UNIT 3 Group Technology

Group Technology: Part families, parts classification and

coding: Features of parts classification and coding systems,
Opitz parts classification and coding system. Production
flow analysis, Cellular manufacturing: composite part
concept, types of machine cells and layouts, grouping parts
and machines by Rank order clustering, applications of
group technology. Single-minute exchange of die (SMED).
(8)

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Group Technology
•Group Technology is a manufacturing philosophy in which
similar parts are identified and grouped together to take
advantage of their similarities in design and production.

•Similar parts are arranged into part families, where each

part family possesses similar design and/or manufacturing
characteristics.
•For example, a plant producing 10,000 different part
numbers may be grouped into 30-40 distinct families.

2
Group Technology
•Processing of each member of a given family is similar and
this should result in manufacturing efficiencies.
•The efficiencies are generally achieved by arranging the
production equipment into machine groups, or cells, to
facilitate work flow.
•Grouping the production equipment into machine cells,
where each cell specializes in the production of a part
family is called cellular manufacturing.
•Cellular manufacturing is an example of mixed model
production.

3
Conditions appropriate for
GT
•The plant currently uses traditional batch production and a
process type layout.
•The parts can be grouped into part families.

4
Process-type plant layout

Figure 1
5
Group-technology layout

Figure 2
6
Obstacles to the application of
GT
•Identifying the part families
•Rearranging production machines into machine cells.

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Benefits of GT
•GT promotes standardization of tooling, fixturing and setups.
•Material handling is reduced because parts are moved within
a machine cell rather than within the entire factory.
•Process planning and production scheduling are simplified
•Setup times are reduced, resulting in lower manufacturing
lead times.
•Work-in-process is reduced.
•Worker satisfaction usually improves when workers
collaborate in a GT cell.
•Higher quality work is accomplished using GT.
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 Part families
•A part family is a collection of parts that are similar either
because of geometric shape and size or because similar
processing steps are required in their manufacture.

Two parts of identical shape and size but

different manufacturing requirements
(e.g. quantity and material) A family of parts with similar manufacturing
process requirements but different design
Figure 3 attributes. Figure 4
9
Grouping Parts Into Families
•The biggest obstacle in changing to group technology from a
conventional production shop is the problem of grouping the
parts into families.
•There are three general methods for solving this problem.
•All three are time-consuming and involve properly trained
personnel analyzing such data. The three methods are;
(1) Intuitive Grouping or visual inspection,
(2) Parts classification and Coding, and
(3) Production flow analysis.

10
Visual inspection method
•The visual inspection method is the least sophisticated and
least expensive method; generally considered the least
accurate of the three.
•It involves the classification of parts into families by looking at
either the physical parts or their photographs and arranging
them into groups having similar features.
•Two categories of part similarities can be distinguished:
(1) Design attributes, which are concerned with part
characteristics such as geometry, size, and material, and
(2) Manufacturing attributes, which consider the processing
steps required to make a part.

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Design and Manufacturing
Attributes
Part Design Attributes Part Manufacturing Attributes
Basic external shape Major processes
Basic internal shape Minor operations
Rotational or rectangular shape Operation sequence
Length-to-diameter ratio (rotational parts) Major dimension
Aspect ratio (rectangular parts) Surface finish
Material types Machine tool
Part function Production cycle time
Major dimensions Batch size
Minor dimensions Annual production
Tolerances Fixtures required
Surface finish Cutting tools used in manufacture

12
Parts Classification and Coding
•This is the most time-consuming of the three methods.
•In parts classification and coding, similarities among parts are
identified, and these similarities are related in a coding system.
•Design and manufacturing attributes of a part are usually
correlated.
•Accordingly, classification and coding systems are devised to
include both a part's design attributes and its manufacturing
attributes.

13
Reasons for using a coding scheme
Reasons for using a coding scheme include:
•Design retrieval
•Automated process planning
•Machine cell design

14
Features of Parts Classification and Coding
Systems
•The principal functional areas that utilize a parts classification
and coding system are design and manufacturing.
•Accordingly, parts classification systems fall into one of three
categories:
Systems based on part design attributes
Systems based on part manufacturing attributes
Systems based on both design and manufacturing attributes

15
 Structures used in classification and
coding schemes
1. Hierarchical structure (also known as a monocode): The
interpretation of each successive symbol depends on the
value of the preceding symbols
2. Chain type structure (also known as a polycode): The
interpretation of each symbol in the sequence is always the
same; it does not depend on the value of preceding symbols.
3. Mixed-mode structure: It is a hybrid of the two previous
coding schemes.

16
 Coding Example
•Consider a two-digit code number for a part, such as 15 or 25.
•Suppose the first digit stands for the general shape of the part: 1
means the part is cylindrical (rotational), and 2 means the
geometry is rectangular.

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 Coding Example
•In a hierarchical structure, the interpretation of the second digit
depends on the value of the first digit.
•If preceded by 1, the 5 might indicate a length-to-diameter
ratio;
• And if preceded by 2, the 5 indicates an aspect ratio between
the length and width dimensions of the part.

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 Coding Example
•In the chain-type structure, the symbol 5 would have the same
meaning whether preceded by 1 or 2. For example, it might
indicate the overall length of the part.
•The advantage of a hierarchical structure is that more
information can be included in a code of a given number of
digits.
•The number of digits in the code can range from 6 to 30.

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 Opitz Classification System
•First published classification and coding schemes for
mechanical parts.
•Developed by H. Opitz of the University of Aachen in Germany.
•Opitz coding scheme uses the following digit sequence:
12345 6789 ABCD
•The basic code consists of 9 digits, which can be extended by
adding four more digits.

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 Opitz Classification System
•The first nine are intended to convey both design and
manufacturing data.
•First five digits, 12345, are called form code. It describes the
primary design attributes of the part, such as external shape
(e.g., rotational vs. rectangular) and machined features (e.g.,
holes, threads, gear teeth, etc.].

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 Opitz Classification System
•Next four digits, 6789, constitute the supplementary code,
which indicates some of the attributes that would be of use in
manufacturing (e.g., dimensions, work material, starting shape,
and accuracy).
•The extra four digits, ABCD, are referred to as the secondary
code and are intended to identify the production operation
type and sequence.

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Basic structure of the Opitz system

Figure 5
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 Production flow analysis (PFA)
•Developed by J. Burbidge.
•It is a method for identifying part families and associated
machine groupings that uses the information contained on
production route sheets rather than on part drawings.
•Work parts with identical or similar routings are classified into
part families.
•These families are used to form logical machine cells in a GT
layout.

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Procedural Steps in production flow
analysis
•Step 1: Data collection
•Step 2: Sortation of process routings
•Step 3: PFA chart
•Step 4: Cluster analysis

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 Data collection
 The minimum data needed in the analysis are the part
number and operation sequence.
 Each operation is usually associated with a particular machine,
so determining the operation sequence also determines the
machine sequence.
 Additional data such as lot size, time standards, and annual
demand might be useful for designing machine cells of the
required production capacity.

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 Sortation of process routings
 In this step, the parts are arranged into groups according to
the similarity of their process routings.
 All operations or machines included in the shop are reduced
to code numbers.
 A sortation procedure is then used to arrange parts into
"packs,“ which are groups of parts with identical routings.

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PFA chart
The processes used for each pack are then displayed in a
PFA chart.
The chart is a tabulation of the process or machine code
numbers for all of the part packs.
Also known as part-machine incidence matrix.

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 PFA chart

In this matrix, the entries have a value xij = 1 or 0: a value of

xij = 1 indicates that the corresponding part i requires
processing on machine j, and xij = 0 indicates that no
processing of component i is accomplished on machine j. For
clarity in presenting the matrix, the 0s are often indicated as
blank (empty) entries. Figure 6
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Cluster analysis
Related groupings are identified and rearranged into a new
pattern that brings together packs with similar machine
sequences.
One of the systematic techniques called rank-order
clustering can be used to perform cluster analysis.

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Rearranged PFA chart

Figure 7
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Weakness of PFA
The PFA technique's weakness is that the data used in the analysis is
derived from existing production route sheets.
The route sheets used for PFA were most likely created by various
process planners over a long period of time, during which new
equipment was installed and old equipment was retired. As a result, the
routings may include operations and machine choices that are
influenced by the process planners' backgrounds, experiences, and
expertise.
As a result, the final machine groupings derived from the analysis may
be suboptimal.
Notwithstanding this weakness, PFA has the virtue of requiring less
time than a complete parts classification and coding procedure.

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 Cellular Manufacturing
Cellular manufacturing is an application of GT in which
dissimilar machines or processes have been aggregated
into cells, each of which is dedicated to the production
of a part or product family or a limited group of families.

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 Objectives of Cellular Manufacturing
•To shorten manufacturing lead times
•To reduce work-in-process inventory
•To improve quality
•To simplify production scheduling
•To reduce setup times

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 Composite Part Concept
•Part families are defined by the fact that their members have
similar design and/or manufacturing features.
•A composite part for a given family is a hypothetical part which
includes all of the design and manufacturing attributes of the
family.
•In general an individual part in the family will have some of the
features that characterize the family but not all of them.
•The composite part possesses all of the features.

35
 Composite Part Concept
•A production cell designed for the part family would include
those machines required to make the composite part.
•Such a cell would be capable of producing any member of the
family, simply by omitting those operations corresponding to
features not possessed by the particular part.

36
Composite Part example

Composite part concept: (a) the composite part for a family of machined
rotational parts, and (b) the individual features of the composite part.
Figure 8
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 Composite Part example
Label Design Feature Corresponding
Manufacturing
Operation
1 External cylinder Turning
2 Cylinder face Facing
3 Cylindrical step Turning
4 Smooth surface External cylindrical Grinding
5 Axial hole Drilling
6 Counterbore Counterboring
7 Internal threads Tapping

Design Features of the Composite Part in the Figure on the previous slide
and the Manufacturing Operations Required to Shape Those Features

38
 Machine Cell Design
•Design of the machine cell is critical in cellular
manufacturing.
•The cell design determines to a great degree the
performance of the cell.

39
Factors to consider when designing a
machine cell
1. Part Family Characteristics: Parts with similar
characteristics should be grouped together. Factors such
as size, shape, material, weight, other physical attributes,
and processing requirements should be considered.
2. Machine Capabilities: Machines with similar capabilities
should be grouped together. This includes factors such as
processing speed, tooling, and capacity.
3. Material Handling: Consideration should be given to the
flow of materials through the cell, including the use of
conveyors, robots, or other material handling
equipment.

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Factors to consider when designing a
Machine Cell
4. Layout: The layout of the cell should be designed to
minimize material handling, reduce machine setup time,
and optimize workflow.
5. Safety: Safety should be a primary concern when
designing a machine cell. Consideration should be given
to ergonomics, noise levels, and other potential hazards.
6. Maintenance: Machines should be easy to maintain and
repair. This includes providing easy access for technicians
and designing machines to be easily serviced.
7. Flexibility: The cell should be designed with flexibility in
mind so that it can be adapted to changes in part
requirements or production volumes.
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Types of Machine Cells
•GT machine cells can be classified according to the
number of machines and the degree to which the
material flow is mechanized between machines.
•Four common GT machine cell configurations are:
Single machine cell
Group machine cell with manual handling
Group machine cell with semi-integrated handling
Flexible manufacturing cell or flexible manufacturing
system

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 1. Single Machine Cell
• It consists of one machine plus supporting fixtures and
tooling.
• This type of cell can be applied to work parts whose
attributes allow them to be made on one basic type of
process, such as turning or milling.
• For example, the composite part in figure 8 could be
produced on a conventional turret lathe.

43
 2. Group machine cell with manual
handling
• It is an arrangement of more than one machine used
collectively to produce one or more part families.
• There is no provision for mechanized parts movement
between the machines in the cell.
• Instead, the human operators who run the cell
perform the material handling function.

44
 3. Group machine cell with semi-
integrated handling
• It uses a mechanized handling system, such as a
conveyor, to move parts between machines in the cell.

45
 4. Flexible manufacturing system
(FMS)
• It combines a fully integrated material handling system
with automated processing stations.
• FMS is the most highly automated of the group
technology machine cells.

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Machine Cell Layouts
• The most appropriate cell layout depends on the routings
of parts produced in the cell.
• Machine cell layouts commonly used are:
U-shaped layout
In-line layout
Loop layout
Rectangular layout

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Types of machine cell layouts
• U-shaped layout
Group machine cell with manual handling

Figure 9
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Types of machine cell layouts
• In-line layout
Group machine cell with semi-integrated handling

Figure 10
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Types of machine cell layouts
• Loop layout
Group machine cell with semi-integrated handling

Figure 11
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Types of machine cell layouts
• Rectangular layout
Group machine cell with semi-integrated handling

Figure 12
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Parts Movement
• Four types of part movement can be distinguished in a
mixed-model part production system:
(1) repeat operation, in which a consecutive operation is
carried out on the same machine, so that the part does
not actually move;
(2) in-sequence move, in which the part moves forward from
the current machine to an immediate neighbor;
(3) bypassing move, in which the part moves forward from
the current machine to another machine that is two or
more machines ahead; and

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Parts Movement
(4) backtracking move, in which the part moves backward
from the current machine to another machine.

Figure 13
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Key & Supporting Machine(s)
•Key machine is typically referred to as a certain machine in
a cell (or perhaps more than one machine in a large cell)
that is more expensive to operate than the other machines
or that performs certain critical operations in the plant.
•It is important that the utilization of this key machine be
high, even if it means that the other machines in the cell
have relatively low utilization.
•The other machines are referred to as supporting machines,
and they should be organized in the cell to keep the key
machine busy.

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Key & Supporting Machine(s)
•In a sense, the cell is designed so that the key machine
becomes the bottleneck in the system.
•The key machine concept is sometimes used to plan the GT
machine cell.
•The approach is to decide what parts should be processed
through the key machine and then determine what
supporting machines are required to complete the
processing of those parts.

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Applications of Group Technology

• Manufacturing Applications
Formation of cells
Scheduling and routing of similar parts through selected
machines
Virtual machine cells
Process planning
Family tooling
Numerical control part programs

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Applications of Group Technology

•Product design applications

Part design retrieval in order to reduce part portfolio
Simplification and standardization of design parameters
such as tolerances, inside radii on corners, chamfer sizes
on outside edges, hole sizes, and thread sizes.
Design standardization

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Grouping parts and machines by Rank
order Clustering

•First proposed by King.

•It is specifically applicable in production flow
analysis.
•It is an efficient and easy-to-use algorithm for
grouping machines into cells.

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Procedural Steps for Rank order
Clustering
Step 1: In each row of matrix, read the series of 1s and 0s (blank
entries = 0s) from left to right as a binary number.
Rank the rows in order of decreasing value.
In case of a tie, rank the rows in the same order as they appear in
the current matrix.
Step 2: Numbering from top to bottom, is the current order of
rows the same as the rank order determined in the previous step?
If yes, go to step 7.
If no, go to next step.

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Procedural Steps for Rank order
Clustering
Step 3: Reorder the rows in the part-machine incidence matrix by
listing them in decreasing rank order, starting from the top.
Step 4: In each column the matrix, read the series of 1s and 0s
(blank entries = 0s) from top to bottom as a binary number.
Rank the columns in order of decreasing value.
In case of a tie. rank the columns in the same order as they appear
in the current matrix.

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Procedural Steps for Rank order
Clustering
Step 5: Numbering from left to right, is the current order of
columns the same as the rank order determined in the previous
step?
If yes, go to step 7.
If no, go to next step.
Step 6: Reorder the columns in the part-machine incidence matrix
by listing them in decreasing rank order, starting with the left
column.
Go to step 1.
Step 7: Stop.

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 Example 1
Apply the rank order clustering technique to the part-
machine incidence matrix in Table given below:
Parts
Machines A B C D E F G H I
1 1 1 1
2 1 1
3 1 1 1
4 1 1
5 1 1
6 1 1
7 1 1 1

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 Solution
Step 1
Binary 28 27 26 25 24 23 22 21 20
Values Decimal
Equivale Rank
Parts nt
Machines A B C D E F G H I

1 1 1 1 290 1
2 1 1 17 7
3 1 1 1 81 5
4 1 1 136 4
5 1 1 258 2
6 1 1 65 6
7 1 1 1 140 3
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Solution
Step 2
Check the order of the machines with the ranking of the
machines in Step 1.
Machines Rank
1 1
2 7
3 5
4 4
5 2
6 6
7 3

Here both are different. Hence go to Step 3.

64
 Solution
Step 3 and 4
Parts
Binary
Machines A B C D E F G H I values

1 1 1 1 26
5 1 1 25
7 1 1 1 24
4 1 1 23
3 1 1 1 22
6 1 1 21
2 1 1 20
Decimal 96 24 6 64 5 24 16 96 7
Equivalent
Rank 1 4 8 3 9 5 6 2 7
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Solution
Step 5
Check the order of the machines with the ranking of the
parts in Step 4.

Parts
Machines A B C D E F G H I
Rank 1 4 8 3 9 5 6 2 7

Here both are different. Hence go to Step 6.

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Solution
Step 6
Parts
Machines A H D B F G I C E

1 1 1 1
5 1 1
7 1 1 1
4 1 1
3 1 1 1
6 1 1
2 1 1

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Arranging Machines in a GT Cell
 After part-machine groupings have been identified, the next problem
is to organize the machines into the most logical sequence. A simple
yet effective method is suggested by Hollier.
 The method is based on the use of from–to ratios determined by
summing the total flow from and to each machine in the cell. The
algorithm can be reduced to three steps:
1. Develop the from–to chart.
2. Determine the “from–to ratio” for each machine.
3. Arrange machines in order of decreasing from–to ratio.

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Example 2
A GT cell has four machines: 1, 2, 3, and 4. An analysis of 50
parts processed on these machines has been summarized in
the from–to chart in Table 1. Additional information: 50
parts enter the machine grouping at machine 3, 20 parts
leave after processing at machine 1, and 30 parts leave
machine 4 after processing.
Determine the most logical machine sequence using the
Hollier method.

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Table 1 From–To Chart for Example
To
From 1 2 3 4
1 0 5 0 25
2 30 0 0 15
3 10 40 0 0
4 10 0 0 0

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 Solution
Summing the “From” trips and “To” trips for each machine
yields the “From” and “To” sums. The From-To ratios are
calculated.
To
From 1 2 3 4 “From” sums From-To Ratio
1 0 5 0 25 30 30/50 = 0.6
2 30 0 0 15 45 45/45 = 1
3 10 40 0 0 50 50/0 = ∞
4 10 0 0 0 10 10/40 = 0.25
“To”
sums 50 45 0 40 135

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Solution
Arranging the machines in order of descending from–to
ratio, the machines in the cell should be sequenced as
follows:
3→2 → 1 → 4

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Rating Machine Sequences
Three ratings can be defined to compare solutions to the
machine sequencing problem:
(1) the percentage of in-sequence moves,
(2) the percentage of bypassing moves, and
(3) the percentage of backtracking moves.
Each rating is computed by adding all of the values
representing that type of move and dividing by the total
number of moves.

73
Rating Machine Sequences
•It is desirable for the percentage of in-sequence moves to
be high, and for the percentage of backtracking moves to be
low.
•The Hollier method is designed to achieve these goals.
•Bypassing moves are less desirable than in-sequence moves
but certainly better than backtracking.

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Example 3
Compute (a) the percentage of in-sequence moves, (b) the
percentage of bypassing moves, and (c) the percentage of
backtracking moves for the solution in Example 2.

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Solution
The machines in the cell are sequenced as follows:
3→2 → 1 → 4
Draw the network diagram for the machine cell including the flow of
parts into and out of the cells.

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Solution
the number of in-sequence moves = 40 + 30 + 25 = 95,
the number of bypassing moves = 10 + 15 = 25,
and the number of backtracking moves = 5 + 10 = 15.
The total number of moves = 135 (totaling either the “From”
sums or the “To” sums). Thus,
(a) Percentage of in-sequence moves = 95/135 = 0.704 = 70.4%
(b) Percentage of bypassing moves = 25/135 = 0.185 = 18.5%
(c) Percentage of backtracking moves = 15/135 = 0.111 = 11.1%

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Single-minute exchange of die (SMED)
•Single-minute exchange of die (SMED) is a lean manufacturing
technique that aims to reduce the time required to change over a
production process from one product to another.
•It was developed by Shigeo Shingo in the 1950s and has since
become a widely used tool for improving manufacturing efficiency.
•The goal of SMED is to reduce setup time to less than 10 minutes
or a single-digit number of minutes (hence the name "single-
minute").
•This is achieved by identifying and separating internal setup
activities (which must be performed while the machine is
stopped) from external setup activities (which can be performed
while the machine is still running).
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Single-minute exchange of die
(SMED)
•There are two types of SMED setups:
•Internal Setup: These are activities that can only be
performed while the machine is stopped, such as removing
and replacing dies, cleaning and adjusting machines, and
checking machine calibration.
•External Setup: These are activities that can be performed
while the machine is still running, such as preparing tools,
materials, and parts for the next production run.

79
 Steps to Implement SMED
Step 1
• Identify the process: In this first step, the focus area for improving
changeover times is identified. It needs to be a situation where:
 The changeover is long enough that there is room for improvement
 There has historically been a lot of variance in the past in changeover
times
 The operation is done frequently
 All employees involved in the changeover process have been trained
and have buy-in for the change
 The process has been a bottleneck in the overall operation, meaning
changes will have an immediate impact
80
Steps to Implement SMED
Step 2
•Identify elements: In this step, the team works together to
identify all of the elements of the changeover. The most
effective way of doing this is to videotape the entire
changeover and then work from the videotape to create an
ordered list of elements, each of which includes:
Description: what work is performed
Cost in Time: how long the element takes to complete

81
Steps to Implement SMED
Step 3
•Separate internal and external setup activities: Identify
which activities can be performed while the machine is still
running and which must be performed while the machine is
stopped. Develop a plan to streamline internal setup
activities.
•The deliverable from this step should be an updated list of
changeover elements, split into three parts: External
Elements (Before Changeover), Internal Elements (During
Changeover), and External Elements (After Changeover).

82
Steps to Implement SMED
Step 4
•Convert internal setup to external setup: In this step, the
current changeover process is carefully examined, with the
goal of converting as many internal elements to external as
possible.
•For each internal element, the team should ask the
following questions: If there was a way to make this
element external, what would it be? How could we do it?
•The deliverable from this step should be an updated list of
changeover elements, with fewer internal elements, and
additional external elements (performed before or after the
changeover).
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Steps to Implement SMED
Step 5
• Standardize the new process: Once the new setup process
has been developed, it should be standardized and
documented to ensure consistency across multiple
operators and production runs.
•Overall, SMED is an effective tool for improving
manufacturing efficiency and reducing costs. By identifying
and streamlining internal setup activities, companies can
reduce machine downtime, increase productivity, and
improve overall quality.

84
Benefits of SMED
SMED has several benefits, including:
• Reducing setup times: By streamlining setup processes, SMED
can significantly reduce the time required to change over a
production process from one product to another.
• Increasing productivity: SMED can help increase productivity by
reducing machine downtime and allowing for more frequent
production runs.
• Improving quality: SMED can help improve quality by reducing
the risk of errors and defects during the setup process.
• Reducing costs: SMED can help reduce costs by reducing the
need for overtime labor and reducing inventory levels.

85
References
Groover, M.P. (2015) Automation, Production Systems,
and Computer-Integrated Manufacturing. 4th Edition,
Pearson Education, New Delhi.
https://www.ptc.com/en/blogs/iiot/what-is-smed
https://www.leanproduction.com/smed/

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