In this chapter we consider the automated equipment used in the processing of discrete parts in large volumes. The equipment is often in the configuration of mechanically integrated flow lines, consisting of’a number of workstations that perform the processing operations on the line. These flow lines are called transfer machines or transfer lines. The methods used to transport parts between stations are examined in this chapter es well as the other features that characterize these production systems. We emphasize machining operations as the typical process carried out on these systems, although the automated flow line concept is used in a variety of industries and processes. AUTOMATED FLOW LINES ‘An automated flow line consists of several machines or workstations which are linked together by work handling devices that transfer parts between the stations. The trans- fer of workparts occurs automatically and the workstations carry out their specialized functions automatically. The flow line can be symbolized as shown in Figure 4.1 using the symbols presented in Table 4.1. A raw workpart enters one end of the line and the processing steps are performed sequentially as the part moves from one station to the ay 8384- Raw ‘workpart in Sta.1 Sta.2 Sta.3 Detroit-Type Automation - Finished Sta. 4 Sta.5 Sta.6 FIGURE 4.1 Configuration of an automated flow line. next. It is possible to incorporate buffer storage zones into the flow line, either at a single location or between every workstation. It is also possible to include inspection stations in the line to automatically perform intermediate checks on the quality of the workparts. Manual stations might also be located along the flow line to perform certain ‘operations TABLE 4.1. Symbols used in the Production Systems Diagrams Symbol Workhead Machine, +} tooling, ete. —————— | XXXX! YYY Component © Workstation XXXX: PROC = processing station ASBY = assembly station INSP = inspection station SORT = sortation station yyy: AUT = automated MAN = manual © Material handling system (arrow indicates work flow direction) © Workpart Raw workpart Partially processed part Finished part © Storage buffer © Data/information flowa | Automated Flow Lines 85 which are difficult OF uneconomical to automate. These various features of mechanized flow lines will be discussed in subsequent sections. Automated flow lines are generally the most appropriate means of production in cases of relatively stable product life; high product demand, which requires high rates of Production; afid where the alternative method of manufacture would involve a large labor content. The objectives of the use of flow line automation are, therefore: To reduce labor costs To increase production rates To reduce work-in-process To minimize distances moved between operations To achieve specialization of operations To achieve integration of operations Although Figure 4.1 shows the flow pattern of operations in a straight line, there are actually two general forms that the work flow can take. These two configurations are in- line and rotary. In-line type = The in-line configuration consists of a sequence of workstations in a more-or-less straight- line arrangement. The flow of work can take a few 90° tums, either for workpiece Teorientation, factory layout | itations, or other reasons, and still qualify as a straight- line configuration. A common pattern of work flow, for example, is a rectangular shape, which would allow the same operator to load the starting workpieces and unload the finished workpieces. An example of an in-line transfer machine used for metal-cutting operations is illustrated in Figure 4.2. Rotary type In the rotary configuration, the workparts are indexed around a circular table or dial. The workstations are stationary and usually located around the outside periphery of the dial. The parts ride on the rotating table and are registered or Positioned, in turn, at each Station for its processing or assembly operation. This type of equipment is often referred to as an indexing machine or dial index machine and the configuration is shown in Figure 43 Selection The choice between the two types depends on the application. The Totary type is commonly limited to smaller workpieces and to fewer stations. There is generally not as much flexibility in the design of the rotary configuration. For example, the dial-type design does not lend itself to providing “or buffer storage capacity. On the other hand, the rotaryon 3a 55 82 8 oe oo £v =5 a5 3 38 Es $2 as 28 Ns reorients the workparts. Note the return. loop for bringing pallets back to starting point. (Courtesy of Snyder Corp.) Hl } 4 4 letized section. The station between the two sectior FIGURE 4.2 Line drawing of a 20-station tran: housings. Line consists of two sections: a 7-statiMethods of Workpart Transport Finished parts out FIGURE 4.3. Configuration of a rotary indexing machine. configuration usually involves a lower-cost piece of equipment and typically requires less factory floor space. The in-line design is preferable for larger workpieces and can accommodate a larger number of workstations. The number of stations on the dial index machine is more limited due to the size of the dial. In-line machines can be fabricated with a built-in storage capability to smooth out the effect of work stoppages at individual stations and other irregularities. 4.2 METHODS OF WORKPART TRANSPORT ‘The transfer mechanism of the automated flow line must not only move the partially completed workparts or assemblies between adjacent stations, it must also orient and locate the parts in the correct position for processing at each station. The general methods of transporting workpieces on flow lines can be classified into the following three cate- gories: 1, Continuous transfer 2, Intermittent or synchronous transfer : 3. Asynchronous or power-and-free transfer These three categories are distinguished by the type of motion that is imparted to the workpiece by the transfer mechanism. The most appropriate type of transport system for a given application depends on such factors as: The types of operation to be performed The number of stations on the line The weight and size of the workpartsDetroit-Type Automation Whether manual stations are included on the line Production rate requirements Balancing the various process times on the line / Before discussing the three types of ‘work transport system, we should try to clarify a possible sourcé of confusion. These transfer systems are used for both processing and assembly operations. In the case of automatic assembly machines, we are referring to the mechanisms that transport the partially completed assemblies between stations, not the feed mechanisms that present new components to the assemblies at a particular station. The devices that feed and orient the components are normally an integral part of the workstation. We take a closer look at these devices in Chapter 7 when we discuss aptomatic assembly in more detail. Continuous transfer With the continuous method of transfer, the workparts are moved continuously at ¢onstant speed. This requires the workheads to move during processing in order to maintain continuous registration with the workpart. For some types of operations, this movement of the workheads during processing is not feasible. It would be difficult, for example, to use this type of system on a machining transfer line because of inertia probléms due to the size and weight of the workheads. In other cases, continuous transfer would be very practical. Examples of its use are in beverage bottling operations, packaging, manual assembly operations where the human operator can move with the moving flow line, and relatively simple automatic assembly tasks. In some bottling operations, for instance, the bottles are transported around a continuously rotating drum. Beverage is discharged into the moving bottles by spouts located at the drum’s periphery. The advantage of this application is that the liquid beverage is kept moving at a steady speed and hence there are no inertia problems. Continuous transfer systems are relatively easy to design and fabricate and can achieve a high rate of production. Intermittent transfer As the name suggests, in this method the workpieces are transported with an intermittent or discontinuous motion. The workstations are fixed in position and the parts are moved between stations and then registered at the proper locations for processing. All workparts are transported at the same time and, for this reason, the term “synchronous transfer system” is also used to describe this method of workpart transport. Examples of appli- cations of the intermittent transfer of workparts can be found in machining operations, pressworking operations or progressive dies, and mechanized assembly. Most of the transfer mechanisms reviewed in Section 4.3 provide the intermittent or synchronous type of workpart transport.Transfer Mechanisms 89 Asynchronous transfer This system of transfer, also referred to as a “power-and-free system,” allows each e current station has been workpart to move to the next station when processing at th completed. Each part moves independently of other parts. Hence, some parts are being processed on the line at the same time that others are being transported between sta- tions. Asynchronous transfer systems offer the opportunity for greater flexibility than do the other two systems, and this flexibility can bea great advantage in certain circumstances.” In-process storage of workparts can be incorporated into the. asynchronous systems with relative ase. Power-and-free systems can also compensate for line balancing problems where there are significant differences in process times between stations. Parallel stations _ or several series stations can be used for the longer operations, and single stations can be used for the shorter operations. Therefore, the average production rates can be ap- proximately equalized. ‘Asynchronous lines are ‘often used where there are one or more manually operated stations and cycle-time variations would be a problem on either the continuous or synchronous transport systems. Larger workparts can be handled on the asynchronous systems. A disadvantage of the power-and-free systems is that the cycle rates are generally slower than for the other types. Pallet fixtures The transfer system is sometimes designed to accommodate some sort of pallet fixture. Workparts are attached to the pallet fixtures and the pallets are transferred between stations, carrying the part through its sequence of operations. The pallet fixture is designed so that it can be conveniently moved, located, and clamped in position at successive stations Since the part is accurately located in the fixture, it is therefore correctly positioned for each operation. In addition to the obvious advantage of convenient transfer and location of workparts, another advantage of pallet fixtures is that they can be designed to be used for a variety of similar parts. The other method of workpart Jocation and fixturing does not use pallets. With this method, the workparts themselves are indexed from station to station. When a part arrives ata station, it is automatically clamped in position for the operation. The obvious benefit of this transfer method is that it avoids the cost of pallet fixtures. 4.3 TRANSFER MECHANISMS (here are various types of transfer mechanisms used to move parts between stations. These mechanisms-can-be grouped. into two-types: those used to provide linear-travel-for in-line machines, and those used to provide rotary motion for dial indexing machines | n for dial incexing | 08) beesDetroit-Type Automation Linear transter mechanisms We will explain the Operation of three of the typical mechanisms: the walking beam transfer bar System, the powered roller conve: system. This is not a ‘yor system, and the chain-drive conveyor complete listing of all t lypes, but it is a Tepresentative sample. Wak IG BEAM Systems, ‘With the walking beam transfer mechanism, the work- Parts are lifted up from their workstation” locations ‘by a transfer bar and moved one Position ahead, to the next station. The transfer bar then lowers the parts into nests which Position them-more accurately for Processing. }This type of transfer device is illustrated in Figure4.4—~ PoweRED ROLLER Conveyor SYSTEM. This type of system is used in general Stock handling systems as well as in automated flow lines. The conveyor can be used to move parts or pallets Possessing flat riding surfaces. The rollers can be powered by either ‘a catretnere 24 Ve oa Stop ‘Transfer rail FIGURE 4.4 Walking beam transfer system, showing various stages during trans- fer cycle. (Reprinted from Boothroyd and Redford [1].)| Transfer Mechanisms 91 of two mechanisms. The first is a belt drive, in which a flat moving belt beneath the lers by friction. A chain drive is the second common rollers provides the rotation of the rol mechanism used to power the rollers. Powered roller conveyors are versatile transfer : systems because they can be used to divert work pallets into workstations or alternate tracks. We discuss roller conveyor systems in Chapter 14. CHAIN-DRIVE CONVEYOR SysTEM. Figure 4.5 illustrates this type of ‘transfer system. Either a chain or a flexible steet-belt is used to transport the work carriers. The chain is driven by pulleys in either an “over-and-under” configuration, in which the pulleys turn about a horizontal axis, or an “ground-the-comer” configuration, in which the pulleys rotate about a vertical axis. 2 This general type of transfer system can be used for continuous, intermittent, or nonsynchronous movement of workparts. In the nonsynchronous motion, the workparts are pulled by friction or ride on an oil film along a track with the chain or belt providing the movement. It is necessary to provide some sort of final location for the workparts when they arrive at their respective stations. Rotary transfer mechanisms There are several methods used to index a circular table or dial at various equal angular positions corresponding to workstation locations. Those described below are meant to be a representative rather than a complete listing. RACK AND PINION: This mechanism is simple but is not considered especially suited to the high-speed operation often associated with indexing machines. The device is pictured in Figure 4.6 and uses a piston to drive the rack, which causes the pinion gear and attached indexing table to rotate. A clutch or other device is used to provide rotation in the desired direction. Og See acne dat RATCHET AND PAWL. This drive mechanism is shown in Figure 4.7. Its operation is simple but somewhat unreliable, owing to wear and sticking of several of the com- ponents. Tension wheel: Forward Work carriers travel Indexing mechanism 1 —— bez Base mmm i Return FIGURE 4.5 Chain-driven conveyor, “over-and-under” type.92 Detroit-Type Automation : ae Adjustable stop Piston Rack to limit angular distance indexed Table spindle Pinion driving table through sv) unidirectional clutch FIGURE 4.6 Rack-and-pinion mechanism for rotary inde i lexing table. (Reprinted from Boothroyd and Redford [1],) ee GENEVA MECHANISM. The two previous mechanisms convert a linear motion into ~ a rotational motion. The Geneva mechanism uses a continuously rotating driver to index the table, as pictured in Figure 4.8. If the driven member has six slots for a six-station dial indexing machine, each tum of the driver will cause the table to advance one-sixth of a tum. The driver only causes movement of the table through’a portion of its rotation. For a six-slotted driven member, 120° of a complete rotation of the driver is used to index the table. The other 240° is dwell. For a four-slotted driven member, the ratio would be 90° for index and 270° for dwell. The usual number of indexings per revolution of the table is four, five, six, and eight. EXAMPLE 4.1 Let us examine the operation of a six-slotted Geneva mechanism. Suppose that the driver rotates at 6 rpm. Determine the cycle time of the indexing machine, the process time, and the time spent each cycle in indexing the table to the next work position. Solution: As indicated above. for a six-slotted Geneva mechanism, the driver spends 120° of its rotation to index the table, and’the remaining 240° of rotation correspond to dwell of the table. At 6 rev/min, Table spindle — FIGURE 4.7 Ratchet-and-pawl mechanism. (Reprinted from Boothroya and Red- ford [1],)Butter Storage 4.4 BUFFER STORAGE Table spindle FIGURE 4.8 Geneva mechanism. (Reprinted from Boothroyd and Redford (1]) time devoted to processing, chine is 10 s. The portion of this cycle 5. The indexing time the cycle time of the indexing m: (dwell of the indexing table) is 240/360 = 0.667. This corresponds to 6.67 is 120/360 = 0.333 x 10s = 3.338. Various forms of cam mechanism, an example of which is illustrated in Figure 4.9, provide probably the most accurate and reliable method of indexing the dial. They are in widespread use in industry despite the fact that the cost is relatively high compared to alternative mechanisms. ‘The cam can be designed to give a variety of velocity and dwell characteristics. ; ae CaM MECHANISMS. are often equipped with additional features beyond the basic transfer uffer storage capacity the idea of using 4 bi 1. It is not uncommon for production flow f workparts along, the line. One fer systems, each Automated flow lines mechanisms and workstations. For example, between stations was introduced in Section 4. lines to include storage zones for collecting ‘banks of example of the use of storage zones would be two intermixent trans! 5 Indexing plate i ‘Cam (Reprinted from Boothroyd and Redtord i) FIGURE 4.9 Cam,mechanism.Detroit-Type Automation without any storage capacity, linked together with a workpart inventory area. It is possible to connect three, four, or even more lines in this manner. Another example of workpart storage on flow lines is the asynchronous transfer line. With this system, it is possible to provide a'bank of workparts for every station on the line. There are two principal reasons for the use of buffer storage zones. The first is to reduce the effect of individual station breakdowns on the line operation. The continuous Or intermittent transfer system acts as a single integrated machine. When breakdowns occur at the individual stations or when preventive maintenance is applied to the machine, Production must be halted. In many cases, the proportion of time the line spends out of operation can be significant, perhaps reaching 50% or more. Some of the common reasons for line stoppages are: Tool failures or tool adjustments at individual processing stations Scheduled tool changes Defective workparts or components at assembly stations, which require that the feed mechanism be cleared Feed hopper needs to be replenished at an assembly station Limit switch or other electrical malfunction Mechanical failure of transfer system or workstation When a breakdown occurs on an automated flow line, the purpose of the buffer storage zone is to allow a portion of the line to continue operating while the remaining portion is stopped and under repair. For example, assume that a 20-station line is divided into two sections and connected by a parts storage zone which automatically collects parts from the first section and feeds them to the second section. If a station jam were to cause the first section of the line to stop, the second section could continue to operate as long as the supply of parts in the buffer zone lasts. Similarly, if the second section were to shut down, the first section could continue to operate as long as there is room in the buffer zone to store parts. Hopefully, the average production rate on the first segtjon would be about equal to that of the second section. By dividing the line and using the storage area, the average production rate would be improved over the original 20-station flow line. A quantitative analysis of the effect of adding buffer inventory zones will be presented in Chapter 5. Figure 4.10 illustrates the case of two processing lines separated by a storage buffer. % The second reason for using storage on flow lines is to smooth out the effects of Storage buffer +10 @K—+{__ 0 00} +9] >{2) 2 PROC PROC PROC PROC AUT AUT AUT AUT Line 1 Line 2 FIGURE 4.10 Two flow lines separated by storage buffer.variations in cycle times. These variations occur either between stations or, in the case of flow lines with one or more manual stations, they can occur from cycle to cycle at the same station. To illustrate the second case, suppose that we are considering an assembly line on which all the stations are mechanized except one. The manual station requires the operator to perform an alignment of two components and the time required tends to vary from cycle to cycle. For the transfer system in this line, we must choose between a synchronous system with no parts storage capacity and an asynchronous system which allows a “float” of parts ahead of each station. To illustrate this difference in operation, let us consider the following example. P : Control Functions EXAMPLE 4.2 ‘Assume that we have collected data on the operation and found the following distribution of operation times for a total of 100 cycles: 7 s: two occurrences, or 2%; 8 s: 10%; 9 s: 18%; 10 s: 38%; 11 s: 20% and 12 s: 12%. This gives an average of 10 s. If this manual operation were used on the synchronous machine, the line would have to be set up with cycle time of 12s to allow the operator time to finish all assemblies. This would give a production rate of 300 units/h from the line. If the cycle time were adjusted to 11 s, the cycle rate would increase to 327 per hour, but the operator would be unable to complete 12% of the assemblies. Thus, the actual production rate of completed assemblies would be only 288 units/h. If the cycle time were decreased to 10 s, tne cycle rate would increase to 360 per hour. However, the operator would be unable to complete the assemblies requiring 11 s and 12 s. The actual production rate would suffer a decrease to 245 units/h. With the asynchronous transfer system, the line could be arranged to collect a bank of workparts immediately before and after the manual station. Thus, the operator would be allowed a range of times to complete the alignment process. As long as the ‘operator’s average time were compatible with the cycle time of the transfer system, the flow line would run smoothly. The line cycle time could be set at 10 s and the production rate would be 360 good assemblies per hour The disadvantages of buffer storage on flow lines are increased factory floor space, higher in-process inventory, more material handling equipment, and greater complexity of the overall flow line system. The benefits of buffer storage are often great enough to more than compensate for these disadvantages. ‘ fe CONTROL FUNCTIONS Controlling an automated flow line is a complex problem, owing to the sheer number of sequential steps that must be carried out. There are three main functions that are utilized to control the operation of an automatic transfer system. The first of these is an operational requirement, the second is a safety requirement, and the third is dedicated to improving quality. 1. Sequence control. The purpose of this function is to coordinate the sequence of actions of the transfer system and its workstations. The various activities of the automated flow line must be carried out with split-second timing and accuracy. On a metal machining transfer line, for example, the workparts must be transported, locate and clamped in place before the workheads can begin to feed. Sequence control is bi to the operation of the flow line. ss96 Detroit-Type Automation Dee Sonntaee i : Sees ae peering: This function ensures that the transfer system does not insafe or hazardous condition. Sensing devices may be added to make ae ee sue tool status is Satisfactory to continue to process the workpait in arent achining-type transfer line. Other checks might include monitoring certain te st rs in the sequence control function to make sure that these steps have all been fs mie and in the correct order. Hydraulic or air pressures might also be checked if ese are: crucial to the operation of automated flow lines. ad 3 py monitoring. The third control function is to monitor certain quality + utes of the workpart. Its purpose is to identify and possibly reject defective workparts and assembl ies. The inspection devices required to perform quality monitoring are some- times incorporated into existing processing stations. In other cases, separate stations are included in the line for the sole purpose of inspecting the workpart. It is possible to extend the notion of quality monitoring and to incorporate a control loop into the flow line as illustrated in Figure 4.11. An inspection station would be used to monitor certain quality characteristics of the part and to feed back information to the preceding workstations so that adjustments in the process could be made. The traditional means of controlling the sequence of steps on the transfer system has been to use electromechanical relays. Relays are employed to maintain the proper order of activating the workheads, transfer mechanism, and other peripheral devices on the line. However, owing to their comparatively large size and relative unreliability, relays have lost ground to other control devices, such as programmable controllers and computers. These more modern components offer opportunities for a higher level of control over the flow line, particularly in the areas of safety monitoring and quality monitoring. Conventional thinking on the control of the line has been to stop operation when a malfunction occurred. While there are certain malfunctions representing unsafe con- ditions that demand shutdown of the line, there are other situations where stoppage of the line is not required and perhaps not even desirable. For example, take the case of a feed mechanism on an automatic assembly machine that fails to feed its component. Assuming that the failures are random and infrequent, it may be better to continue to operate the machine and lock out the affected assembly from further-operations. If the Inspection operation -—> fo —- PROC PROC AUT AUT bias | ! Feed back loops Le FIGURE 4.11 Inspection station with feedback loops to upstream workstations.Automation for Machining Operations 97 assembly machine were stopped, production would be lost at all other stations while the machine is down. Deciding whether it is better to stay in operation or stop the line must be based on the probabilities and economics of the particular case. The point is that there are alternative control strategies to choose between, instantaneous control and memory control. 1. Instantaneous control. This mode of control stops the operation of the flow line immediately when a malfunction is detected. It is relatively simple, inexpensive, and trouble-free. Diagnostic features are often added to the system to aid in identifying the location and cause of the trouble to the operator so that repairs can be quickly made. However, stopping the machine results in loss of production from the entire line, and this is the system’s biggest drawback. 2. Memory control. In contrast to instantaneous control, the memory system is designed to keep the machine operating. It works to control quality and/or protect the machine by preventing subsequent stations from processing the particular workpart and by segregating the part as defective at the end of the line. The premise upon which memory-type control is based is that the failures which occur at the stations will be random cand infrequent. If, however, the station failures result from cause (a workhead that has gone out of alignment, for example) and tend to repeat, the memory system will not improve production but, rather, degrade it. The flow line will continue to operate, with the consequence that bad parts will continue to be produced. For this reason, a counter is sometimes used so that if a failure occurs at the same station for two or three consecutive cycles, the memory logic will cause the machine to stop for repairs. . 4,6 AUTOMATION FOR MACHINING OPERATIONS Transfer systems have been designed to perform a great variety of different metal-cutting processes. In fact, it is difficult to think of machining operations that/must be excluded from the list. Typical applications include operations such as milling, boring, drilling, reaming, and tapping. However, it is also feasible to carry out operations such as tuming and grinding on transfer-type systems. There are various types of mechanized and automated machines that perform a sequence of operations simultaneously on ifferent workparts. These in i jexing machines, trunnion machines, and transfer lines. To consider these machines in approx- imately the order of increasing complexity, we begin with one that really does not belong in the list at-all, the single-station machine. Single-station machine These mechanized production machines perform several operations on a single workpart which is fixtured in one position throughout the cycle. The operations are performed on sevetal different surfaces by workheads located around the piece. The available space 6Detroit-Type Automation f operations is the Principal disadvantage of the single- les are usually low to medium. Rotary indexing machine To achieve higher rates of production, the rot: of machining operations on several-workparts simultaneously. Parts are fixtured on a horizontal circular table or dial, and indexed between successive stations. An example of a dial indexing machine is shown in Figure 4.12. lary indexing machine performs a sequence i ive-station dial index nachine showing vertical and 12 (Top view) Five: station dial v ‘ Peahal many stations around periphery of rotary table. on ee ee 4 forgings and finished parts processed on the dial index machine. Snyder Corp.)‘Automation for Machining Operations 99 Trunnion machine This machine; shown in Figure 4.13, uses a vertical drum mounted on a horizontal axis, so it is a variation of the dial indexing machine. The vertical drum is called a trunnion. Mounted on it are several fixtures which hold the workparts during processing. Trunnion machines are most suitable for small workpieces. The configuration of the machine, with a vertical rather than a horizontal indexing dial, provides the opportunity to perform operations on opposite sides of the workpart. Additional stations can be located on the outside periphery of the trunnion if this is required. The trunnion-type machine is appropriate for workparts in the medium production range. Center column machine ‘Another version of the dial indexing arrangement is the center column type, pictured in Figure 4.14. In addition to the radial machining heads located around the periphery of the horizontal table, vertical units are mounted on the center column of the machine. This increases the number of machining operations that can be performed as compared FIGURE 4.13 Six-station trunnion machine. (Courtesy of Snyder Corp.) .Detroit-Type Automation FIGURE 4.14 Ten-station center column machine that can be tooled for 34 dif- ferent pump housing components. (Courtesy of Snyder Corp.) to the regular dial indexing type. The center column machine is considered to be a high« ' production machine which makes efficient use of floor space. Transfer machine The most highly automated and versatile of the machines is the transfer line, illustrated in Figures 4.2 and 4.15. The workstations are arranged in a straight-line flow pattern and parts are transferred automatically from station to station. The transfer system can be ; synchronous or asynchronous, workparts can be transported with or without pallet fixtures, buffer storage can be incorporated into the line operation if desired, and a variety of different monitoring and control features can be used to manage the line. Hence, the transfer machine offers the greatest flexibility of any of the machines discussed. Thend Fabrication Considerations 101 FIGURE 4.15 In-line transfer machine with 33 stations to process cast-iron cyl- inder heads in foreground. (Courtesy of F. Jos. Lamb Co.) {runsfer line can accommodate larger workpieces than the rotary-type indexing systems. Also, the number of stations, and therefore the number of operations, which can be included on the line is greater than for the circular arrangement. The transfer line has taditionally been used for machining q single product in high quantities ove 5 pro- ction runs. More recently, transfer machines have been designed for ease of changeover to allow-several different but similar workparts to be produced on the same line. These Altcmpts to introduce flexibility into transfer line design add to the appeal of these high- production systems. DESIGN AND FABRICATION CONSIDERATIONS When a manufacturing firm decides that some form of automated flow line represents ~ the best method of producing a particular workpart or assembly, there are then a series of specifications that must be decided. In designing and building an automated flow line, * sone of the details to consider are the following: Whether the flow line is to be engineered in-house or by a machine tool builder Size, weight, geometry, and material if a processed workpart102 Detroit-Type Automation Size, weights, and number of components if an assembly Tolerance requirements Type and sequence of operations Production-rate requirements. Type of transfet system Methods of fixturing and locating workparts Methods of orienting and feeding components in the case of assemblies Reliability of individual stations and transfer mechanisms, as well as overall reli- ability of the line Buffer storage capability Ease of maintenance Control features desired Floor space available Flexibility of line in terms of possible future changes in product design Flexibility of line to accommodate more than a single workpart Initial cost of the line Operational ‘and tooling cost for the line In developing the concept for a mechanized flow line, there are two general ap- proaches that can be considered. The first is to use standard machine tools and other pieces of processing equipment at the workstations and to connect them with standard or special material handling equipment. The material handling hardware serves as the transfer system and moves, feeds, and ejects the work between the standard machines. The line of machines is sometimes referred to as a link line. The individual machines must either be capable of operating on an automatic cycle or they must be manually operated. There may also be fixturing and location problems at the stations which are difficult to solve - . without some form of human assistance during the cycle. A firm will often prefer the link line because it can be made up from machine tools that are already in the plant, these machine tools can be reused when the production run is finished, and there is less debugging and maintenance. These flow lines can also be engineered by personnel within - the firm, perhaps with the aid of material handling experts. The limitation of these flow : lines is that they favor simpler workpiece shapes and smaller sizes since the work handling equipment is less sophisticated and more general-purpose. Greater future use of industrial robots as material handling devices will increase the attractiveness of the link line. This type of flow line is used in such processes as plating and finishing operations, press- working, rolling mill operations, gear manufacturing, and a variety of machining oper- ations. The alternative approach to developing an automated line isto tum the problem ~ over to a machine tool builder specializing in the fabrication of transfer lines, assembly machines, or other flow line equipment. Using’ the customer's blueprints and specifica- tions, the builder will submit a proposal for the line. Typically, several machine tool4 I EIIEE'~S-OCN-:‘'S=— ON TT aa, Design and Fabrication Considerations 103 FIGURE 4.16 Standard rotary table component used on dial indexing machines. (Courtesy of Ferguson Machine Co.) FIGURE 4.17 Standard power feed unit used on machining transfer lines. (Cour- tesy of Ferguson Machine Co.)104 Detroit-Type Automation builders will be asked to make proposals. Each proposed design will be based on the machine components comprising the builder’s product line as well as the ingenuity and experience of the engineer preparing the proposal. Once a particular proposal is accepted, the machine tool builder will proceed with the final detailed design. The resulting machine will utilize a “building-block” principle. That is, the specialized flow line, designed to produce the customer’s particular product, will be constructed out of standard components. These standard components consist of the base or transfer system, and workheads for performing the various processing or assembly operations. These standard components will be fabricated into the special con- figuration required for the customer’s product. Several examples of these standard transfer line components are pictured in Figures 4.16 and 4.17. For metal-cutting transfer lines, the workheads consist of the feed mechanism, spindle, and power source. The workheads must then be fitted with special tools to carry out the particular process. These workheads do not have a frame or worktable. Instead, they are attached to the transfer system frame, which has been specially adapted for the workpart. When a flow line has been fabricated using this building-block principle, it is sometimes referred to as a unitized flow line. The standard machine tool components all go together and act as a single mechanical unit. Higher production rates are generally possible with unitized Construction compared to link lines. Also, less floor space is required because the unitized lines are typically much more compact. The higher cost of unitized equipment makes it suitable only for long production runs and on products riot subject to frequent design changes. Equipment obsolescence becomes a danger if these two requirements are not met. Applications of this type of flow line construction are found in transfer lines for machining automotive engine parts and in assembly machines for pens, small hardware items, electrical assem- blies, and so on. Figures 4.2, 4.12, 4.13, 4.14, and 4.15 illustrate this type of flow line construction. REFERENCES [1] Booturoyp, G., and A. H. REDFORD, Mechanized Assembly, McGraw-Hill Publishing Co., London, 1968. [2] Drozpa, T. J., and C. Wick, Editors, Tool and Manufacturing Engineers Handbook, 4th ed.,Volume I, Society of Manufacturing Engineers, Dearborn, Mich. 1983, Chapter 15. [3] Eary, D., and G. E, Jounson, Process Engineering for Manufacturing, Prentice-Hall, Inc., Englewood Cliffs, N.J., 1962, Chapter 13. Lawson, E. A., F. E. BLock, F. J. Lone, and D. C. CoonFer, Automation, June 1971. Ruey, F. J., “Selecting Controls for Automatic Assemb! Management, Part 1, October 1974; Part Il, November 1974. (4) “Transfer Machines Today,” 15] ly,” Manufacturing Engineering and