412 Section IiI Mechanical Analysis of Human Motion
in the wheelbarrow. There are few examples of second-
Figure 11-25 An anatomical first-class lever in which the weight
of the head is the resistance force, the splenius muscles provide the
effort force, and the fulcrum is the atlanto-occipital joint.
Figure 11-26 A wheelbarrow as a second-class lever. The resis-
tance force is between the fulcrum and the effort force. Because the
effort arm is greater than the resistance arm, MA > 1, and the effort
force is magnified.
class levers in the human body, although the act of rising
onto the toes is often proclaimed and also disputed as
one such. This action is used in weight training and is
known as a calf raise. Because there are so few examples
of second-class levers in the human body, it is safe to say
that humans are not designed to apply great forces via
lever systems.
Third-Class Lever
The effort force and the resistance force are also on the
same side of the fulcrum in a third-class lever. In this
arrangement, however, the effort force acts between the
fulcrum and the line of action of the resistance force. As
a result, the effort force arm is less than the resistance
force arm and thus the MA is less than 1. An example
of this type of lever is the shovel when the hand near-
est the spade end applies the effort force (Fig. 11-27).
Therefore, it would appear that a large effort force must
be applied to overcome a moderate resistance force. In a
third-class lever, a large effort force is applied to gain the
advantage of increased speed of motion. This is the most
prominent type of lever arrangement in the human body,
with nearly all joints of the extremities acting as third-
class levers. It is probably safe to conclude that from a
design standpoint, greater speed of movement exempli-
fied by third-class levers appears to be emphasized in
the musculoskeletal system to the exclusion of greater
effort force application ability of the second-class lever.
Figure 11-28 illustrates a third-class lever arrangement in
the human body.
Figure 11-27 An individual using a shovel is a third-class lever.

Figure 11-28 The arm held in flexion at the elbow is an anatomi-
cal third-class lever: The resistance force is the weight of the arm, the
fulcrum is the elbow joint, and the effort force is provided by the elbow
flexor muscles.
Types of Torque
A torque acting on a body is created by a force acting
a distance away from the axis of rotation. Thus, any of
the different types of forces discussed in Chapter 10 can
produce a torque if applied in a direction that does not
go through the axis or pivot point. Gravity, a noncontact
force, generates a torque any time the line of gravity does
not pass through the hip joint (pivot point). As illustrated
in Figure 11-29, gravity acting on the trunk segment
A B
Figure 11-29 The gravitational torques created by the weight of
body segments acting at a distance from the joint in movements such
as trunk flexion (A) and an arm lateral raise (B) must be countered by
muscular torques acting in the opposite direction. MA, moment arm.
chapter 11 Angular Kinetics 413
produces a clockwise torque about the lumbar vertebrae
(Fig. 11-29A), and the weight of the arm and dumbbell
produces a clockwise torque about the shoulder joint
(Fig. 11-29B). A muscular torque in the clockwise direc-
tion to hold the positions statically must counteract both
of these gravitational torques.
Contact forces also produce torques if applied cor-
rectly. For example, torques are generated about the
center of gravity in events such as diving and gymnastics
by using the vertical ground reaction force in conjunc-
tion with body configurations that move the center of
mass in front of or behind the force application. Consider
Figure 11-30A, in which the ground reaction force gener-
ated in a backward somersault is applied a distance from
the center of mass, causing a clockwise rotation about
the center of mass. A muscle force also generates torques
about the joint center, as shown in Figure 11-30B.
Representation of Torques Acting
on a System
A free body diagram illustrating torques acting on a
system is usually combined with linear forces to identify
and analyze the causes of motion. Many biomechanical
analyses start with a free body diagram for each body
segment. Known as the rigid link segment model, it can
take either a static or dynamic formulation. Consider the
model of the dead lift shown in Figure 11-31 showing the
lift (Fig. 11-31A) and the free body diagram for the leg,
thigh, trunk, arm, and forearm segments (Fig. 11-31B).
If a rigid link segment model is developed, forces acting
at the joints (Fx , Fy) and the center of mass (W) can be
indicated along with moments (M) acting at the joints.
Analysis Using Newton’s Laws
of Motion
Chapter 10 presented three variations of Newton’s laws
that describe the relationship between the kinematics
and the kinetics of a movement. An angular analog can
be generated for each of the three approaches. In most
biomechanical analyses, both the linear and angular
relationships are determined together to describe the
cause-and-effect relationship in the movement. The linear
analyses previously discussed presented three approaches
categorized as the effect of a force at an instant in time,
the effect of a force over a period of time, and the effect
of a force applied over a distance. A thorough analysis also
includes the angular counterparts and examines the effect
of a torque at an instant in time, the effect of a torque over
time, and the effect of a torque applied over a distance.
Each approach provides different information and is useful
in relation to the specific question asked about torque and
angular motion.
414 Section IiI Mechanical Analysis of Human Motion
A B
A B
Effects of a Torque at an Instant in Time
Newton’s second law of motion is considered with the
effects of a torque and the resulting angular acceleration.
Thus:
ΣT = Ia
When the angular acceleration is zero, a static case is
evaluated. A dynamic analysis results when the acceleration
Figure 11-30 Contact forces such as ground
reaction forces (A) and muscular forces (B) create
torques because the line of action of the force
does not go through the center of mass or joint
axis, respectively. COM, center of mass; GRF,
ground reaction force; MA, moment arm.
Figure 11-31 A squat (A) as free
body diagram (B) using a linked segment
model illustrating forces acting at the
joints and the centers of mass, along with
the moments acting at the joints.
is not zero. Note that the torques act about the axis per-
pendicular to the x−y plane (i.e., the z-axis) and the angu-
lar acceleration is also about this axis.
The application of Newton’s second law for both angu-
lar and linear cause-and-effect relationships would con-
sider both linear and angular equations. In linear motion,
the effects of a force and the resulting accelerations at an
instant in time are determined, but in angular motion, the

effects of a torque and the resulting angular accelerations
are determined.
Static Analysis
The static case involves systems at rest of moving at a
constant velocity. A state of equilibrium exists when
the acceleration of the system is zero. As illustrated in
Chapter 10, linear equilibrium exists when the sum of
the forces acting on the system equal zero. Equilibrium
also depends on the balancing of torques acting on the
system when forces are not concurrent. Concurrent forces
do not coincide at the same point and thus cause rotation
about some axis. These rotations all sum to zero, and the
resulting system remains at rest or moves at a constant
angular velocity. That is, the sum of the moments of force
or torques in the system must sum to zero. Stated alge-
braically, therefore:
ΣTsystem = 0
Previously, a convention was suggested in which
moments or torques causing a counterclockwise rotation
were considered to be positive and clockwise torques were
considered to be negative. To satisfy this condition of
equilibrium, therefore, the sum of the counterclockwise
moments must equal the sum of the clockwise moments,
and no angular acceleration can occur.
Consider the diagram in Figure 11-32, in which a
first-class lever system is described. On the left side of the
fulcrum, individual A weighs 670 N and is 2.3 m from the
axis of rotation. This individual would cause a counter-
clockwise or positive moment. Individual B on the right
side weighs 541 N, is 2.85 m from the fulcrum, and would
cause a clockwise or negative moment. For this system to
be in equilibrium, the clockwise torque must equal the
counterclockwise torque. Thus:
TA = 670 N × 2.3 m
TA = 1541 N-m
Figure 11-32 A first-class lever, a seesaw.
chapter 11 Angular Kinetics 415
and
TB = 541 N × 2.85 m
TB = 1,541 N-m
For this system to be in equilibrium:
ΣT = 0
TA − TB = 0
TA = TB
Because TA is positive, TB is negative, and their mag-
nitudes are equal, these moments cancel each other, and
no rotation occurs. With no further external forces, this
system will come to rest in a balanced position.
Typically, multiple torques act on a system involving
human movement. Figure 11-33A shows the forearm of
an individual holding a barbell. To determine the action at
the elbow joint, it would be helpful to know the moment
caused by the muscles about the elbow joint. If the elbow
joint is considered to be the axis of rotation, there are two
negative or clockwise torques in this system. One negative
torque is a result of the weight of the forearm and hand
acting through the center of mass of the forearm–hand
system, and the other is the result of the weight of the
barbell. The counterclockwise or positive torque is a result
of the muscle force acting across the elbow joint. The net
moment of the muscles must be equal to the two negative
moments for the system to be in equilibrium. Thus:
ΣT = 0
Tmuscle − Tarm-hand − Tbarbell = 0
Consider the free body diagram of this system illus-
trated in Figure 11-33B. The muscle moment that is
necessary to keep the system in equilibrium can be calcu-
lated from the information in the free body diagram. The
­forearm–hand complex weighs 45 N, and the center of
mass is 0.15 m from the elbow joint. The weight of the
barbell is 420 N, and the center of mass of the barbell
416 Section IiI Mechanical Analysis of Human Motion
Figure 11-33 The forearm during an instant of a biceps curl (A)
and a free body diagram of the system (B).
is 0.4 m from the elbow joint. The moment due to the
weight of the arm and hand is:
Tarm-hand = 45 N × 0.15 m = 6.75 N-m
and the moment due to the barbell is:
Tbarbell = 420 N × 0.4 m = 168 N-m
The moment due to the muscle force can then be
­calculated as:
Tmuscle − Tarm-hand − Tbarbell = 0
Tmuscle − 6.75 N-m − 168 N-m = 0
Tmuscle = 6.75 N-m + 168 N-m
Tmuscle = 174.75 N-m
The muscle must create a torque of 174.75 N-m to
counteract the weight of the forearm, hand, and barbell.
This muscle torque cannot be directly attributed to any
one muscle that crosses the joint. The muscle moment
calculated is the net sum of all muscle actions involved.
In this case, because the arm is being held in flexion, the
net muscle moment is primarily due to the action of the
elbow flexors, but it cannot be said exactly which elbow
flexors are most involved. In fact, it might be surmised
that because this is a static posture, there may be consider-
able co-contraction.
To determine the muscle action, the net torque about
the joint must be considered. The net torque is the sum
of all torques acting at the joint, in this case, the elbow.
Thus:
Telbow = Tmuscle − Tarm–hand − Tbarbell
Telbow = 174.75 N-m − 6.75 N-m − 168 N-m
Telbow = 0
The net moment about the elbow joint is zero, indi-
cating that the muscle action must be isometric. If the
moment arm of the elbow flexors was estimated to be
0.05 m from the elbow joint, the muscle force would be:
Tmuscle
Fmuscle 
0.05 m
174.75 N-m
Fmuscle 
0.05 m
Fm = 3495 N
It can be seen that the muscle force must be con-
siderably greater than the other two forces because the
moment arm for the muscle is very small compared with
the moment arms for the forearm–hand or the barbell.
Consider Figure 11-34. In this free body diagram, the
arm is placed in a posture similar to that in Figure 11-33,
but this barbell weighs 100 N, and the measured muscle
torque at the elbow is 180 N-m. All other measures in this
situation are the same as in the previous example. Thus,
evaluating the net moment at the elbow:
Telbow = Tmuscle − Tarm–hand − Tbarbell
Telbow = 180 N-m − 6.75 N-m − 40 N-m
Telbow = 133.25 N-m
Figure 11-34 Free body diagram of a biceps curl at an instant
when the forearm is horizontal.
 chapter 11 Angular Kinetics 417

Figure 11-35 The change in mag-

nitude of the moment arm of the biceps
muscle throughout the range of motion.
As the elbow flexes from an extended
position, the moment arm becomes lon-
ger. As the arm continues to flex from the
horizontal forearm position, the moment
arm becomes shorter.

Because the net torque at the elbow is positive, the until it is 90° at full extension. The cosine of 0° is 1, and
rotation is counterclockwise, and the muscle action there- as the angle becomes greater, the cosine gets smaller,
fore is interpreted as a flexor action. until at 90° the cosine is 0. If the angle u becomes greater
In the previously described situations, the arm was as the arm is extended, the moment arm should become
parallel to the ground, and the torque arms from the correspondingly smaller because the distance d does not
axis of rotation were simply the distances measured along change. When the angle u is 90°, the arm is fully extended
the segment to the lines of action of the forces. As the and the moment arm is zero because the line of action of
arm flexes or extends at the elbow joint, however, the the force due to the weight of the arm passes through the
torque arms change. In Figure 11-35, the moment arms axis of rotation.
for the muscle force are illustrated with the arm in three Consider an individual performing a biceps curl with a
positions. With the elbow extended (Fig. 11-35A), the weight. The arm is positioned 25° below the horizontal,
moment arm is rather small. As flexion occurs at the
elbow (Fig. 11-35B), the moment arm increases until
the arm is parallel to the ground. When flexion continues
past this point (Fig. 11-35C), the moment arm again
becomes smaller. The magnitude of the moment arm of
the muscle force, therefore, depends on how much flexion
or extension occurs at a joint. The change in moment arm
during flexion and extension of the limb is also true for
the moment arms for both the weight of the forearm and
hand and for anything held in the hand.
In Figure 11-36, the arm is held at some angle u below
the horizontal. The value d describes the distance from
the axis of rotation to the center of mass of the arm. The
moment arm for the weight of the arm, however, is the
distance a. The lines a and d form the sides of a right tri-
angle with the line of action of the force. Therefore, with
the angle u, the cosine function can be used to calculate
the length a. Thus:
a
cos u 
d
a = d × cos u
Figure 11-36 The cosine of the angle of inclination of the forearm
The arm is considered to have a 0° angle when it is par- is used to calculate the moment arm when the forearm is not parallel
allel to the ground. As the arm extends, the angle increases to the horizontal.
418 Section IiI Mechanical Analysis of Human Motion
Figure 11-37 The forearm at an instant during a biceps curl (A)
and the free body diagram of this position (B). The arm is inclined
below the horizontal.
so that the elbow is slightly extended (Fig. 11-37A). The
corresponding free body diagram is presented in Figure
11-37B. The moment arm for the weight of the arm can
be calculated from the distance from the axis of rotation
to the center of mass and the angle at which the arm is
positioned:
a = 0.15 m × cos 25°
a = 0.15 m × 0.9063
a = 0.14 m
Similarly, the moment arm for the weight of the barbell
held in the hand can be calculated as:
b = 0.4 m × cos 25°
b = 0.4 m × 0.9063
b = 0.36 m
The moment arms are less than they would be if the
arm were held parallel to the ground.
This problem may be solved for the muscle force using
the same principles of a static analysis that were discussed
previously. That is:
ΣT = 0
If, by convention, the moment due to the muscle is
considered to be positive and the moments due to the
weight of the arm and the weight of the barbell negative,
then:
Tmuscle − Tarm − Tweight = 0
Remember that the torque is the product of a force and
its torque arm. Thus, we can substitute all known values
into this equation. Rearranging it results in:
(Fmuscle × 0.05 m) = (45 N × 0.14 m) + (420 N × 0.36 m)
This equation can be solved to determine the muscle
force necessary to maintain this position in a static pos-
ture. Thus:
6.3 N-m  151.2 N-m
Fmuscle 
0.05 m
Fmuscle = 3,150 N
The muscle must exert a force much greater than the
weight of the arm and the barbell because the moment
or torque arm for the muscle is relatively small. It appears
that our body is at a great disadvantage when it comes
to producing large moments of force about a joint. Most
of our joints are arranged as third-class levers, however,
indicating that range of motion is magnified. Muscles
can, therefore, exert large forces, but only over very short
periods of time.
Static Equilibrium: Stability and Balance
The concept of stability is closely related to that of equi-
librium. Stability may be defined in much the same way
as equilibrium, that is, as the resistance to both linear
and angular acceleration. The ability of an individual to
assume and maintain a stable position is referred to as
­balance. Even in a stable or balanced position, an indi-
vidual may be subject to external forces.
If a body is in a state of static equilibrium and is
slightly displaced by a force, the object may experience
three conditions: return to its original position, continue
to move away from its original position, or stop and
assume a new position. If the object is displaced as a
result of work done by a force and returns to its original
position, it is said to be in a state of stable equilibrium.
If the object is displaced and tends to increase its displace-
ment, it is in a state of unstable equilibrium. A state of
neutral equilibrium exists if the object is displaced by a
force and does not return to the position from which it
was displaced.
Figure 11-38 illustrates the various states of equi-
librium. In Figure 11-38A, a ball on a concave surface
exemplifies stable equilibrium. When it is displaced along
one side of the surface by some force, it will return to its
original position. In Figure 11-38B, an example of unsta-
ble equilibrium is presented: A force displaces a ball on a
convex surface. The ball will come to rest in a new posi-
tion, not its original position. Figure 11-38C illustrates

Figure 11-38 Examples of a ball. (A) Stable equilibrium. (B) Unsta-
ble equilibrium. (C) Neutral equilibrium.
neutral equilibrium. In this case, when a ball is placed on
a flat surface and a force is applied, the ball will move to
a new position.
With its multiple segments, the human body is much
more complex than a ball, but it can assume the different
states of equilibrium. An individual doing a headstand,
for example, is in a position of unstable equilibrium,
and a child sitting on a swing is in a state of stable
equilibrium.
Several factors determine the stability of an object. The
first factor is where the line of gravity falls with respect to
the base of support. An object is most stable if the line
of gravity is in the geometric center of the base of sup-
port. Increasing the area of the base of support generally
increases the stability. A body may be stable in one direc-
tion, however, but not in another. For example, spreading
one’s feet apart increases the area of the base of support
and makes the individual stable if pushed in mediolat-
eral direction. It does not, however, help stability in the
anteroposterior direction. Increasing the base of support
to allow the line of gravity to fall within the base of sup-
port may be illustrated by the example of an individual
using a walker, as in Figure 11-39A. The base of support
is produced by the positions of the individual’s legs and
the legs of the walker. The walker increases the base of
support, and the individual is positioned so that the line
of action of the center of mass is in the geometric center
of this base.
The stability of an object is also inversely proportional
to the height of the center of mass. That is, an object
chapter 11 Angular Kinetics 419
Base support (legs)
of walking aid
Line of gravity
Line of gravity
Base of
support
A
h1
h2
B
Unstable Stable
F F
20 kg 2 kg
C
Figure 11-39 Factors that influence the stability of an object.
(A) Increasing the base of support. (B) Lowering the center of mass.
(C) Increasing the mass of the system.
with a low center of mass tends to be more stable than
an object with a high center of mass (Fig. 11-39B). If the
two objects in Figure 11-39B undergo the same angular
displacement as a result of the forces indicated, the line
of gravity of the center of mass of the object on the left,
the taller object, will move outside the limit of the base of
support sooner than that of the object on the right (the
shorter object). Therefore, the force dislodging the object
on the left could be less than that for the object on the
right. In football, for example, defensive linemen crouch
in a three-point stance to keep their center of mass low.
This enhances their stability so that they are less likely to
be moved by the offensive linemen.
The final factor that influences stability is the mass of
the object. According to the equations of motion, the
greater the mass of an object, the greater its stability
(Fig. 11-39C). Newton’s second law states that the force
applied to an object is proportional to the mass of the
object and its acceleration. Thus, it takes more force to
move an object with a greater mass. Moving a piano, for
example, is extremely difficult because of its mass. Many
sports such as wrestling and judo, in which stability is
critical, take body mass into consideration by dividing the
420 Section IiI Mechanical Analysis of Human Motion

contestants into weight divisions because of the dispro-
portionate stability of heavier individuals.
Applications of Statics
It appears that static analyses are limited in their useful-
ness because they describe situations in which no motion
or motion at a constant velocity occurs. A static analysis
of muscle forces and moments has been used extensively
in ergonomics, however, even though the task may
involve some movement. The evaluation of workplace
tasks, such as lifting and manual materials handling, has
been examined in considerable detail with static analyses.
Use of static analysis to determine an individual’s static
or isometric strength is widely accepted in determining
the ability of the person’s lifting ability. Many researchers
have suggested that this static evaluation should be used
as a pre-employment screening evaluation for applicants
for manual materials handling tasks (7,29,42). Lind
and colleagues (32) reported that the static endurance
in a manual materials handling task is influenced by the
posture of the individual performing the task. A model
to evaluate static strength evaluations of jobs has been
developed by Garg and Chaffin (17). A free body diagram
of one such lifting model is presented in Figure 11-40
(6). This model was presented in Chapter 10 to illustrate
a free body diagram for the linear forces acting on the
system (Fig. 11-40A). Adding the moments of forces at
each joint (Fig. 11-40B) allows the total lifting model to
be evaluated (Fig. 11-40C).
Static analysis techniques have also been used in clini-
cal rehabilitation. Quite often, no movement of a body
or a body segment is desirable, so a static evaluation may
be undertaken. For example, placing a patient in traction
demands that a static force system be implemented. Many
bracing systems for skeletal problems, such as scoliosis and
genu valgum (knock-knee), use a static force system to
counteract the forces causing the problem (Fig. 11-41).
Static analyses have been used in the calculation of muscle
forces and have been performed by multiple researchers
on many joints (18,39,44).
Dynamic Analysis
As pointed out in Chapter 10, a dynamic analysis should
be used when the accelerations are not zero. Newton’s
second law establishes the basis for the dynamic analysis
by examining the force–acceleration relationship. In the
linear case, the equations of motion for a 2D case are:
ΣFx = max
ΣFy = may

R2 R2

M2
2 2 2
M2

R1 R1
CM2 X CM2X
CM3 W2 CM3 X W
2
X M1 M1
1
W3 W3
1 1
X
X

R3 R3 W1
W1
M3 M3 h

3 LH LH
CM4 3 3 CM4
R4 R4
X
X

W4 4 W4 4
4
M4 M4
CM5 CM5
X X
R5 W5 R5 W5
M5 M5
R6
5 R6 5 5
CM6 CM6
X
X

W6 W6
A 6 B 6
M6
C 6
M6

Figure 11-40 A free body diagram of a sagittal view static lifting model showing the linear reac-
tive forces (A) and moments of forces (B) at the joints. These are combined to generate the total lifting
model (C). (Adapted from Chaffin, D. B., Andersson, G. B. J. [1991]. Occupational Biomechanics, 2nd ed.
New York: Wiley.)

Figure 11-41 Bracing systems that illustrate static
force systems. (A) A neck brace. (B) A three-point
pressure brace to correct genu valgum. (C) A brace
to correct a foot deformity.
where the linear acceleration is broken down into its
horizontal (x) and vertical (y) components. The angular
equivalent looking at the torque–angular acceleration
relationship is:
ΣTz = Iaz
in which I is the moment of inertia and a is the angular
acceleration. In a 2D system, angular acceleration occurs
about the z-axis. If az = 0, the motion is purely linear. If
ax = 0 and ay = 0, the motion is purely rotational. If az,
ax, and ay = 0, a static case exists. The torques acting on
a body are created by a contact or gravitational force act-
ing a distance from the axis or rotation. Iaz is the inertial
torque similar to the linear case, max and may.
Angular accelerations and the inertial properties of the
body segments resisting these accelerations must be con-
sidered in the dynamic case. As discussed in Chapter 10, in
an inverse dynamics approach, each segment is evaluated
from the most distal segment and works systematically up
the segment links. Consider Figure 11-42, which illus-
trates a free body diagram of the foot during the swing
phase of the gait cycle. In Chapter 10, a dynamic analysis
of the linear forces was conducted by applying the 2D
linear kinetic equations. Joint reaction forces at the ankle
were determined to be −1.57 N for Rx and 20.3 N for Ry.
To determine the net moment acting at the ankle joint,
all moments acting on the system must be evaluated. If
the center of mass of the foot is considered as the axis of
rotation, three moments are acting on this system, two
as a result of the joint reaction forces and the net ankle
moment itself. Because the joint reaction forces and their
moment arms, the moment of inertia of the foot about an
axis through the center of mass, and the angular accelera-
tion of the foot are known, the net ankle moment can be
calculated. Thus:
ΣMcm = Icmaz
Mankle − MRx − MRy = Icmaz
chapter 11 Angular Kinetics 421
where Mankle is the net moment at the ankle, MRx is the
moment resulting from the horizontal reaction force at
the ankle, MRy is the moment resulting from the vertical
reaction force at the ankle, and Icmaz is the product of
the moment of inertia of the foot and the angular accel-
eration of the foot. In the general equation of moments
acting on the foot, the moments MRx and MRy will cause
clockwise rotation of the foot about the center of mass of
the foot. By convention, clockwise rotations are negative,
so moments causing a clockwise rotation are negative.
Substituting the appropriate values from Figure 11-42 and
those calculated in the previous equations and rearranging
the equation:
Ry
Y
0.07m
Rx
ay
foot center of mass
ax
0.07m
W = mg
X
Figure 11-42 Free body diagram of the foot during the swing
phase of a walking stride. Convention dictates that moments and
forces at the proximal joint are positive, as indicated in the free body
diagram.
422 Section IiI Mechanical Analysis of Human Motion

Mankle = Icmaz + MRx + MRy

Mankle = (0.0096 kg-m2 × −14.66 rad/s2) + (N-m)
(0.07 m × −1.57 N) + (0.07 m × 20.3 N) A
Mankle = −0.141 N-m − 0.11 N-m + 1.421 N-m
Mankle = 1.17 N-m 300
HIP
The net moment at this instant in time is positive,
and we conclude that this is a counterclockwise rotation.
A counterclockwise rotation of the foot indicates a dorsi-
flexion action. As with the static case, the exact muscles
acting cannot be determined from this type of analysis.
Thus, it cannot be stated whether the muscle activity is 100
dorsiflexor concentric or dorsiflexor eccentric.
It was stated that a dynamic analysis usually proceeds
from the more distal joints to the more proximal joints.
The data from this calculation of the foot segment analysis
are then used to calculate the net moment at the knee.
The calculation continues to the thigh to calculate the
B
hip moment. The analysis is conducted for each joint at
each instant in time of the movement under consideration
to create a profile of the net moments for the complete KNEE 300
movement.
Applications of Dynamics
Dynamic analyses have been used in many biomechani-
cal studies on a number of activities to determine the net
moments at various joints. These activities include cycling
(43), asymmetrical load carrying (11), weight lifting (31), 100
jumping (57), and throwing (14). Figure 11-43 illustrates
the net torques for the hip, knee, and ankle joints in a
comparison study of one-legged and two-legged counter-
movement jumps by 10 volleyball players (57). The joint
torques across the push-off phase demonstrated that the
one-legged jump generated higher peak joint torques in
all three joints and greater mean torques in the hip and
ankle joints.
C

Effects of Torque Applied Over

a Period of Time ANKLE
300
For angular motion to occur, torques must be applied
over a period of time. In the linear case, the product of
a force applied over a period of time was referred to as
the impulse. For the angular analog, the application of a
torque over time is known as angular impulse. As in the
linear case, we can derive this concept from Newton’s 100
second law of motion:
T = Ia
dv
TI
dt
d(I  v) t (ms)
T
dt Figure 11-43 Hip (A), knee (B), and ankle (C) joint torques pro-
T × dt = d(I × v) duced in the push-off phase of one-legged (solid ) and two-legged
(dotted ) countermovement jumps. (Modified from Van Soest, A. J.,
or et al. [1985]. A comparison of one-legged and two-legged counter­
movement jumps. Medicine & Science in Sports & Exercise, 17:
T × dt = dIvfinal − dIvinitial 635–639.)

The left side of the equation represents the angular
impulse, and the right side of the equation describes
the change in angular momentum. This relationship is
known as the impulse–momentum relationship. The
equation demonstrates that when a torque is applied over
a period of time, a change in the angular momentum
occurs. Consider the handspring vault in Figure 11-44.
The gymnast comes in contact with the horse after
generating a large linear horizontal velocity during the
approach. This velocity is converted to some vertical
velocity and angular momentum. On contact with the
horse, the contact with the horse (called a “blocking
action”) generates two torques. Because the gymnast
contacts the horse at an angle, the contact with the
horse generates both a vertical force (Fy) and a horizon-
tal force (Fx). The vertical force on the horse increases
the vertical velocity off the vault but creates a clockwise
torque about the center of mass, which is the product
of Fy and dx. This angular impulse (T × t) changes the
angular momentum and decreases the counterclockwise
rotation created by the angular momentum generated
at takeoff from the board. The horizontal force on the
horse acts in an opposite manner by decreasing horizon-
tal velo­city and increasing angular momentum gene­rated
on the board. A counterclockwise torque about the
center of mass is generated via the impulse generated
Fy
Figure 11-44 Torques generated on
the horse by the vertical (Fy × dx) and antero-
posterior force (Fx × dy ) generate angular
impulses about the center of mass of the
vaulter. (Modified from Takei, Y. [1992].
Blocking and post flight techniques of male
gymnasts performing the compulsory vault
at the 1988 Olympics. International Journal
of Sports Biomechanics, 8:87–110.)
chapter 11 Angular Kinetics 423
by Fx times dy, resulting in an increase in the angular
momentum from that generated at takeoff. Takei (53)
indicated that the loss in angular momentum generated
by the application of the vertical force was greater than
the corresponding gain generated by the horizontal
force, resulting in a loss of angular momentum while
on the horse. In elite Olympic gymnasts, the angular
momentum at contact averaged 95.3 kg-m2/s for the
vaults with the highest scores and 92.4 kg-m2/s for the
vaults with the lowest scores. In addition, the angular
momentum was reduced by –33 and –27.4 kg-m2/s,
respectively, during the horse contact phase as a result
of these ­angular impulses (52).
Angular Work: Effects of Torque
Applied Over a Distance
Mechanical angular work is defined as the product of the
magnitude of the torque applied against an object and the
angular distance that the object rotates in the direction of
the torque while the torque is being applied. Expressed
algebraically:
Angular work = T × Δu
where T is the torque applied and Δu is the angular
distance. Because torque has units of N-m and angular
Vy
Vx
dy
Fg
Fx
dx
424 Section IiI Mechanical Analysis of Human Motion
­ istance has units of radians, the units for angular work
d this motion, the flexor muscles of the weightlifter do
are N-m and joules (J), the same units as in the linear case.
To illustrate angular work, if a 40.5 N-m torque is
applied over a rotation of 0.79 rad, the work done in
rotation is:
Angular work = T × Δu
Angular work = 40.5 N-m × 0.79 rad
Angular work = 32.0 N-m or 32.0 J
Thus, 32 N-m of work is said to be done by the torque, T.
When a muscle contracts and produces tension to move
a segment, a torque is produced at the joint, and the seg-
ment is moved through some angular displacement. The
muscles that rotated the segment do mechanical angu-
lar work. To differentiate between the kinds of muscle
actions, angular work done by muscles is characterized
as either positive work or negative work. Positive work
is associated with concentric muscle actions or actions
in which the muscle is shortening as it creates tension.
For example, if a weightlifter performs a biceps curl on a
barbell, the phase in which the elbows flex to bring the
barbell up is the concentric phase (Fig. 11-45A). During
A
B velocity of the joint to determine the concentric or eccen-
Figure 11-45 Positive muscular work (A) and negative muscular
work (B) during a biceps curl of a barbell.
work on the barbell. Negative work, on the other hand,
is associated with eccentric muscle actions, or actions in
which the muscle is lengthening as it creates tension. In a
biceps curl, when the weightlifter is lowering the barbell,
resisting the pull of gravity, the flexor muscles are doing
negative work (Fig. 11-45B). In this instance, the barbell
is doing work on the muscles. Although it has been found
that positive work requires a greater metabolic expendi-
ture than negative work, no direct relationship has been
reported between mechanical work of muscles and physi-
ologic work.
Special Torque Applications
Angular motion has special torque applications compa-
rable to the force applications in the linear case. Many of
the angular applications are direct analogs of the linear
case and have similar definitions.
Angular Power
In Chapter 10, power was defined in the linear case as the
work done per unit time or the product of force and velo­
city. Angular power may be similarly defined as:
dW
power 
dt
where dW is the angular work done and dt is the time over
which the work was done. Angular power may also be
defined, as in the linear case, using the angular analogs of
force and velocity, torque, and angular velocity. Angular
power is the angular work done per unit time and is calcu-
lated as the product of torque and angular velocity:
Angular power = T × v
where T is the torque applied in N-m and v is the angu-
lar velocity in rad/s. Angular power thus has units of
N-m/s, or W.
The concept of angular power is often used to describe
mechanical muscle power. Muscle power is determined
by calculating the net torque at the joint and the angu-
lar velocity of the joint. The net moment is assumed to
describe the net muscle activity across a joint and does not
represent any one particular muscle that crosses the joint
but the net activity of all muscles. It also does not take into
account the situation in which biarticulate muscles may
be acting or the fact that there may be co-contraction of
these muscles. This net muscle activity at a joint is simply
described as flexor or extensor actions, but whether the
muscle activity is concentric or eccentric cannot be ascer-
tained directly from the joint moment. The net moment
can, however, be used in conjunction with the angular
tric nature of the muscular action. As discussed previously,
concentric actions of muscles are related to the positive
 chapter 11 Angular Kinetics 425

work of muscles and eccentric actions as the negative work
of muscles. Because the work done by muscles is rarely
constant with time, the concept of muscle power can be
used. Muscle power is the time rate of change of work and
is defined as the product of the net muscle moment and
the joint angular velocity. It is expressed algebraically as:
Pmuscle = Mj × vj
where Pmuscle is the muscle power in units of W, Mj is the
net muscle moment in N-m, and vj is the joint angular
velocity in rad/s.
Muscle power may be either positive or negative.
Because power is the time rate of change of work, the
area under the power–time curve is the work done. For
example, if Mj and vj are either both positive or both
negative, muscle power will be positive. Positive muscle
power indicates that the muscle is acting concentrically. If
Mj is positive and vj is negative or Mj is negative and vj is
positive, muscle power will be negative. Negative muscle
power indicates a net eccentric action.
Figure 11-46 illustrates the positive and negative work
possibilities of the elbow joint. In Figure 11-46A, Mj and
vj are positive, indicating a flexor moment with the arm
moving in a flexor direction. The resulting muscle power
is positive, indicating a concentric action of the elbow
flexors. In Figure 11-46B, both Mj and vj are negative,
resulting in a positive muscle power or a concentric
action. The arm is extending, indicating the muscle action
is a concentric action of the elbow extensors. In Figure
11-46C, Mj is positive or a flexor moment, but the arm
has a negative vj, indicating extension. In this case, an
external force is causing the arm to extend while the elbow
flexors resist. This results in an eccentric action of the
elbow flexors and is verified by the negative muscle power.
Figure 11-46D illustrates the case in which an eccentric
action of the elbow extensors occurs.
Figure 11-47 illustrates the angular velocity–time, net
moment–time, and muscle power–time profiles during
an elbow flexion followed by elbow extension. In the
flexion phase of the movement, the net moment initially
is positive, but it becomes negative as the arm becomes
more flexed. The initial portion, therefore, results in a
positive power or a concentric contraction of the flexor
muscles. In the latter portion of the flexor phase, the

Flexion Extension
+
Angular velocity (deg/s)

A
–
+
Flexion
Moment (Nm)

0
Extension

–
B
+

M+ M–
ω+ ω–
P+ P+
Power (W)

0
M– M+
ω+ ω–
P– P–

–
C
Time (s)
Figure 11-46 The definition of positive and negative power at
the elbow joint: (A) and (B) result in positive power; (C) and (D) result Figure 11-47 Angular velocity (A), moment of force (B), and
in negative power. muscle power (C) profiles during an elbow flexion–extension motion.
426 Section IiI Mechanical Analysis of Human Motion

power is negative, indicating an eccentric muscle contrac-

tion. The eccentric contraction of the elbow extensor
muscles occurs to decelerate the limb. Because the power
is negative at this point, however, it does not mean that
there is no flexor muscle activity. It simply means that the
predominant activity is extensor. In the extension portion
of the movement, the situation is reversed. In the initial
portion of extension, the muscle activity is concentric
extensor activity. In the latter portion, the muscle power
profile again indicates flexor concentric activity to deceler-
ate the limb.
The analysis of net moments of force and muscle
power has been widely used in research in biomechanics.
Winter and Robertson (63) and Robertson and Winter
(46) have investigated the power requirements in walking.
Robertson (45) described the power functions of the leg
muscles during running to identify any common charac-
teristics among a group of runners. Gage (16) reported on
the use of the moment of force and the muscle power pro-
files as a preoperative and postoperative comparison. The Figure 11-48 Theoretical representation of the translational and
analysis of muscle power in the lower extremity during rotational velocities of the thigh and leg during running. (Adapted
locomotion, therefore, appears to be a powerful research from Williams, K. R. [1980]. A Biomechanical and Physiological Evalu-
and diagnostic tool. ation of Running Efficiency. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, The
Pennsylvania State University.)

Energy
In Chapter 10, translational kinetic energy (TKE) was movements (Fig. 11-48). If the leg segment is considered,
defined in terms of mass and velocity. Rotational kinetic the linear velocity of the center of mass of the leg is:
energy (RKE) may also be defined similarly using the
angular analogs of mass and velocity, moment of inertia, vLEGcm = vr
and angular velocity. Thus, RKE is defined algebraically as: where v is the angular velocity of the leg and r is the
1 2 distance from the knee to the center of mass of the leg. If
RKE  Iv the body segment values of the leg are moment of inertia
2
= 0.0393 kg-m2, mass = 3.53 kg, and r = 0.146 m, the
where RKE is the RKE, I is the moment of inertia, and v
magnitude of the RKE is:
is the angular velocity. Thus, when the total energy of a
system is defined, the RKE must be added to the TKE and 1 2
RKE  Iv
the potential energy. Total mechanical energy is therefore 2
defined as: RKE = 0.5 × 0.0393 kg-m2 × v2
total energy = TKE + potential kinetic energy + RKE RKE = 0.0197 v2

or The translational kinetic energy of the leg under the

same circumstances is:
TE = TKE + PE + RKE
1
In the discussion of angular kinematics, it was noted TKE  mv 2
2
that single segments undergo large angular velocities
during running. Thus, if a single segment is considered, where m and v are the mass and the linear velocity of the
it might be intuitively expected that the RKE might influ- leg. Substituting the expression vr into this equation for
ence the total energy of the segment more significantly the linear velocity, v, the equation becomes:
than the TKE. Winter and colleagues (62), for example, 1
hypothesized that angular contributions of the leg would TKE  m (vr)2
2
be important to the changes in total segment energy in TKE = 0.5 × 3.53 kg × (0.146 m × v)2
running. Williams (59) offered the following example to
TKE = 0.0376 v2
illustrate that this is not the case.
Consider a theoretical model of a lower extremity Because v2 has the same magnitude in both RKE and
segment undergoing both translational and rotational TKE, the two types of energy can be evaluated based on

Right heel
contact Right toe-off
Support phase
15
RKE
TKE
PE
Total
10
Energy (J)
5
0
0 20 40 60
Percent of stride
Figure 11-49 The relationship between total energy (Total), rota-
tional kinetic energy (RKE), translational kinetic energy (TKE), and
potential energy (PE) of the foot during a walking stride.
the values of 0.0197 times v2 for the rotational energy
and 0.0376 times v2 for the translational energy. It can
be seen that the TKE is almost double that of the RKE.
In fact, Williams (59) stated that the RKE of most seg-
ments is much less than the TKE. Figure 11-49 illustrates
the relationship between the energy components of the
foot during a walking stride. In this figure, the magnitude
of the total energy is mostly made up of the TKE during
the support phase and the potential energy during the
swing phase.
Work–Energy Relationship
Mechanical angular work was defined as the product of
a torque applied to an object and the distance that the
object moved during the torque application. Angular
work is said to have been done on an object when a rota-
tion occurs through some angular distance. Rotational
energy has also been defined as the capacity to do angu-
lar work. Therefore, analogous to the linear case, the
work–energy theorem, W = ΔE, also applies. That is,
for mechanical angular work to be done, a change in the
rotational energy level must occur. The angular work
done on an object is:
Wangular = ΔRE
1
Wangular   a Iv2b
2 hip flexor moment until it is terminated in late swing by a
where Wangular is the angular work done on the object and
ΔRE is the change in RKE about the center of mass. To
calculate the total work done on the object, the other
chapter 11 Angular Kinetics 427
Right heel forms of energy, such as potential and kinetic energy, must
contact
Swing phase
also be considered. With the inclusion of the additional
form of energy, the work done on the object becomes:
Wobject = ΔKE + ΔPE + ΔRE
1 1
Wobject   a mv 2b  (mgh)   a Iv 2b
2 2
where Wobject is the work done on the object, ΔKE is the
change in the linear kinetic energy of the center of mass of
the object [Δ(1/2 mv2)], ΔPE is the change in potential
energy of the object center of mass [Δ(mgh)], and RE is
the change in rotational energy about the center of mass
of the object [Δ(1/2 Iv)2]. For example, in baseball bat-
ting, the goal is to generate maximum energy at contact
so maximum work can be generated in the ball. Both the
linear and rotational kinetic energies of the bat are impor-
tant. Potential energy is also a factor because the bat stores
80 100 potential energy in the handle that is later transferred as
local kinetic energy at impact (13).
  
Angular Kinetics of Locomotion
The angular kinetics of locomotion, specifically the joint
moments of force of the lower extremity, have been
widely researched (3,60,61). Winter (60) stated that the
resultant moment of force provided powerful diagnostic
information when comparing injured gait with uninjured
gait. Another common area of investigation for gait is
muscle mechanical power. Muscle power is the product
of the net joint moment and the joint angular velocity.
Positive power results when there is a concentric muscle
action, such as flexor moments accompanying segment
movement in the flexion direction. Negative power is
associated with eccentric muscle action when the net
moment of force occurs in the opposite direction as the
segment movement. For example, negative power would
result when a net knee extension moment is generated
as the knee is moving into flexion. It is common to see
power fluctuate between negative and positive multiple
times across the cycle in both walking and running.
Figure 11-50 illustrates the joint kinematics; the net
muscle moments of force; and the corresponding powers
at the hip, knee, and ankle during a walking stride. At the
hip joint, there is a net hip extensor moment during the
initial loading phase of support continuing through mid-
support into late stance. In late stance, there is a power
absorption as hip extension is decelerated via hip flexors
(40). In preparation for toe-off, the hip flexors shorten to
produce power for the initiation of the swing phase. Hip
flexion continues into swing via power production from a
hip extensor moment.
At the knee joint, the loading response involves knee
flexion controlled by a knee extensor moment from
428 Section IiI Mechanical Analysis of Human Motion

A Hip B Knee C Ankle

Flex 60 90 40
75 30
45
60 20
Angle (deg)

30 45 10
15 30 0
15
0
0
Ext

Ext 2
Moment (N-m/kg)

Flex

Prod 3

2
Power (W/kg)

Abs
0 25 50 75 100 0 25 50 75 100 0 25 50 75 100
% Gait Cycle % Gait Cycle % Gait Cycle
Figure 11-50 Angular displacement, moments of force, and power during a single walking stride.
(A) Hip, (B) Knee. (C) Ankle. The transition from support to swing is indicated at the solid line. (Adapted from
Ounpuu, S. [1994]. The biomechanics of walking and running. Foot & Ankle Injuries, 13:843–863.)

touchdown until midsupport. In late stance, there is again
a knee flexor moment that moves to a small knee extensor
moment. During swing, there is minimal power produc-
tion until the terminal phase of swing, when the knee
flexors act eccentrically to slow knee extension for contact.
The ankle joint exhibits a brief net dorsiflexor moment
during the initial loading phase of stance as the foot is low-
ered to the ground. A transition to a net ankle plantarflex-
ion moment first occurs through eccentric plantarflexion
actions to control the leg’s rotation over the foot. This
is followed by a continuation of a net plantarflexion
moment as the plantar flexors concentrically advance the
limb into the swing phase. At the actual initiation of the
swing phase, plantarflexion continues under the control of
eccentric dorsiflexion activity. While in the swing phase,
minimal power is produced at the ankle.
The joint moment and power patterns change with
the speed of walking. For example, there are three basic
moment patterns at the knee joint: a biphasic pattern, a
flexor moment resisting an external extensor moment,
and an extensor moment after heel strike (26). At slower
speeds, there is more use of a flexor moment, with little
knee flexion and small knee moments through midstance
resulting in negative joint power (26). In a faster walk,
there are greater knee flexion and extension moments and
more energy generation early in the stance phase followed
by energy absorption during early stance.
Figure 11-51 illustrates the joint kinematics; the net
muscle moments of force; and the corresponding powers
at the hip, knee, and ankle during a running stride (40).
The moments of force and powers in running are greater
in magnitude than those in walking. The lower extremity
moments of force increase in magnitude with increases
in locomotor speed. Cavanagh and colleagues (4) and
Mann and Sprague (34) reported considerable variability
in the magnitudes of the moments of force between sub-
jects running at the same speed. For slow running, this
variability is generally smallest at the ankle and greatest
at the hip.
Similar to walking, the hip joint extends during both
loading and propulsive stages of stance initially via con-
centric hip extension and later via eccentric hip flexion.
 chapter 11 Angular Kinetics 429

A Hip B Knee C Ankle

75 100 40
Flex 83 20
57
60 17
Angle (deg)

38 49 6

21 31
14
Ext 3

2
Ext
Moment (N-m/kg)

0
Flex

10
Prod
7
Power (V/kg)

Abs

0 25 50 75 100 0 25 50 75 100 0 25 50 75 100

% Gait Cycle % Gait Cycle % Gait Cycle
Figure 11-51 Angular displacement, moments of force, and power during a single running stride.
(A) Hip, (B) Knee. (C) Ankle. The transition from support to swing is indicated at the solid line. (Adapted
from Ounpuu, S. [1994]. The biomechanics of walking and running. Foot & Ankle Injuries, 13:843–863.)

Concentric hip flexion continues into the swing phase as
the thigh is brought forward. This hip flexion continues
into late swing when the hip extensors terminate the hip
flexion movement and initiate a hip extension (40).
At the knee joint, the loading response is similar to that
of walking, involving flexion controlled by the knee exten-
sors to the point of midsupport. From that point, there
is a net knee extensor moment. At the start of the swing
phase, a small net knee extensor moment is associated
with knee flexion. Later in the swing phase, a net knee
flexor moment slows the rapidly extending knee.
Ankle joint net joint moments and powers are also
similar to those of walking, depending on the style of
running. For runners with a typical heel strike footfall
pattern, the ankle joint exhibits a small net dorsiflexor
moment during the loading phase followed by a net ankle
plantarflexion moment for the remainder of the stance
phase. At midstance, the net ankle plantarflexion moment
controls rapid dorsiflexion, and in later stance, the plan-
tarflexion moment produces rapid plantarflexion. Minimal
ankle power is generated in the swing phase.
Angular Kinetics of the Golf Swing
The actual physical dimensions and characteristics of the
club influence the angular kinetics of a golf swing. The
composition of the materials of both the shaft and the club
head influences swing characteristics. Shafts made of graph-
ite or composite materials are usually lighter and stronger,
so using this type of club, a golfer can swing a lighter club
faster while producing the same amount of angular work.
Adding mass to a club increases the joint torque at the
shoulder and the trunk in the latter portion of the swing
(30). Use of stiffer shafts generally results in straighter
shots. Use of flexible shafts generally results in longer shots,
but these clubs are difficult to control, thus influencing
accuracy (51). The reason the stiffer staff offers better con-
trol is because it has less bend and twist and it compresses
the ball more, creating a flight that is more representative
of the actual angle of the club (35). A steel club with good
direction control may be better for a novice golfer than a
graphite club that can achieve more distance but is harder
to control. The most desirable ­physical characteristics of
430 Section IiI Mechanical Analysis of Human Motion
the club are a high moment of inertia and a low center of
gravity (50).
The physical characteristics of the club head can also
influence the performance. An increase in the mass of the
club head increases the joint torque at both the shoulder
and the trunk for the latter half of the swing (30). Also,
if the weight in the club head can be distributed to the
periphery of the face, the optimal hitting area (i.e., the
“sweet spot”) is increased, offering greater tolerance to
off-center hits (50). If the center of gravity of the club
head can be lowered, it can produce a higher flight path,
and if the center of gravity can be moved toward the heel
of the club, a right-to-left spin is promoted (50).
Club lengths influence the magnitude of the torque
generated in the shoulder. A longer club produces an
increase in the torque. This can open up the shoulder
earlier and increase the linear acceleration of the wrist
(30). Drivers are 5% longer than they were 10 years ago,
and even if they can produce better results, they are more
difficult to swing and control (35).
The angle that the shaft makes with the ground is called
the “lie angle.” This angle determines how the face of the
club is oriented. Lie angles range from approximately 55°
for a driver to approximately 63° for the nine-iron. The lie
angle can be altered if the club length does not match the
physical dimensions of the golfer. Sample club lengths are
110 cm for a one-wood to 90 cm for a nine-iron (51). If
a club is too short for a golfer, the drive is usually shorter
because of lower swing angular velocities. Likewise, if the
club is too long, the golfer is required to stand up more
Torque (Nm)
Time (ms)
and may choke up on the shaft. Standing more erect
changes the lie angle and often reduces the control over
the shot (51). With a lower lie angle, the sweet spot of the
club face is raised, leading to “topping” the ball.
Altering the length of the club can affect the angu-
lar acceleration of the club. For example, at the top of
the backswing, the club lever is shortened by increased
right elbow flexion. In the downswing, the club lever is
lengthened (33). When the club is reversed at the top of
the backswing, the torque applied to the shaft actually
causes it to bend where the head trails the line of the shaft
(35). Torque applied through the shoulders accelerates
the club, and there is a rigid body rotation with the wrist
angle held constant. This positions the shaft perpendicular
to the arms. Next, the hands allow the club to accelerate
about the wrist. In the last portion of the swing, the shaft
is rotated 90° at the wrist to bring the shaft face square
into impact (35).
The distance a golf ball travels is related to the speed
of the club head at contact. This speed is determined by
the torque the golfer applies to the arm–club system and
the management of the torque on the club by the wrists
(28). If the wrists can be unhinged or uncocked later in the
downswing, greater club head speed is generated for a given
torque. In the follow-through phase, the angular momen-
tum of the swing takes the right arm over the left and
stimulates rotation of both the trunk and the head (33).
The torque generated at the wrist about the vertical
(y), anteroposterior (z), and mediolateral (x) axes in the
swing of a professional golfer is shown in Figure 11-52.
Figure 11-52 Joint torques acting
at the wrist joint about the vertical (Y ),
anteroposterior (Z ), and mediolateral
(X ) axes. The solid line indicates impact.
(Adapted from Neal, R. J., Wilson, B. D.
[1985]. 3D kinematics and kinetics of
the golf swing. International Journal of
Sports Biomechanics, 1:221–232.)

In the backswing, a positive torque is generated about the
anteroposterior (z) axis as the angle between the club and
the arm is maintained. At the initiation of the downswing,
a negative torque is generated about the same axis to
keep the club back and maintain the same angle between
the club and the arm. At the bottom of the downswing,
a large positive torque is developed as the wrist uncocks
and accelerates the club to impact (38). Rotations about
the mediolateral (x) axis are at a maximum as the club is
taken back behind the head. Torques about the vertical (y)
and anteroposterior (z) axes are zero at this point because
the club is parallel to the vertical–anteroposterior plane.
Torque about the vertical (y) axis is maximum at the ini-
tiation of the downswing as the body rotates around the
support.
Angular Kinetics of
Wheelchair Propulsion
Hand rim wheelchair locomotion is strenuous and
involves a significant amount of mechanical work pro-
duction by the upper extremity muscles. The magnitude
of the joint moment at the shoulder and elbow joints is
influenced by the direction of application of the linear
force. A large elbow moment is present when the force
application to the rim is perpendicular to a line from the
hand to the elbow and is minimized when the force is
applied along the line from the hand to the elbow (48).
Likewise, propelling forces, which are perpendicular to
the line between the hand and the shoulder, result in large
shoulder moments.
Moment (Nm)
Figure 11-53 Example of the net ­shoulder
moment (paraplegia subject) during wheelchair
propulsion (mean and standard deviation over
five trials; time normalized to 100% of a full
cycle). (Adapted from van Drongelen, S., et al.
[2005]. Mechanical load on the upper ­extremity
during wheelchair activities. Archives of ­Physical
Medicine and Rehabilitation, 86:1214–1220.)
chapter 11 Angular Kinetics 431
The shoulder joint torques account for the majority
of the external power in wheelchair propulsion (54). The
peak torque in the shoulder joint is greater than those
generated in the elbow joint (58). A very small torque
is generated in the wrist joint, where a braking effect is
generated (58). The torques generated at the elbow and
wrist joints are one-third and one-fifth of the torques at
the shoulder joint (5). Joint torques ranges for the joints
approximate 5 to 9 N-m at the wrist joint, 9 to 25 N-m at
the elbow joint, and 25 to 50 N-m at the shoulder joint
(47,54). Figure 11-53 illustrates a typical net shoulder
moment of a paraplegic subject during wheelchair propul-
sion (55).
At low speeds and resistances, wheelchair propulsion
is generated primarily by upper extremity sagittal plane
movement. Fifty percent of the shoulder joint work is lost
as negative work at the wrist and elbow (5). As the work-
load and speed increase, a concomitant increase occurs in
the direction and magnitudes of the joint torques. Greater
extension and abduction at the shoulder coupled with
more torque at the elbow joint contribute to the increased
output (5). The increase in shoulder abduction is specu-
lated to be a forced abduction because of rotation of the
arm in a closed-chain system (54). A sample of the shoul-
der flexion and extension, shoulder adduction, elbow
flexion, and wrist flexion and extension torque patterns
for wheelchair propulsion are shown in Figure 11-54.
The highest torques are generated via shoulder flexion
and shoulder adduction. The shoulder flexion torque
peaks just before the peak in elbow extension torque.
The shoulder adduction torque controls the shoulder
abduction that is created as a result of arm movement in
5
2
1
Push phase Recovery phase
0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Percentage of push (%)
432 Section IiI Mechanical Analysis of Human Motion

Mean shoulder flexion torque Mean shoulder adduction torque

Flex 40 Add 40

30 30

20 20

Torque (N.m)
Torque (N.m)

10 10

0 0

BP EP BP EP
Ext Abd
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6
(seconds) (seconds)

Mean elbow flexion torque Mean wrist torque in the sagittal plane
Flex 10 Ext 5

4
5
3
0

Torque (N.m)
Torque (N.m)

BP EP BP EP
Ext Flex
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6
(seconds) (seconds)
Figure 11-54 Shoulder flexion torque (top left), shoulder adduction torque (top right), elbow flexion
torque (bottom left), and wrist torque in the sagittal plane (bottom right) for the propulsive stage of wheel-
chair propulsion. BP, beginning propulsion; EP, end propulsion. (Adapted from Veeger, H. E. J., et al. [1991].
Load on the upper extremity in manual wheelchair propulsion. Journal of Electromyography & ­Kinesiology,
1:270–280.)

a closed chain. There is a net flexor torque at the elbow
at the beginning of the propulsion phase that shifts to an
extensor torque, continuing on through the rest of pro-
pulsion. The wrist torque is primarily extensor throughout
the majority of the propulsion phase. A pronation and a
larger radial deviation moment act at the wrist over the
majority of the propulsive phase (2).
Summary
Torque, moment, and the moment of force are terms that
can be used synonymously. A torque results when the
line of action of a force acts at a distance from an axis of
rotation. The magnitude of a torque is the product of
the force and the perpendicular distance from the axis
of rotation to the line of action. The unit of torque is the
N-m. Torques cause rotational motion of an object about
an axis. A torque is a vector and thus must be considered
in terms of magnitude and direction. The right-hand rule
defines whether the torque is positive (counterclockwise
rotation) or negative (clockwise rotation).
Newton’s laws of motion can be restated from the lin-
ear case to their angular analogs. The angular analogs of
these laws are as follows:
1. A rotating body will continue in a state of uniform
angular motion unless acted on by an external
torque.
2. An external torque will produce an angular accel-
eration of a body that is proportional to and in the
direction of the torque and inversely proportional
to the moment of inertia of the body.
3. For every torque exerted by one body on another
body, an equal and opposite torque is exerted by
the latter body on the former.
Moment of inertia is the angular analog of mass. The
magnitude of the moment of inertia of an object, or
the resistance to angular motion, depends on the axis
about which the object is rotating. The calculation of the

segment moment of inertia can be calculated using the
radius of gyration as:
Icm= m(rcmL)2
where Icm is the moment of inertia about a transverse axis
through the center of mass, m is the mass of the segment,
r is a proportion describing the ratio of the radius of gyra-
tion about the center of mass to the segment length, and
L is the segment length.
Angular momentum is the angular analog of linear
momentum and refers to the quantity of rotation of an
object. The angular momentum of a multisegment body
must be understood in terms of local and remote angu-
lar momenta. Local angular momentum is the angular
momentum of a segment about its own center of mass.
Remote angular momentum is the angular momentum of a
segment about the total body center of mass. The total seg-
ment angular momentum is the sum of the segment’s local
and remote aspects. The total body angular momentum is
the sum of the local and remote aspects of all segments. The
angular analog of Newton’s first law of motion is a state-
ment of the law of conservation of angular momentum.
The concept of torque can be used to define the center
of mass of an object. The sum of the torques about the
center of mass of an object equals zero. That is:
ΣT = 0
This relationship defines the center of mass as the bal-
ancing point of the object.
The center of mass is commonly computed using the
segmental method, which requires body segment param-
eters, such as the location of the center of mass and the
segment proportion of the total body mass. The location
of a segment center of mass requires the coordinates of
both the proximal and distal ends of the segment. It is
defined as:
scm = proximal endpoint − (segment length × % length
of segment from segment’s proximal end point)
scm = sproximal − [(sproximal − sdistal) × %L]
where scm is the location of the segment center of mass,
sproximal is the coordinate point of the proximal end of the
segment, sdistal is the coordinate point of the distal end of
the segment, and %L is the location of the segment center
of mass as a proportion of the segment length from the
proximal end of the segment. Locating the total body
center of mass with the segmental method also uses the
concept that the sum of the torques about the center of
mass is zero. This computation uses the formula:
scm  a
n m s
i i
i1 M
where scm is the location of the total body center of mass,
n is the number of segments, mi is the mass of the ith seg-
ment, si is the location of the segment center of mass, and
M is the total body center of mass.
chapter 11 Angular Kinetics 433
A lever is a simple machine with a balancing point
called the fulcrum and two forces, an effort force and
a resistance force. The MA of a lever is defined as the
ratio of the effort moment arm to the resistance moment
arm. Levers can magnify force (MA > 1), magnify speed
of rotation (MA < 1), or change the direction of pull
(MA = 1). The three classes of levers are based on the
relationship of the effort and resistance forces to the
fulcrum. In the human body, however, the third-class
lever magnifying the speed of movement predominates.
Most of the levers in the extremities are third-class
levers.
Special torque applications include angular work, RKE,
and angular power. These concepts may be developed
by substituting the appropriate angular equivalent in the
­linear case. Angular work is defined as:
Angular work = T × Δu
where T is the torque applied and Δu is the angular
distance over which the torque is applied. RKE is the
capacity to do angular work and is defined as:
1 2
RKE  Iv
2
where I is the moment of inertia of the segment about
its center of mass and v is the angular velocity of the seg-
ment. Angular power is defined as either the rate of doing
angular work:
dW
Angular power 
dt
where W is the mechanical work done and dt is the time
period over which the work is done or the product of
torque and angular velocity:
Angular power = T × v
where T is the torque and v is the angular velocity.
Angular motion analysis can be conducted using
one of three techniques: the effect of a torque at an
instant in time (T = Ia), the effect of a torque applied
over time (impulse–momentum relationship), or the
effect of a torque applied over a distance (work–energy
theorem).
In the first technique, the static 2D case is determined
using the following equations:
ΣFx = 0 for the horizontal component
ΣFy = 0 for the vertical component
ΣTz = 0 for rotation
The dynamic 2D case uses the following equations:
ΣFx = max for the horizontal component
ΣFy = may for the vertical component
ΣTz = Iaz for rotation
The purpose in both cases is to determine the net
muscle moment about a joint. The impulse–momentum
434 Section IiI Mechanical Analysis of Human Motion

relationship relates the torque applied over time to the
change in momentum:
T × dt = Ivfinal − Ivinitial
The left-hand side of the equation, T × dt, is the
angular impulse, and the right-hand side, Ivfinal – Ivinitial,
describes the change in angular momentum. In the third
type of analysis, mechanical angular work is calculated via
the change in mechanical energy. That is:
W = ΔRKE
where RKE is the RKE.

Equation Review for Angular Kinetics

Calculation Given Formula

Torque Force (F ), moment arm (r ) T=F×r
Torque Moment of inertia (I ), angular acceleration (a) T = Ia
T
Angular acceleration (a) Torque (T ), moment of inertia (I ) a
I
m 1x 1  m 2 x 2  Á  m
Center of mass of system Mass (m), location (x, y) xcm 
(xcm, ycm) total mass
m 1y 1  m 2 y 2  Á  m
ycm 
total mass
ea
Mechanical advantage (MA) Length of effort arm (EA), resistance arm (RA) Ma 
ra
Moment of inertia (I ) Mass (m), distance from axis (r) I = mr 2
T
Moment of inertia (I ) Angular acceleration (a), torque (T ) I
a
Moment of inertia (I ) Mass (m), length (l ), radius of gyration (r) I = m (rl )2
Angular momentum (r) Moment of inertia (I ), angular velocity (v) H = Iv
Angular impulse Angular momentum (I × v) Angular impulse = Ivfinal − Ivinitial
T t
Angular velocity Torque, time, moment of inertia v
I
Angular work Torque and displacement (Δu) W = TΔu
Angular work Changes in rotational kinetic energy (RKE) W = ΔRKE
Horizontal work Force (F ), angle of force application (u), W = F cos u Δs
­displacement (Δs)
Potential energy (PE) Mass (m), acceleration due to gravity (g), and PE = mgh
vertical height (h)
1 2
Rotational kinetic energy (RKE) Moment of inertia (I ), angular velocity (v) rKe  Iv
2
dW
Angular power Angular work (W ), time (t) P
dt
Angular power Torque (T ), angular velocity (v) P=T×v

REVIEW QUESTIONS 4. ____ Second-class levers require large effort forces relative
to resistant forces and maximize the speed of movement.
True or False 5. ____ Decreasing moment of inertia by going from a laid
1. ____ In order for a force to cause a rotation, it must not out to tucked body position when doing a backflip allows
pass through the pivot point. one to rotate quicker.

2. ____ By convention, clockwise torques are considered to
be positive.
3. ____ Third-class levers, where the effort and resisting
forces are on the same side of the fulcrum, are most
prominent in the body.
6. ____ To work your deltoids more during a lateral arm raise,
bend your elbows slightly, bringing the weight closer to
your trunk.
7. ____ The moment arm for muscle force remains constant
throughout the entire range of motion.
 chapter 11 Angular Kinetics 435

8. ____ Increasing an object’s stability can be done by raising 2. An object has a moment of inertia of 184 kg-m2. A torque
the height of the center of mass or increasing its mass. of 84 N-m is applied to the object. What is the angular
9. ____ A positive net moment indicates that angular acceleration?
­acceleration is occurring. a. 2.19 rad/s2
b. 15,460 rad/s2
10. ____ The sum of torques about the center of mass of an c. 0.46 rad/s2
object always equals zero. d. 125 rad/s2
11. ____ An MA > 1 indicates the effort arm exceeds the
r­ esistance arm, which magnifies the moment created by 3. A 55-kg gymnast applies a vertical ground reaction force
the effort force. of 1,100 N at 0.17 m behind the center of mass during a
forward somersault. Assume she is facing the right. What
12. ____ Angular momentum increases if moment of inertia is the torque generated about the center of mass?
increases and decreases when angular velocity decreases. a. 279 N-m
13. ____ The only force creating a moment about the shoulder b. −92 N-m
when an arm is held out to the side is the weight of the c. 187 N-m
entire arm. d. −187 N-m
14. ____ Hip joint power is a proportional to hip joint moment
4. If a mass of 20.29 kg acts downward 0.29 m from the axis
and the velocity the thigh is rotating.
of rotation on one end of a board and another force of
15. ____ The moment arm is always measured from the point 85 N also acts downward, what is the moment arm of the
of application of the force to the axis of rotation. second force to balance this system?
16. ____ Moment of inertia about an axis always passes a. 0.68 m
through the center of mass of a segment. b. 58 m
c. 0.069 m
17. ____ A force couple produces only rotation without trans- d. The system is not balanced; angular rotation will occur.
lation because the two torques act in the same direction.
18. ____ Total body angular momentum can be increased 5. What is the torque generated at the elbow by a 206-N
­during a dive by forcefully swinging the arms downward. force pulling on the forearm at an angle of 110° from the
horizon at a point 16.5 cm from the elbow’s axis of rota-
19. ____ The moment of inertia about an axis through the
tion? The forearm is positioned horizontal to the ground.
c­ enter of mass is less than the moment of inertia about
a. 1,163 N-m
any other perpendicular axis running through any other
b. 11.6 N-m
point on the segment.
c. 31.9 N-m
20. ____ The final acceleration in the golf club during the down- d. 3,194 N-m
swing is attributed to the moment of inertia decreasing as
the club center of mass gets closer to the axis of rotation. 6. How much torque must be generated by the hip flexors to
hold an 80-N ankle weight straight out at a 90° position?
21. ____ Once a gymnast leaves the vault, angular ­momentum
The ankle weight is 0.73 m from the hip joint. The thigh
remains constant while airborne if air resistance is
and leg weighs 130 N. The moment arm for the hip flexors
neglected.
muscle is 0.08 m.
22. ____ Resistance of a thigh to rotate about its longitudinal a. 58.4 N-m
axis is greater than its resistance to rotate about a medio- b. 106 N-m
lateral axis. c. 1,323 N-m
23. ____ During the stance phase of running, positive power d. Not enough information
at the hip, knee, and ankle joints indicates eccentric
­contractions. 7. Calculate the rotational energy of a segment, given mass
of the segment is 2.2 kg, moment of inertia is 0.57 kg-m2,
24. ____ The direction of the torque vector changes the force and angular velocity is 25 rad/s.
vector rotates around the axis of rotation. a. 178 J
25. ____ Rotational kinetic energy of the foot is more influenced b. 7.13 J
by the foot’s angular velocity than its moment of inertia. c. 356 J
d. 102 J

8. A force of 300 N is applied at a point 1.3 m from the axis

Multiple Choice of rotation, causing a revolving door to accelerate at
1. A force of 393 N is exerted 20 cm from the axis of rotation. 309.4 deg/s2. What is the moment of inertia of the door
What is the resulting moment of force? from its axis of rotation?
a. 786 N-m a. 72.2 kg-m2
b. 78.6 N-m b. 1.26 kg-m2
c. 19.7 N-m c. 2,106 kg-m2
d. 197 N-m d. 55.6 kg-m2
436 Section IiI Mechanical Analysis of Human Motion

9. If the net moment at a joint is 37.6 N-m and the angular 16. Consider the following free body diagram. Using static
velocity at the same instant in time is 4.40 rad/s, what is analysis, solve for the muscle torque that will place this
the angular power at that joint? system in equilibrium, given mass of the leg and foot is
a. 0.12 W 5.4 kg; distance from the knee joint to the center of mass
b. 165 W of the leg–foot system 0.232 m; weight of the barbell
c. 8.55 W 150 N; and distance from the knee joint to the center of
d. 9,480 W mass of the barbell 0.514 m.
a. 89.4 N-m
10. The center of mass of the following three-point system b. 64.8 N-m
with masses of 6, 5, and 4 kg at the coordinates (6,0), (5,5), c. 78.4 N-m
and (−4, −3), respectively, is ____. d. Not enough information to solve N-m
a. 5.1, 4.1
b. 3.0, 0.87
c. 5.1, 2.5
d. 3.0, 1.4
Knee joint
11. What is the angular momentum if the force is 66 N, the
lever arm is 7.7 m, and the time is 1.2 seconds?
a. 424 kg-m2/s
b. 79.2 kg-m2/s
c. 508 kg-m2/s
d. 610 kg-m2/s Weight of Weight of ankle
leg and foot barbell
12. Where is the center of mass of a segment in space if
the proximal end is at (213, 400) and the distal end is at 17. If the leg is at an angle of 35° below the horizontal, calcu-
(378, 445) and the center of mass is 42.9% from the late the moment arm of the torque caused by the weight
proximal end of the segment? of the leg, given that the distance to the center of mass of
a. 162, 191 the leg 0.17 m from the knee joint.
b. 142, 381 a. 0.10 m
c. 284, 419 b. 0.14 m
d. 381, 142 c. 0.15 m
d. 0.17 m
13. Calculate the moment of inertia of a baseball bat about
its proximal end if its mass is 2.1 kg and has a radius of 18. Consider the following free body diagram. Using static
­gyration of 0.58 and a length of 0.869 m. analysis, solve for Achilles tendon force that will place this
a. 0.614 kg-m2 system in equilibrium if d1 is 0.043 m, d2 is 0.041 m, and
b. 0.920 kg-m2 d3 is 0.126 m.
c. 0.533 kg-m2 a. 239 N
d. 1.12 kg-m2 b. 5,578 N
c. 5,557 N
14. A torque of 73 N-m results in an object rotating 52.72° in d. 10.3 N
0.86 seconds. How much angular work was done?
a. 4,476 J
FAT
b. 3,850 J
c. 78.1 J
d. 67.2 J
d1
15. Why do the deltoids need to generate a greater torque Ankle joint
when your arm–forearm is closer to your side versus center
straight out at 90°?
a. Because the moment arm of the center or mass of the d2
arm–forearm is larger.
b. Because the component of the weight of the arm–­
forearm that causes a moment is larger.
c. The torque is the same because the distance from the d3
shoulder joint to the center of mass of the arm–forearm
is constant.
d. The torque is less because the moment arm of the
center or mass of the arm–forearm is less. 1,900 N 11.2 N