conditions (Figs. 2.1 and 2.2).
A simulation study was conducted using the CERES-wheat model to
assess the effect of an intraseasonal increase in temperature on the yield of
wheat sown on different dates (Prabhjyot-Kaur and Hundal, 2010). The
simulation results revealed that, in general, an increase in temperature from
February to mid-March severely affected the yield of early-, normal-, and
late-sown wheat (Table 2.16). The temperature increase mostly affected
the yield of the early (October)-sown crop beginning in the fourth week
of January to the first fortnight of March, the timely (November)-sown crop
during February and March, the late (fourth week of November)-sown
crop during March, and the very late (December)-sown crop during
March and the first week of April (Table 2.16). A maximum of about a
17% decrease in grain yield occurred in the early-sown crop if the temper-
ature increased by 6 C in the first fortnight of February. This was mainly
because of a reduction in grain-filling period caused by an increase in
temperature.
Table 2.16 Effect of intraseasonal temperature increase (maximum and minimum) from
normal on grain yield (% deviation from normal) of wheat sown on different dates using
the CERES-wheat model (Prabhjyot-Kaur and Hundal, 2010)
Temperature increase from normal ( C)
Time period Date of sowing þ1.0 þ2.0 þ3.0 þ4.0 þ5.0 þ6.0
First fortnight of Early sown 3.4 3.7 7.6 11.5 13.0 17.2
February (October 28)
Normal sown þ1.7 1.6 1.8 3.9 7.7 7.3
(November 8)
Normal sown 0.5 2.7 1.5 2.0 1.3 1.9
(November 15)
Normal sown þ0.5 þ2.4 þ2.8 þ4.7 þ4.9 þ7.0
(November 25)
Late sown þ0.7 þ0.6 þ0.6 þ3.4 þ3.6 þ3.7
(December 2)
Second fortnight Early sown 2.4 2.8 5.2 8.1 10.9 13.8
of February (October 28)
Normal sown 0.4 4.1 5.1 9.9 14.2 16.4
(November 8)
Normal sown 2.0 5.8 6.0 8.7 9.7 14.2
(November 15)
Normal sown þ2.5 þ1.1 þ3.4 0.6 2.6 3.3
(November 25)
Late sown 0.5 0.4 1.7 2.3 3.1 3.6
(December 2)
First fortnight of Early sown 2.3 4.6 6.8 13.8 8.2 10.4
March (October 28)
Normal sown 2.7 3.3 6.0 9.5 9.5 13.0
(November 8)
Normal sown 4.8 9.3 10.1 14.2 16.0 20.8
(November 15)
Normal sown 0.5 5.4 6.7 3.3 16.0 19.4
(November 25)
Late sown 2.3 1.6 6.8 7.6 12.5 17.7
(December 2)
Continued
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Table 2.16 Effect of intraseasonal temperature increase (maximum and minimum) from
normal on grain yield (% deviation from normal) of wheat sown on different dates using
the CERES-wheat model (Prabhjyot-Kaur and Hundal, 2010)—cont'd
Temperature increase from normal ( C)
Time period Date of sowing þ1.0 þ2.0 þ3.0 þ4.0 þ5.0 þ6.0
Second fortnight Normal sown þ1.1 1.5 0.5 0.1 1.9 1.5
of March (November 8)
Normal sown 2.5 1.6 4.3 6.9 5.9 8.1
(November 15)
Normal sown 0.1 4.7 5.6 9.2 10.1 11.2
(November 25)
Late sown 5.5 6.6 12.3 14.5 19.1 21.4
(December 2)
increased CO2 concentrations (i.e., 400, 500, and 600 ppm), maximum
LAI, biomass, and grain yield of rice were favorably affected (Tables 2.17
and 2.18). The interactive effect of enhanced temperature and CO2 revealed
that adverse effects caused by an increase in temperature of up to 0.5 C
could be compensated for by concentrations of CO2 above 400 ppm
(Hundal and Prabhjyot-Kaur, 1996). A further increase in temperature of
up to 1.0 C did not decrease maximum LAI, biomass, and grain yield when
CO2 was nearly doubled (600 ppm) relative to the normal temperature. But,
in scenarios with nearly doubled CO2 concentrations of 600 ppm, temper-
ature increases of more than 1.0 C above normal reduced the maximum
LAI, biomass, and grain yield of rice (Tables 2.17 and 2.18).
Table 2.17 Effect of CO2 and temperature on the deviation of leaf area index of rice
(Hundal and Prabhjyot-Kaur, 1996)
Deviation of leaf area index from normal (%)
Temperature ( C) 330 ppm (normal) 400 ppm 500 ppm 600 ppm
Normal [5.22]a þ1.9 þ8.5 þ11.0
þ 0.5 5.5 1.9 þ2.5 þ6.6
þ 1.0 9.3 6.1 4.0 þ1.7
þ 1.5 9.8 9.1 5.7 1.7
þ 2.0 12.3 11.9 7.8 5.5
a
Leaf area index at normal CO2 concentration and temperature.
Table 2.18 Effect of CO2 and temperature on the deviation of rice biomass yield from
normal (Hundal and Prabhjyot-Kaur, 1996)
Deviation of rice yield from normal (%)
Temperature ( C) 330 ppm (normal) 400 ppm 500 ppm 600 ppm
Normal [12495] a
þ1.1 þ6.1 þ7.7
þ 0.5 3.5 1.4 þ2.2 þ4.5
þ 1.0 6.0 1.4 þ2.2 þ4.5
þ 1.5 7.2 6.8 5.0 2.0
þ 2.0 7.3 7.1 4.0 2.6
a 1
Biomass yield (kg ha ) at normal CO2 and temperature.
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Table 2.19 Effect of increasing temperature and CO2 on change (%) in maximum leaf
area index (LAI), biomass yield, and grain yield of rice (Hundal and Prabhjyot-Kaur, 2007)
Temperature change Temperature change from
from normal (þ1 C) normal (þ2 C)
CO2 concentration Biomass Grain
(ppm) LAI yield yield LAI Biomass yield Grain yield
330 9.3 6.0 6.6 12.3 7.3 7.5
400 6.1 4.0 4.3 11.9 7.1 7.2
500 4.0 2.9 2.8 7.8 4.0 4.4
600 þ0.8 þ0.8 þ0.5 5.5 2.6 2.8
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et al., 1994). In another study, cooked rice grains from plants grown in high-
CO2 environments were firmer than those from plants grown in ambient
CO2 environments; however, the concentrations of iron and zinc, which
are important for human nutrition, were lower (Seneweera and Conroy,
1997). Moreover, the protein content of the grains decreased with com-
bined increases in temperature and CO2 concentration (Ziska et al.,
1997). Studies have shown that higher CO2 concentrations led to reduced
plant uptake of nitrogen (N) and trace elements, such as zinc, resulting in
crops with lower nutritional value (Taub and Wang, 2008). This would pri-
marily impact people in poorer countries, who are less able to compensate by
eating more food and have less varied diets (Kaur and Rajni, 2012). Reduced
N content in plants used for grazing may also reduce animal productivity
(e.g., sheep depend on microbes in their gut to digest plants, which in turn
depend on N intake).
In a study, the protein content of soybean grain decreased with increases
in CO2 concentration; however, because of increased grain yield, the total
quantity of nutrients accumulated in grain per hectare still increased with
high CO2 concentrations (Mulchi et al., 1992). In the same study, increases
in CO2 concentrations from 360 to 510 ppm increased grain oil from 20.4 to
22.3% and decreased grain protein content. The N content of plants is likely
to decrease with elevated CO2, implying reduced protein.
At the International Rice Research Institute, rice (“IR72”) was grown
under three different CO2 concentrations (ambient, ambient þ200, and
ambient þ300 mL L1 CO2) and two different air temperatures (ambient
and ambient þ4 C) using open-top field chambers (Ziska et al., 1997).
Increasing both CO2 and air temperature reduced grain quality (e.g., protein
content). The combined effects of CO2 and temperature suggested that, in
warmer regions (i.e., >34 C) where rice is grown, quantitative and qual-
itative changes in rice supply could occur if both CO2 and air temperature
continued to increase.
Table 2.20 Observed rate of global sea-level rise and estimated contributions from
different sources (Bindoff et al., 2007)
Rate of sea-level rise
(mm per year)
Source of sea-level rise 1961–2003 1993–2003
Thermal expansion 0.42 0.12 1.60 0.50
Glaciers and ice caps 0.50 0.18 0.77 0.22
Greenland ice sheet 0.05 0.12 0.21 0.07
Antarctica ice sheet 0.14 0.41 0.21 0.35
Sum of individual climate contributions to sea-level rise 1.1 0.5 2.8 0.7
Observed total sea-level rise a
1.8 0.5 3.1 0.7
Difference (observed minus sum of estimated climate 0.7 0.7 0.3 1.0
contributions)
a
Data prior to 1993 are from tide gauges and after 1993 are from satellite altimetry.
components of the Earth system. Sea levels are expected to rise by another
1 m by 2100 though this projection is disputed (Bindoff et al., 2007). The
rise in sea level may decrease agricultural land area, particularly in Southeast
Asia. With increasing sea levels, erosion, submergence of shorelines, and
salinity of the water table could affect agriculture by inundating low-lying
areas. Future climatic changes will affect water availability for agriculture.
Apart from monsoon rains, India depends on rivers that emanate from
the Himalayas for water-resource development. As a result of global
warming, the increase in temperature may increase snowmelt and conse-
quently snow cover will decrease. In the short run, snowmelt may increase
water flow in many rivers, which, in turn, may increase the frequency of
floods. In the long run, however, the receding snow line might reduce water
flow in these rivers. In climate-change scenarios, the onset of summer mon-
soon across India may become more uncertain and could be delayed. This
will influence not only rainfed crops but also water storage in irrigated areas.
CO2-induced warming is expected to raise the sea level as a result of
thermal expansion of the oceans and partial melting of glaciers and ice caps,
which, in turn, is expected to affect agriculture, mainly through the inun-
dation of low-lying farmland and increased salinity of coastal groundwater.
The IPCC estimates of sea-level rise above present levels are 9–29 cm by
2030, with a best estimate of 18 cm, and 28–96 cm by 2090, with a best esti-
mate of 58 cm (IPCC, 2007a). Preliminary surveys of the vulnerability of
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Abbreviations: A, ambient CO2; F, elevated CO2 (200 m mol mol1 higher than ambient).
Increasing rate (IR) ¼ (F A)/A 100.
D27, D49, D76, and D123 are the days after rice transplanting and equal to the tillering, jointing, heading, and ripening stages, respectively.
Table 2.22 Effects of elevated CO2 on soil-available P in 0–15 cm soil depth at four rice growth stages (Ma et al., 2007)
Content of soil-available P at different growth stages after rice transplanting
—D27— —D49— —D76— —D123—
Fertilizer treatment CO2 level mg kg1 IR mg kg1 IR mg kg1 IR mg kg1 IR
Low N F 10.4 2.3 11.3 3.3 1.0 32.0 5.1 1.0 22.4 5.3 0.9 33.8
A 9.3 1.8 4.8 0.3 4.2 0.9 4.0 1.4
Normal N F 10.2 1.3 5.8 4.0 1.3 29.6 5.1 1.8 20.8 5.4 1.6 30.7
A 10.9 2.3 5.7 0.8 4.3 1.8 4.1 1.0
Abbreviations: A, ambient CO2; F, elevated CO2 (200 m mol mol1 higher than ambient).
Increasing rate (IR) ¼ (F A)/A 100.
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D27, D49, D76, and D123 are the days after rice transplanting and equal to the tillering, jointing, heading, and ripening stages, respectively.
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was true at all three harvests. Such responses of biomass production to CO2
concentrations indicate that the effects of CO2 also depend on the age or
growth stage of the plant.
In another study, soybean was grown at ambient and elevated CO2 con-
centrations (þ250 mL L1 CO2 above ambient concentration) with and
without the presence of a C3 weed (Chenopodium album L.) and a C4 weed
(Amaranthus retroflexus L.), to evaluate the impact of rising atmospheric CO2
on crop production losses caused by weeds (Ziska and Goins, 2006).
A significant reduction in soybean seed yield was observed with both weed
species relative to their weed-free control at each CO2 concentration. Inter-
ference from C. album caused a reduction in soybean seed yield relative to
the weed-free conditions; the reduction increased from 28% to 39% as CO2
concentration increased. There was a 65% increase in the mean biomass of
C. album at the enhanced CO2 concentration. Conversely, with A. retroflexus
interference, soybean seed yield losses decreased with increasing CO2 from
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would affect the optimal conditions for infection, host specificity, and mech-
anisms of plant infection. They also pointed out that both pathogens and
host plants would be affected by the changing climate. The authors
suggested that climate-induced changes would affect the measures farmers
use to effectively control diseases and the viability of particular cropping sys-
tems in particular regions.
Sharma et al. (2007) reported that an increase in total rainfall
(69–260 mm) resulted in an epidemic of bacterial leaf blight (Table 2.24).
Plant diseases have a direct influence on crop productivity; however, limited
information is available on the impact of climate change on plant diseases
(Agrios, 2005; Elad and Pertot, 2013). The risk of yield losses from plant
diseases is likely to increase in the wake of climate change; however, such
production losses are rarely considered in climate assessments (Anderson
et al., 2004; Reilly et al., 2001). Climate change may have a direct influence
on the temporal and spatial distribution of plant diseases. Plant pathogens are
strongly affected by environment; therefore, the survival, rate of multiplica-
tion, vigor, sporulation, direction, distance of dispersal of inocula, rate of
spore germination, and penetration of pathogens can be affected in the
climate-change scenario (Kang et al., 2010). Research evidence has revealed
that elevated CO2 increased disease incidence or severity in some cases
(Eastburn et al., 2010; McElrone et al., 2005; Shin and Yun, 2010), but
decreased it in other cases (Hibberd et al., 1996; McElrone et al., 2010;
Pangga et al., 2004).
which and how much each of the recommendations made by plant breeders,
soil scientists, entomologists, plant pathologists, etc., will make a technically
viable, socially acceptable, economically profitable, and environmentally
sound package for a particular crop in a cropping system. They must caution
against practices that can harm the system. Starting from the basics of the
soil–plant–water–atmospheric system to develop cultivation practices for
high productivity and fitting them into farming systems through multi-
disciplinary collaborative research, or a systems approach, is required.
Climatic variations are present throughout the world, but the impacts of
climate change are the most devastating in developing countries, such as
India, that have fewer resources than developed countries to cope with these
adverse affects. Sustainable food security is therefore difficult to achieve in
developing countries, especially in India, because of the ever-increasing
human population; higher demand for, and intensification of, resource
use; and increased per capita consumption (Rosenzweig and Parry, 1994).
With the emerging threats from climate change, there are many uncer-
tainties as agriculture is sensitive to short-term changes in weather and to
seasonal, annual, and long-term climatic variations. Variations in meteoro-
logic parameters, in combination with other parameters, such as soil char-
acteristics, cultivars, and pests, have a paramount influence on agricultural
productivity (Pathak and Wassmann, 2009). The Fourth Assessment Report
(AR4) of the IPCC suggested that increasing trends of GHGs in the Earth’s
atmosphere could accelerate in the future, as a consequence of which, the
best estimates of increases in mean global surface temperature are likely to
be in the range of 1.8–4 C (IPCC, 2007a). Globally, mean precipitation
is projected to increase with great deviances regionally (Meehl et al.,
2007). It is therefore imperative to chart adaptation and mitigation strategies
to counter the effects of climate change on agricultural commodities. Mit-
igation and adaptation are measured on temporal and spatial scales on which
they are effective. Mitigation strategies aim at reducing GHG emissions into
the atmosphere, and adaptation strategies aim at enabling the plants to per-
form optimally under adverse climatic conditions through cultural and
genetic manipulations.
The benefits of mitigation activities will be evident in several decades
because of the longer duration of GHGs in the atmosphere, whereas the
effects of adaptation measures should be seen immediately or in the near
future (Kumar and Parikh, 2001; Lal, 2011). The effects or benefits of mit-
igation strategies are both global and local, whereas the effects of adaptation
strategies are local or regional. The purpose of mitigation and adaptation
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replacement in the case of delayed onset of monsoon (Joshi and Kar, 2009).
In this approach, short-duration crops and cultivars replace long-duration
ones. In the case of early-season drought, possible options are replanting
with a crop and cultivar(s) suitable for late sowing and transplanting by rais-
ing seedlings or taking seedlings from other fields. For midseason drought,
viable options are forming dead furrows at convenient intervals (3–4 m) well
in advance of anticipated drought (within a month after seeding or imme-
diately after intercultivation) to minimize runoff and store rainwater and
thinning the plant population either within rows or by removing alternate
rows in a sole crop or removing more sensitive crop in intercropping and
harvesting the crop for fodder and allowing the stubbles to grow for grain
(ratooning) as in the case of sorghum and pearl millet. For late-season
drought, however, options are limited. A crop on relatively deep soil can
be removed and a short-duration rabi pulse crop can be sown on stored soil
moisture with subsequent rain. In the case of sorghum and pearl millet,
ratooning appears to be ideal even at the time of late-season drought, espe-
cially in deep black soils (Venkateswarlu and Shanker, 2009).
7.2. Crops and cultivars that fit into new cropping systems
and seasons
With climate change, the IGP could continue to be the major contributor of
food grains despite the scarcity of irrigation water, provided new cultivars
are grown with judiciously selected cultivation schedules. The area has three
cropping seasons: rabi or winter season from October/November to March/
April, zaid or summer season from March/April to June/July, and kharif or
rainy season from July/August to October/November. Different cropping
systems could be practiced with the use of suitable cultivars for high yields
in this era of climate change, for example, dry-seeded rice/pigeon
pea/soybean/urad bean/cotton in kharif, potato/rape/mustard–wheat/
chickpea/lentil in rabi, and mung bean/soybean in zaid. For high profitabil-
ity for farmers, essential-oil crops such as menthol mint and medicinal crops
could be substitutes for mung bean/soybean/cotton in the zaid season as
suitable cultivars of these crops are already available. For strategic reasons,
a water-guzzling crop like sugarcane should continue to be grown in the
Himalayan terai/foothill region. Again, for augmenting the liquid biofuel
supply, crops such as mustard can be cultivated in irrigated areas for high
yield. In this direction, a mustard crop could be grown twice in the rabi sea-
son if suitable short-duration, early-maturing cultivars become available in
the future. The cotton crop yields lint and oil; therefore, it could be grown
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on additional land during the kharif season. Potato should assume the role of a
staple food as it is a rich source of carbohydrates. India will need to produce
120 million tons of wheat, 25 million t of pulses, and 100 million t of oil
seeds (50 million t for biofuel purposes) by 2025 (Kumar, 2006). In the
climate-change scenario, the IGP should become a major supplier of these
commodities. Crop breeding programs with the objective of developing
climate-resilient (temperature- and drought-tolerant), high-yielding culti-
vars of the identified crops should be given high priority, so that the desired
kinds of cultivars become available in the wake of climate change.
A combination of conventional and molecular marker-assisted, muta-
tional, and transgenic breeding approaches will be required to develop
the desired kinds of crop cultivars. Crop-based coordinated programs
need to begin as early as possible to develop climate-resilient cultivars.
Recently, the Indian Agricultural Research Institute (IARI), New Delhi,
released an early-maturing basmati (fragrant) rice and a wheat cultivar suit-
able for late planting (Swaminathan and Kesavan, 2012). It appears that the
desired kinds of cultivars can also be selected in some of the ongoing breed-
ing programs. There will be a need for identifying areas where climate-
change conditions already exist or are mimicked (e.g., Rajasthan, Madhya
Pradesh, and Uttar Pradesh border areas in the IGP) and/or setting up suit-
able environmental chambers for the purpose of screening large segregating
populations to make selections (Rupakumar et al., 2006). Climate-change
issues need to be converted from a “problem” into an “opportunity.”
occupies the largest area in India. The maximum emission of CH4 is from
the rice-growing areas. CH4 emissions from rice fields can be restricted
with the adoption of improved agricultural practices. Resource-
conserving technologies, such as zero tillage in wheat and dry-seeded rice,
could play a major role in this direction. Zero-till systems have a direct
mitigation effect as they convert GHGs such as CO2 into O2 in the atmo-
sphere and C enriches soil organic matter. In dry-seeded rice, because of
minimum anaerobic conditions, improved root growth and diversity of
aerobic soil organisms may help in mitigating climate change. Research
has shown that yields similar to those in puddled-transplanted rice can
be achieved with alternate wetting and drying (Mahajan et al., 2011).
However, alternate wetting and drying may lead to emissions of N2O,
which has greater global warming potential than CH4 does. However, this
problem could be reduced by adopting integrated nutrient-management
practices, which can help in mitigating climate change. Integrated nutrient
management involves, in general, a combination of organic, inorganic, and
biofertilizers in proportions that will keep the soil capable of producing at
an accelerated rate without suffering physical, chemical, and biological
damage. The advantages of integrated nutrient management are increased
N-use efficiency and increased yield. The application of urease, hydroqui-
none, and nitrification inhibitors, dicyandiamide together with urea, is an
effective technology for reducing NO2 and CH4 emissions from rice fields.
The use of neem-coated urea is another simple and cost-effective technol-
ogy. Improved management of livestock and their diet could also assist in
the mitigation of GHGs. The use of improved food additives, substitution
of low-digestibility feeds with high-digestibility ones, concentrate feeding,
substituting fibrous concentrate with starchy concentrate, supplementa-
tion with molasses, and changing microflora of rumen could help in reduc-
ing CH4 emissions (Aggarwal, 2008). Efficiency of energy use in
agriculture could be improved by using better-designed machinery
(e.g., the Happy Seeder, a drill for dry seeding, zero-till drill, and bed
planter) that could increase fuel-use efficiency and help in the commercial-
ization of wind and solar power potential, and the use of a laser leveler
could also lead to mitigation (Chauhan et al., 2012a; Lal, 2011). Changing
land use by increasing the area under biofuel-producing crops and
agroforestry could help in mitigating GHG emissions, but this has to be
considered with the goal of increasing food production for national secu-
rity (Venkateswarlu et al., 2011).
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climate change will have far-reaching effects on livelihood and food security
unless significant steps are taken to deal with it effectively now. The key pol-
icy issues are (1) establishment of a “Green Research Fund” for strengthen-
ing research on adaptation, mitigation, and impact assessment; (2) facilitating
greater adoption of scientific and economic pricing policies for water, land,
energy, and other natural resources; (3) providing financial incentives for
improved land management; (4) ensuring food and livelihood security;
(5) establishing seed banks in highly variable and unpredictable environ-
ments, etc. In India, governments should invest more in water storage
and efficient water-use technologies. Investment should be made in technol-
ogies that allow aquifer recharge and microirrigation to increase the efficient
use of available water. More investment should be made in funding projects
on cultivars with tolerance of adverse climate and on land-use systems to
ensure adequate food production in the face of climate change.
8. CONCLUSIONS
Climate change is a reality. Elevated CO2 concentration may increase
crop growth and yield due to increased photosynthesis, decreased photores-
piration, and decreased stomatal conductance. The increase in temperature,
however, may decrease grain yields of rice and wheat due to the shorter
duration of crop growth. The protein content of legume grains may decrease
with increased CO2 concentration. Elevated CO2 concentration may
increase the availability of soil N and P because of increased mineralization
and activity of phosphatase enzyme in the rhizosphere. C3 plants are likely to
compete even more vigorously than now against C4 crops and vice versa.
Increased temperature along with humidity may increase the occurrence
of insects and diseases. Because of the complexity of crop–environment
interactions, a multidisciplinary approach to the problem is required in
which plant breeders, crop physiologists, agrometeorologists, and agrono-
mists need to interact to find long-term solutions in sustaining agricultural
production. There is a need for strategic research to enhance the resilience of
Indian agriculture, including crops, natural resource management, horticul-
ture, livestock, and fisheries, for the development and application of
improved production and risk management technologies. In addition, there
is a need for technology demonstration of existing management practices for
enhancing the resilience of crops and livestock to climate change. Capacity
building of scientists and other stakeholders in agricultural research on climate
resilience may also help in developing solutions for climate change.
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ACKNOWLEDGMENT
We would like to acknowledge the help of Bill Hardy in providing comments on the
manuscript.
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