UNIT – II

GROUP TECHNLOGY
PART CLASSIFICATION AND CODING
OPTIZ
MICLASS

COMPUTER AIDED PROCESS PLANING

RETRIEVAL
GENERATIVE

PRODUCTION MANAGEMENT SYSTEM

MPS,CAPACITY,COST,SFC,DATA COLLECTION

MRP,MRP-II & ERP.

 Process Plan
 Once the design of a component is over, the planning phase of
manufacturing commences.

 The first task in planning is the design of the processes (process

planning).

 Cost of the part depends on the process planning.

 Process planning is concerned with determining the sequence of

individual manufacturing operations needed to produce a given part or
product.

 Process planning is an important stage of product development since

production tooling like jigs, fixtures, special tools etc. can be designed
only after the process is finalized.
The process planning activity can be divided into the following steps:

 Selection of processes and tools

 Selection of machine tools/Manufacturing equipment

 Sequencing the operations

 Grouping of operations

 Selection of work piece holding devices

 Selection of inspection instruments

 Determination of production tolerances

 Determination of the cutting times and non-machining times

 Editing the process sheets.

 PROCESS PLAN ACE Inc.

Part No. S0125-F Material: steel 4340Si

Part Name: Housing
Original: S.D. Smart Date: 1/1/89 Changes: Date:
Checked: C.S. Good Date: 2/1/89 Approved: T.C. Chang Date: 2/14/89

No. Operation Workstation Setup Tool Time

Description (Min)

10 Mill bottom surface1 MILL01 see attach#1 Face mill 3 setup

for illustration 6 teeth/4" dia 5 machining
20 Mill top surface MILL01 see attach#1 Face mill 2 setup
6 teeth/4" dia 6 machining
30 Drill 4 holes DRL02 set on surface1 twist drill 2 setup
1/2" dia 3 machining
2" long
 Group Technology
 Group Technology (GT) is a manufacturing philosophy in which similar
parts are identified and grouped together to take advantage of their
similarities in manufacturing and design.
 An organizational principle that can be applied to all the departments of
an enterprise concerned with production.
 GT is the realization that many problems are similar, and that by
grouping similar problems, a single solution can be found to a set of
problems thus saving time and effort .
 All the components combined into a group are usually subjected to
common planning and machining. This enables in achieving high
rationalization effect particularly in case of single and small batch
production.
Need of GT
 To make batch manufacturing more efficient and productive.

 To achieve a higher level of integration between design and

manufacturing functions.
5
 Group Technology
• Similar parts are grouped into part families.
• Each part family possesses similar design and/or manufacturing
characteristics.
• Processing of each member in a part family would be similar
• Results in manufacturing efficiencies
Reduced setup times
Lower in-process inventories
Better scheduling
Improved tool control
The use of standardized process plan

• The production equipment is arranged into machine groups, or cells

in order to facilitate work flow and part handling.

• The application of GT is known as part family manufacturing or

cellular manufacturing.
Group Technology

8
 Part Families
 A part family is a collection of parts which are similar based on design
attributes (such as geometric shape and size) or manufacturing attributes
(the sequence of processing steps required in their manufacture)

 It possible for parts in the same family to be very similar in design yet radically
different in the area of production requirements. The opposite may also be true.

 The part family concept is central to design-retrieval systems and most

computer-aided process planning schemes.

 The parts, which are similar in their design characteristics, are grouped in a
family referred to as a design part family.

 The part, which are similar in their manufacturing characteristics, are groped in
a family referred to as a manufacturing part family.

 The characteristics used in classifying parts are referred to as "attributes".

 Part- Design Attributes
• Basic (External/Internal) shape
• Axisymmetric/Prismatic/sheet metal
• Length/diameter ratio
• Material
• Major dimensions
• Minor dimensions
• Tolerances
• Surface finish
 Part- Manufacturing Attributes
• Major process of manufacture
• Surface treatments/coatings
• Machine tool/processing equipment
• Cutting tools
• Operation sequence
• Production time
• Batch quantity
• Production rate
• Fixtures needed
• Part families- Group Technology
 General methods for grouping parts into families:

1. Visual inspection.
2. Route sheet analysis.
3. Parts classification and coding system.

1. Visual inspection
• Simplest method.
• Least sophisticated method.
• Least accurate method.
• Especially for grouping parts by design attributes.
• Classification of parts by physical parts or photographs.
 Visual Inspection Method

• Put parts into

groups based on
visual inspection
method.
 2. Route sheet analysis (PFA)
• The route sheets used to route the parts through the various
operations to be performed, are inspected.

• This method sometimes refers to as the production flow analysis

(PFA) method.

• Use the information contained on production route sheet and not

on part drawing.

• PFA is carried out in FOUR steps.

(i). Data Collection.
(ii). Sorting of process routings
(iii). PFA chart (Part-Machine Incidence Matrix)
(iv). Cluster Analysis
 Continue..
(i) Data Collection (The Route Sheet)
– Part Number,
– Operation Sequence - determined the machine sequence.

(ii) Sorting of process routings

Parts are arranged according to

the similarities in process
routings which make part
families.
(iii) PFA chart (Part-Machine Incidence Matrix)
(iv) Cluster Analysis
 3. Parts classification and coding system.

• The most widely used method for grouping parts is the parts
classification and coding method.

• This is most time consuming and most difficult method.

• Parts similarities

1. Design Attributes

2. Manufacturing Attributes
 Part Classification and Coding
• Reasons are…
Design retrieval:
“A simple change in an existing part would take much less
time than designing a whole new part from scratch.”

Automated process planning:

“The part code for a new part can be used to search for process
plan for existing part with identical or similar codes.”

Machine cell design:

“The part codes can be used to design machine cell capable of
producing all parts from a part family.”
 Part Classification and Coding
• Parts classification and coding is a method in which the
various design and/or manufacturing attributes of a part
are identified, listed and assigned a code number.

• Parts classification and coding systems can be grouped into

three general types:
i Systems based on design attributes
ii Systems based on part manufacturing attributes
iii Systems based on both design and manufacturing
attributes
 Ex: Machine tool manufacturing industry

• Large part families can be grouped as :

i Heavy parts - beds, columns etc
ii Shafts, characterized by large L/D ratios
iii Spindles (long shafts, screw rods included)
iv Non-rounds (small prismatic parts)
v Gears, disc type parts
(whose L/D ratios are small)
 Coding system structure
• Begins with data input, usually through a classification and
coding system.
• A classification and coding system is a means of describing
the attributes of parts and grouping them according to those
descriptions, as shown in Figure.
 Cont..
• A parts-coding scheme consists of symbols that identify the
part’s design and/or manufacturing attributes.

• The symbols in the code can be all numeric, all-alphabetic,

or a combination of both types.

• There are three basic code structures used in group technology

applications:
i Hierarchical structure (Mono code)
ii Chain type structure (Poly code)
iii Hybrid structure which is a combination of the above
two (Hybrid code, Decision Tree coding)
 1. Mono code
• A hierarchical code is set up as a tree structure.

• Each digit, amplifies the information given in the previous

digit.

• Difficult to construct.

• Provide a very deep analysis of the items classified and can

pack an enormous amount of information into a coding
system.

• The resulting code is very compact and yet contains a wealth

of information in a rather limited number of digits.
 Hierarchical Structure Scheme (Mono Code)
32XX

Mechanical
321X 323X

322X Transmission

32XX 32XX 32XX 3231 3232 3233

UNF thread

3221 3222 3223

Mono code
 2. Poly code (Chain type structure)
• Based on the total population of different attributes.

• The interpretation of each character in a given digit position is

independent of any other digit.

• Presents information not dependent on previous ones.

• Tend to be relatively long.

• Easier to accommodate change

• One advantage of a poly code over a mono code is that parts with a
specific characteristics can be readily identified.

• This makes the poly codes structures attractive.

Poly code
 3. Hybrid Codes or mixed codes

• Most industrial coding system

uses a hybrid construction.

• Combine the best features of

mono codes and poly codes.

• To reduce the length of a

strict poly code, the first digit
of such System may split the
population into appropriate
subgroups, as in mono code
structure.
 Opitz Classification System (German-1970)
Coding system uses the following digital sequence (13 digits)
12345 6789 ABCD - Basic code
12345: Form Code
Describe the primary design attributes of the parts like external shapes,
machined features.

6789: Supplementary Code

Manufacturing attributes
– Dimensions
– Work material
– Starting shape
– Accuracy

ABCD: Secondary Code

– Identify the production operation type
– Operation sequences
Basic Structure of the Opitz System
Example 1: A part coded 20801
• 2 - Parts has L/D ratio >= 3
• 0 - No shape element (external shape elements)
• 8 - Operating thread
• 0 - No surface machining
• 1 - Part is axial
 Example
• Determine the form code as per the Opitz part classification
and coding system
Length to Diameter ratio L/D=1.5 Digit 1=1
External Shape: Stepped on both ends with
screw threads on one end Digit 2=5
Internal Shape: Part contains a through hole Digit 3=1
Plane surface machining: none Digit 4=0
Auxiliary holes, gear teeth etc: none Digit 5=0
The form code in Opitz system is 15100
 MICLASS Coding System-1974
• Stands for Metal Institute Classification
System

• Developed by Netherlands Organization for

Applied Scientific Research.

• MICLASS is an hybrid code system.

• The MICLASS classification number range

from 12 to 30 digits.

• First 12 digits – Universal code, remaining 18

digits – specific to the particular company (lot
size, piece time, cost data and operation
sequence).

• The work attributes code in the first 12 digits of

the MICLASS system are:
44
 MICLASS Coding System
• MICLASS has monocode structure in the first four digits followed by a
polycode structure thereafter.
MICLASS system was developed to help automate and standardize a
number of design, production and management functions:

• Standardization of engineering drawings

• Retrieval of drawing according to classification number

• Standardization of process planning

• Automated process planning

• Selection of parts for processing on particular groups of machine tools

• Machine tool investment analysis

 Multiclass Coding System
• Developed by Organization for Industrial Research (OIR).

• Used for different types of manufactured items

• Machined and sheet metal parts
• Tooling
• Electronics
• Purchased parts
• Assemblies and subassemblies
• Machine tools

• The coding system consists of up to 30 digits

• First 18 digits designed by OIR and remaining 12 digits by user.

DCLASS Coding System
KK-3 System(1998)
 Benefits of a Well-Designed Classification and
Coding System
• Facilitates formation of part families.

• Permits quick retrieval of part design drawings.

• Reduces design duplication.

• Promotes design standardization.

• Improves cost estimating and cost accounting.

• Facilitates NC part programming by allowing new parts to use the same

part program as existing parts in the same family.

• Computer-aided process planning (CAPP) becomes feasible.

 Benefits of Group Technology
Product design:
New part design code is used to search the existing part design and
it is modified to obtain the new design.
Improves cost estimating procedures and helps to promote design
standardization.
10% reduction in the number of drawing is expected .

Tooling and setup

Design of group jigs and fixtures for the whole part family.
Machine tools not require drastic changeovers in setup.
60% reduction in setup time.

Material Handling
Reduction in work part move and waiting time
Production and inventory control:
Production scheduling is simplified.
Grouping of parts into families and machines into cells reduces the
complexity.
Reduction in production lead time (70%), work in process (62%)
and late deliveries (82%).

Employee Satisfaction
Machine cell allows parts to be processed from raw material to finished
state by small group of workers.
Cultivate an improved worker attitude and higher level of job
satisfaction.

Process planning procedure

The time and cost of the process planning is reduced through
standardization.
 Problems in Group Technology
• Identifying the part families (the biggest problem)

• If the plant makes 10,000 different parts, reviewing all of the

part drawings and grouping the parts into families is a
substantial task.

• Rearranging production machines in the plant into the

appropriate machine cells.

• It takes time to plan and accomplish this rearrangement, and

the machines are not producing during the changeover.
 CELLULAR MANUFACTURING
Cellular manufacturing is an application of group technology in which
dissimilar machines or processes have been aggregated into cells, each
of which is dedicated to the production of a part or product family or a
limited group of families.

To shorten manufacturing lead times

To reduce work-in-process inventory
To improve quality.
To simplify production scheduling.
To reduce setup times.
 Composite Part Concept
The composite part concept takes this part family definition to its logical
conclusion. It conceives of a hypothetical part, a composite part for a given
family, which includes all of the design and manufacturing attributes of the
family.
 Machine Cell Design

Figure 15.11 Machine cell with manual handling between

machines. Shown is a If-shaped machine layout. (Key: "Proc"
0= processing operation (e.g., mill. turn, etc.), "Man" =
manual operation; arrows indicate work flow.)

Figure 15.12 Machine cells with semi-integrated handling: (a)

inline layout, (b) loop layout, and (c) rectangular layout. (Key'
"Proc'' = processing operation (e.g., mill,turn, etc.]. "Man" =
manual operation; arrows indicate work now)
Four types of part moves in a mixed model production system. The forward flow of
work is from left to right.
 QUANTITATIVE ANALYSIS IN
CELLULAR MANUFACTURING
Grouping Parts and Machines by Rank Order Clustering
Apply the rank order clustering technique to the part-machine
incidence matrix in Table
TABLE {a} First Iteration {Step 1) in the Rank Order Clustering Technique Applied to Example
TABLE 1bJ Second Iteration (Steps 3 and 4) in the Rank Order Clustering Technique Applied
to Example
OVERLAPPING MACHINE REQUIREMENTS
 ARRANGING MACHINES IN A GT CELL
After part-machine groupings have been identified by rank order clustering or other
method.

The next problem is to organize the machines into the most logical arrangement.
Let us describe two simple yet effective methods suggested by Hollier.

Both methods use data contained in From-To charts and are intended to arrange the
machines in an order that maximizes the proportion of in-sequence moves within the
cell.

Hollier Method 1

The first method uses the sums of flow "From" and "To" each
machine in the cell.

1. Develop the From-To chart from part routing data. The data contained in the
chart indicates numbers of part moves between the machines (or workstations) in the
cell. Moves into and out of the cell are not included in the chart.
2. Determine the "From" and "To" sums for each machine. This is
accomplished by summing all of the "From" trips and "To" trips for each
machine (or operation). The "From" sum for a machine is determined by
adding the entries in the corresponding row, and the "To" sum is found by
adding the entries in the corresponding column.

3. Assign machines to the cell based on minimum "From" or "To" sums.

The machine having the smallest sum is selected. If the minimum value is a
"To" sum, then the machine is placed at the beginning of the sequence. If the
minimum value is a "From“ sum, then the machine is placed at the end of the
sequence.

4. Reformat the From-To chart. After each machine has been selected,
restructure the From-To chart by eliminating the row and column
corresponding to the selected machine and recalculate the "From" and "To"
sums.
Repeat steps 3 and 4 until all machines have been assigned.
Group Technology Machine Sequence using Hollier Method 1

Suppose that four machines. 1, 2, 3, and 4 have been identified as belonging in

a GT machine cell. An analysis of 50 parts processed on these machines has
been summarized in the From - To chart of Table. Additional information
is that 50 parts enter the machine grouping at machine 3, 20 parts leave after processing
at machine 1, and 30 parts leave after machine 4. Determine a logical machine
arrangement using Hollier Method.
3--->2--->1--->4
Hollier Method 2. This approach is based on the use of From/to ratios formed by
summing the total flow from and to each machine in the cell. The method can he
reduced to three steps:

1. Develop the From-To chart. This is the same step as in Hollier Method 1.

2. Determine the From/To ratio for each machine. This is accomplished by

summing up all of the "From"trips and "To" trips for each machine (or
operation). the From/To ratio is calculated by taking the "From" sum for each
machine and dividing by the respective "To" sum.

3. Arrange machines in order of decreasing From/To ratio. Machines with a

high From/To ratio distribute work to many machines in the cell but receive
work from few machines. Conversely, machines with a low From-to ratio
receive more work than they distribute. Therefore, machines are arranged in
order of descending from/to ratio. That is, machines with high ratios are placed
at the beginning of the work flow, and machine, with low ratios are placed at
the end of the work flow. in case of a tie, the machine with the higher "From"
value is placed ahead of the machine with a lower value.
 3--->2--->1--->4

Flow diagram for machine cell in Examples. Flow of parts into and out of
the cells has also been included.
Two performance measures can be defined to compare solutions to the machine
sequencing problem:
(1) percentage of in-sequence moves and
(2) percentage of backtracking moves.
The percentage of in-sequence moves is computed by adding all of the values
representing in-sequence moves and dividing by the total number of moves.
The percentage of backtracking moves is determined by summing all of the
values representing backtracking moves and dividing by the total number of
moves.
 Computer-Aided Process Planning (CAPP)
What is Process planning?
• Process planning is concerned with determining the machine tools and the
sequence of manufacturing operations involved in the manufacture of the part
or product.

• Route sheet are used for documentation of such activity.

• The process planner to be familiar with the shop practice and equipment
capabilities.

• Manual work needs to be eliminated. Instead, use of modern computer software

facilities, which not only output the routings fast and correctly but be amenable
to efficient storage and communication. This is computer aided process
planning.

• It act as bridge between design and manufacturing by translating the design

specifications into manufacturing process details.

• It is a major determinant of manufacturing cost and profitability of products.

92
Inputs and outputs of Process Planning
 Inputs and outputs of Process Planning
• In general, the inputs to process planning are
 Design data
 Raw material data
 Facilities data (machining data, tooling data, fixture data, etc.)
 Quality requirements data
 Production type data.
• The output of process planning is the process plan
The process plan is often documented into a specific format and
called
 Process plan sheet
 Process sheet
 Operation sheet
 Planning sheet
 Route sheet
 Route plan
 Part program.
94
 Process Planning
Process plan (route sheet)
• Process plan (route sheet) is a listing of the production operations
and associated machine tools for a workpart or assembly.
• Refers to a set of instructions that are used to make a component or a
part so that the design specifications are met.

Basic process in developing a process plan

95
 PROCESS PLAN OR ROUTE SHEET
Examples of process plan (route sheet)
Route Sheet by: T.C. Chang

Part No. S1243

Part Name: Mounting Bracket
workstation Time(min)
1. Mtl Rm Detailed Process Plan
2. Mill02 5
3. Drl01 4 PROCESS PLAN ACE Inc.
4. Insp 1
Part No. S0125-F Material: steel 4340Si
Part Name: Housing
Original: S.D. Smart Date: 1/1/89 Changes: Date:
Checked: C.S. Good Date: 2/1/89 Approved: T.C. Chang Date: 2/14/89

No. Operation Workstation Setup Tool Time

Description (Min)

10 Mill bottom surface1 MILL01 see attach#1 Face mill 3 setup

for illustration 6 teeth/4" dia 5 machining
20 Mill top surface MILL01 see attach#1 Face mill 2 setup
6 teeth/4" dia 6 machining
30 Drill 4 holes DRL02 set on surface1 twist drill 2 setup
1/2" dia 3 machining
2" long

97
Traditional process planning
Process planning procedure is dependent on the experience and
judgment of manufacturing engineers or industrial engineers

Automated process planning

The logic, judgment and experience of making of process planning are
incorporated in a computer programs, based on the given part the
program automatically generates the manufacturing operation sequence

Need for automated process plan

• Shortening the lead-time
• Manufacturability feedback
• Lowering the production cost
• Consistent process plans

98
Computer Aided Process Planning (CAPP) can be defined as the
functions which use computers to assist the work of process planners
Two approaches to CAPP are
CAPP System
• Retrieval-type (or variant systems) CAPP systems
• Generative type CAPP systems

 Retrieval process planning is based

on group technology approach.
 Standard process plans for part families are made and stored using the
code system.
 When a process plan of a component is required, it can be retrieved and
edited.

 In generative type, process plans are made for each component.

 As the component, features are input and the system generate process
plan
 VARIANT OR RETRIEVAL TYPE CAPP SYSTEM
 A variant process planning system uses the similarity among components to
retrieve the existing process plans.

 A process plan that can be used by a family of components is called a standard

plan.

 A standard plan is stored permanently with a family number as its key.

 A family is represented by a family matrix which includes all possible

members.

The variant process planning system has two operational stages:

• Preparatory stage
• Production stage
 During the preparatory stage, existing components are coded, classified,
and subsequently grouped into families.

 The process begins by summarizing process plans already prepared for

components in the family.

 Standard plans are then stored in a data base and indexed by family
matrices.
 The operation stage occurs when the
system is ready for production.

 An incoming part is first coded.

 The code is then input to a part

family search routine to find the
family to which the component
belongs.
Preparatory Stage
 The family number is then used to
retrieve a standard plan.

 Some other functions, such as

parameter selection and standard time
calculations, can also be added to
make the system more complete.

 This system is used in a machine shop

that produces a variety of small
components. Production Stage
The sequences of steps in the design of a variant process planning system
i. Family formation
ii. Data base structure design
iii. Search algorithm development and implementation
iv. Plan editing
v. Process parameter selection/updating

(i) Family Formation

Components requiring similar processes are grouped into the same family. A
general rule for part family formation is that all parts must be related.

Then, a standard process plan can be shared by the entire family. Minimum
modification on the standard plan will be required for such family members.

(ii) Data Base Structure Design

The data base contains all the necessary information for an application, and can be
accessed by several programs for specific application.

There are three approaches to construct a data base: hierarchical, network, and
relational.
(iii) Search Procedure
 The principle of a variant system is to retrieve process plans for similar
components.
 The search for a process plan is based on the search of a part family to which the
component belongs.
 When, the part family is found, the associated standard plan can then be
retrieved.
 A family matrix search can be seen as the matching of the family with a given
code.
 Family matrices can be considered as masks. Whenever, a code can pass through
a mask successfully, the family is identified.

(iv) Plan Editing and Parameter Selection

 Before a process plan can be issued to the shop, some modification of the standard
plan may be necessary, and process parameters must be added to the plan.

 There are two types of plan editing: One is the editing of the standard plan itself
in the data base, and the other is editing of the plan for the component.

 For editing a standard plan, the structure of the data base must be flexible enough
for expansion, additions, and deletions of the data records.
 Cont..

v. Process parameter selection/updating

 A complete process plan includes not only operations but also process parameters.
 The data in the process parameter files are linked so that we can go through the tree
to find the speed and feed for an operation.
 The parameter file can be integrated into variant planning to select process
parameters automatically.

• Some retrieval type systems: CAM-I CAPP, MIPLAN, MITURN,

MIAPP,UNIVATION,CINTURN,COMCAPPV, etc.,
 FIVE COMPONENTS OF RETRIEVAL OR VARIANT TYPE CAPP SYSTEM

1. Coding and classification

Similar parts are classified and coded using GT.
All parts in a family must require similar plans.
Master plan for the family is shared by the entire family.
2. Database creation and maintenance
Synthetic data, Documentation text and tabular data
3. Logic processor
Low level- Stores the detailed method of manufacturing.
High level- Specifying the sequence of the process plan.
4. Documentation production
Method sheets- Mft instructions at an operation level - speed, feed
Routing sheets- Details of the work through which the part passes-
time value, tooling
Tool kit sheets- Which tool can be ordered or designed prior to the
beginning of production.
5. File maintenance – Storage and control of records.
 Merits and Demerits of Retrieval type process planning
Advantages
• Once a standard plan has been written, a variety of components can be
planned.
• Comparatively simple programming and installation (compared with
generative systems) is required to implement a planning system.
• The system is understandable, and the planner has control of the final
plan.
• It is easy to learn, and easy to use by any one.
• Clerical work can be reduced, lead time can be cut.

Disadvantages
• The components to be planned are limited to previously planned similar
components.
• Experienced process planners are still required to modify the standard
plan for the specific component.
• Details of the plan cannot be generated.
• Variant planning cannot be used in an entirely automated
manufacturing system, without additional process planning.
106
Example of Retrieval type process planning systems
CAM-I CAPP-Retrieval type
Generative Approach for computer aided process planning
 Generative process planning is a system that synthesizes process
information in order to create a process plan for a new component
automatically.

 In a generative planning system, process plans are created from

information available in manufacturing data base without human
intervention.

 Upon receiving the design model, the system can generate the required
operations and operation sequences for the component.

 Knowledge of manufacturing must be captured and encoded into efficient

software.

 By applying decision logic, a process planner’s decision making can be

imitated.

 Other planning functions, such as machine selection, tool selection,

process optimization, and so on, can also be automated using
generative planning techniques.
Generative computer aided process planning
The generative part consists of:
• Component representation module
• Feature extraction module
• Feature process correlation module
•Operation selection and sequencing
module
• Machine tool selection module
• Standard time / cost computation module
• Report generation module

112
To generate a universal process planning system, variables such as process
limitations, and capabilities, process costs, must be defined at the planning stage.

Several methods for creating generative process plans

i. Forward and backward planning

ii. Input Format
iii. CAPP based on CAD models
iv. CAPP based on decision logic either using decision trees or decision tables
v. CAPP based on artificial intelligence

(i) FORWARD AND BACKWARD PLANNING

 In generative process planning, when process plans are generated, the
system must define an initial state in order to reach the final state (goal).

 The path taken represents the sequence of processes. For example, the
initial state is the raw material and the final state is the component
design.

 Then a planner works in modifying the raw workpiece until it takes on

the final design qualities. This is called forward planning.
 Cont…
 For forward planning, we must know the successor surface before we
select a process, because the post condition of the first process becomes the
precondition for second process.

 In forward planning, the steps to obtain the final surface with the desirable
attributes must be carefully planned to guarantee the result.

 On the other hand, backward planning starts with the final requirements
and searches for the initial condition.

 Backward planning eliminates problem since it begins with the final

surfaces and processes are selected to satisfy the initial requirements.

 Backward planning uses a reverse procedure. Assuming that we have a

finished component, the goal is to go back to the un-machined workpiece.

 Each machining process is considered a filling process.

 However they influence the programming of the system significantly.

Planning each process can be characterized by a precondition of the surface
to be machined (the end result post condition).
(ii) INPUT FORMAT
 The input format of a process planning system affects the ease with which
a system can be used, and the capability of the system.

 The transitional form the original design (either engineering drawing or

CAD model) to a specific input format may be tedious and difficult to
automate.

 Such input can provide more complete information about a component.

Many different input formats used in process planning systems.

a. CODE:
 Some generative systems such as APPAS use GT codes as input. Codes used
are in generative system are more detailed.

 Geometry based, defines all the geometric features, feature sizes and
locations and tolerances.

 It relate these features to their manufacturing requirements (machine for

process, tooling and clamping).
 Cont…
b. DESCRIPTION LANGUAGE:
 Specially designed part description languages can provide detailed
information for process planning system.

 For example AUTAP system uses a language similar to a solid modelling

language. A component is described by the union of some primitives and
modifiers.

 Material, processes, machine selection, and time estimates can be selected

by the system using the input model.

 Another system CIMS/ PRO uses an input language called CIMS/DEC.

 CAPP system uses its own special language.

 Structuring of manufacturing planning, determines the appropriate process

operations, machine for each operation, tooling and fixturing, setup and
cycle time and cost for each operation.

Some generative CAPP systems: CPPP, AUTAP, APPAS, METCAPP

(iii) CAPP BASED ON CAD MODELS

 Using a CAD model as input to a process planning system can eliminate the human effort
of translating a design into code and other descriptive form.

 A CAD model contains all the details about a design.

 However, an algorithm is necessary to identify a general machined surface in a CAD

model.

 Additional code is needed to convert the machined surface shape from raw material shape.

 CAD/CAM system uses a CAD model as its input.

 Several other systems such as GENPLAN, AUTOPLAN, etc., also use a CAD database
interactively for tool and fixture selection.

(iv) CAPP BASED ON DECISION LOGIC

The decision logic determines how a process or processes are selected. The
major function of the decision logic is to match the process capabilities with the
design specification.
(v) CAPP BASED ON ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE (AI)

 AI can be defined as the ability of a device to perform functions that are

normally associated with the human intelligence.

 These functions include reasoning, planning, and problem solving.

 Applications for AI have been in natural language processing, intelligent data

base retrieval, expert consulting systems, theorem proving, robotics,
scheduling, and perception problems.

 Process planning applications have been considered as part of an expert

consulting system.

 There are two types of knowledge involved in process planning systems:

Component knowledge, and process knowledge.

 The component knowledge defines the current state of the problem to be

solved (declarative knowledge).

 On the other hand, the knowledge of processes defines how the component can
be changed by processes (procedural knowledge).
 Procedural knowledge can be represented by IF (condition), THEN
(action) statements which are similar to decision trees or decision tables. In
AI such rules can be called production rules.

 Even after the descriptive and procedural knowledge have been represented,
conclusions cannot be deduced, because we do not have mechanism to apply
the appropriate rules to the problem.

 Control knowledge is similar to human knowledge in reasoning, which

deduces certain facts from the knowledge base concerning problem.

 This can be a difficult task to program on a computer.

 Feature recognition, feature process correlation, process sequencing, blank

selection, cutting parameter selection, tool selection etc. are the segments of
CAPP where AI can contribute to improve the quality of process plans.
Automated Planning Permission Application Scrutiny
Advantages of Generative process planning system
• Consistent process plans can be generated rapidly.

• New components can be planned as easily as existing components.

• It has potential for integrating with an automated manufacturing facility to

provide detailed control information.
 Benefits of CAPP
Process rationalization
 Automated process planning- consistent and logical plans

 Same computer software is used by all planners.

 Increased productivity of the process planners

Systematic approach and availability of standard plans

Reduced turn around time

Route sheet for a new part in less time.

Improved legibility

Documents are neater and easier to read than manually

Incorporation of other application programs

Process planning system is integrate with other software packages

125
 Production planning and control
All manufacturing and service operations require planning and controlling
• To ensure that manufacturing run effectively and efficiently and
produces products as required by customers.

• Utilizing the capacity of internal facilities

Activities in traditional production planning and control

Forecasting Purchasing
Production planning Machine loading and scheduling
Process planning Dispatching
Estimating Expediting
Master Scheduling Quality control
Requirements planning Shipping and inventory control
 Forecasting
Projecting or predicting the future sales activity of the firm’s products
• Long-range forecasts – Plant construction and equipment acquisition
- Appropriate amount of capacity to meet the market demand in the future
- Provides human resource capabilities, technology and plant locations.
• Intermediate-range forecasts – Long lead materials and components
- Matching supply and demand in terms of both volume and product
mix
- Planning for the right logistics.
• Short-term forecasts – Decisions on personal, purchasing and production
scheduling
- Involves time, people, material, equipment and facilities.
- Involves people working on the right things.
- Involves tracking the use of resources and execution results.
- Provide problem-solving support.
 Cont..
Production planning (Aggregate production planning)
• Technique of foreseeing every step in a long series of separate operations, each
step to be taken at the right time and in the right place and each operation
to be performed in maximum efficiency.

• Scheduling the delivery and/or production of the parts and products.

Planning the manpower and equipment resources needed to accomplish the
production plan.

• Fully load facilities and minimize overloading and under loading, make sure
enough capacity available to satisfy expected demand.

• It is based on sales forecast and used to raised inventories.

• Stabilize production over the production horizon and allow for launching of
new products into the company product line.

• Function that precedes the detailed master production schedule.

 Cont..
Process planning
• Involves in determining the sequence of operations required to produce a
certain product and/or components.

Estimating
•Determining prices, predicting costs and preparing schedules.
• Estimates manufacturing lead times and production costs.

Master scheduling
• Aggregate production plan translated into master schedule.
• Specific schedule (master production schedule) of the quantities of
individual models in each major product line.
• Listing of the products to be produced, quantity and quality of the
product
• Purchase orders of raw materials, order of components from outside
vendors and production schedule for parts made in the shop.
• Must be consistent with the plant’s production capacity.
 Cont..
Requirements planning
• Based on the master schedule- raw materials, components and sub
assemblies requirements are planned
• MRP

Purchasing
• For components made in-house, raw materials have to be acquired
• Developing and purchasing components from the vendors and suppliers.

Machine loading and scheduling

• Working out of time that should be required to perform each operation
and also the time necessary to perform the entire process.
• To schedule that amount of work which can easily be handled by plant and
equipment without interference.
• The assignment of the work to the operators at their machines or work
places.
 Cont..
• Several factors made scheduling complex
– Number of individual components
– Process route of each individual components
– Constraints in the number of machines
• Allocating the jobs to the work centers is called machine loading.
• Allocating the jobs to the entire shop is called shop loading.

Dispatching
• Involves issue of production orders for starting the operations.
• An important step as it translates production plans into production.
• The dispatching function is performed by the shop foreman or by a
person called a dispatcher.
• Involves in giving out order tickets, route sheets, part drawings
and job instructions.
 Cont..
Expediting
• Compare the actual progress of the order against the production
schedule.
• Recommends corrective action.
• Adjusting the route, rescheduling of work changing the workloads,
repairs and maintenance of machinery or equipment, control over
inventories.

Quality control
• Assuring the quality of the product and its components.
• Inspection at various levels.

Shipping and Inventory control

• Shipping the product directly to the customer.
• Stocking item in the inventory.
Production planning and control
 Problems with traditional production planning and control

• Plant capacity problems - Lack of labor and equipment

• Suboptimal production scheduling – Lack of clear order priorities

• Long manufacturing lead times

• Insufficient inventory control – High total inventories, high carrying costs

• Low work center utilization – Equipment breakdown, strikes, low

demand

• Process planning not followed – Longer setup, improper tooling

• Errors in Engineering and manufacturing records – BOM are not

current
Computer Integrated production Management System
(CIPMS)
Also known as:
Computer based production management system
Computer assisted production management system

 CIPMS uses computers to manage, control and coordinate various

production functions.

 Various production activities such as planning, implementation and

control are integrated together.

 Large amount of data are supplied with the use of electronic computers
and data communication devices to handle and process.

 Management information system provides the necessary information in-

order to take right decision at the right time with the lowest cost.
 Computer
Integrated
production
Management
System
(CIPMS)

MRP,
Shop floor control,
Capacity planning,
Cost planning and
control,
inventory management
are new.
 Master Production Schedule
• A master production schedule (MPS) is a product wise plan for
manufacturing products.
• MPS determines what quantities of which product types should be
produced, taking into account the market demand and the limited
capacity of resources, in order to maximize profit over the planning
horizon.
• For this planning task, information about product demand and
resource deployment are relevant:
Product Demand:
(1) In case of market oriented production: Information about
demand quantities and prices can be provided by forecasts.
(2) In the case of customer order driven production: Demand is
directly specified by the customers.
Resource deployment:
Capabilities and capacity of the production system and the demand
capacity of each product type have to be known as well as cost of
production.
 Cont..
MPS relies on the following information:
 The production plan conveyed by the top management
 Long term forecasts of the individual items
 Actual orders received from the customers for the plan period
 Present inventory levels of the individual items
 Resource constraints

The interaction of various components in the MPS

 Cont..
Objective of the MPS:
 Make the best use of the resources available in terms of equipment,
material and labour.
 Maintain the inventory as low as possible.
 Maintain the finished goods delivery as per the expectations of the
customers.
In-order to achieve these objectives, the framework to be followed is:
 Use qualitative data for strategic levels, eg., full customer order
completeness.
 Direct linkage with customer order entry.
 Take over all product structure to evaluate the resource requirements.

Based on the above frame work, develop a preliminary MPS. Then check this
MPS against the capacity constraints. Then final MPS should be arrived as:
 Best use of all the resources in all the plan periods.
 The cost incurred is not in excess including overtime payment, sub
contracting, additional man power.
 All the due dates for the orders can be met with.
Relationship of MPS to other manufacturing planning and control activities
Example: Aggregate Forecast and MPS
Forecast of demand for the next four months is 70 units per month
Committed customer orders for the next four months are 80, 50,
30, and 10, respectively. Order size is 100 units. Beginning
inventory is 100. Prepare MPS
 Capacity planning
Capacity
 Limiting capability of a productive unit to produce within a stated
time period, normally expressed in terms of output units per unit of
time.
 Capacity is related to the intensity with which a facility is used.

Example: Policy to work a plant five days per week, one shift per day, to
produce a maximum of 1000 units per week.
 Capacity can be increased by overtime of 1150 units.
 By adding second shift capacity can be pushed to 1800
units per week.
 Subcontracting is another way to increase.
These alternative sources of capacity can provide managers with important
flexibility in making capacity plan.

Measure of capacity
Auto plants - Number of autos, Beer plant – cases of beer
Nuclear plant- megawatts of electricity
 Cont..
The successful execution of a material requirement plan (MRP) is
dependent on a complete understanding of the required capacity for the
plan.

Capacity analysis is initiated at the strategic planning level and may

conclude at the work center operation level.

Strategic Planning
 The highest level of capacity planning is based on the long range
business plan that extends out as much as 5 years.
 The time period is necessary for planning cash requirements,
additional plants, capital equipment.
 The capacity management technique at this level is resource
requirement planning and will be based on the analysis of total
planned sales.
 The projection of requirements at this level may be based on the
extension of critical resources.
 This technique is known as CPOF (capacity planning using overall
factors).
Hierarchy of Capacity planning
 Capacity adjustments for the short term

• Employment levels. Employment in the plant can be increased or

decreased in response to changes in capacity requirements.

• Temporary workers. Increases in employment level can also be

made by using workers from a temporary agency. When the busy
period is passed, these workers move to positions at other
companies where their services are needed.

• Number of work shifts. The number of shifts worked per production

period can be increased or decreased.

• Labour hour. The number of labour hours per shift can be

increased or decreased, through the use of overtime or reduced
hours.
 Cont..

• Inventory stockpiling
This tactic might be used to maintain steady employment
levels during slow demand periods.

• Order backlogs
Deliveries of the product to the customer could be delayed
during busy periods when production resources are
insufficient to keep up with demand.

• Subcontracting
This involves the letting of jobs to other shops during busy
periods or the taking in of extra work during slack periods
 Capacity planning adjustments for the long term include
• New equipment Investments. This involves investing in more
machines or more productive machines to meet increased future
production requirements, or investing in new types of machines to match
future changes in product design.

• New plant construction. Building a new factory represents a major

investment for the company. However, it also represents a significant
increase in production capacity for the firm.

• Purchase of existing plants from other companies.

• Acquisition of existing companies. This may be done to increase

productive capacity. However. there are usually more important reasons
for taking over an existing company, for example, to achieve increasing
market share and reducing staff .

• Plant closings. This involves the closing of plants that will not be needed
in the future,
 Cost planning and control
 This is useful for financial executive and provides techniques whereby the
information created and maintained for manufacturing purposes can be
used for managing cost and accounting data and budgeting.

 Objective of the cost planning and control system are to help to answer the
following questions:

 What are the expected costs to manufacture and sell each of the
company’s products?
 What are the actual cost to manufacture and sell?
 What are the difference between?

 The main aim of cost planning and control is to minimize the costs of
manufacturing the firm’s products.

 The standard cost of the product is the aggregate cost of labour,

materials and allocated overhead costs.
Several data sources for cost planning
 The bill of materials – gives the components and materials used in the
product.

 Process route sheets- lists the manufacturing operations used for each
component in the product.

 Time standards – specify the operation times for each operation listed
on the route sheets.

 Labour and machines rates – allow the time standards to be

converted into costs for each operation.

 Material quotation from purchasing- provide information on

material cost.

 Accounting data- determine appropriate overhead rates.

 Cost control
 In any manufacturing activity, there will be difference between
the standard costs computed in cost planning and the actual
costs that occurred during production.

The reasons are

 Actual price of raw material increase above quoted prices

 Machine breakdown

 Differing lot sizes influence production costs

 Actual process sequence deviates from the planned route

sheets.
 Shop floor control (SFC)
 MPS, capacity planning, MRP –Planning objective.

 SFC – System that accomplish the control objective.

 In 1973 – American Production and Inventory Control Society

published a book entitled shop floor controls.

 SFC is concerned with the release of production orders to the factory,

monitoring and controlling the progress of the orders through various
work centers and acquiring current information on the status of the
orders.

 Computerized SFC systems – Systems that establish a direct

connection between the computer and the manufacturing process
for monitoring the operation.

 Problem of production managers – Acquiring up-to-date

information on the progress of orders in the factory and making use of
that information to control factory operations.
 Functions of Shop floor control (SFC) System
1. Priority control and assignment of shop orders
 Priority planning is concerned with time phased planning of
materials, work in process and assembly of final product.

 It is concerned with maintaining the appropriate priorities

for work in process in response to changes in job order status.

 If demand increases – priority for the particular job order have to

be increase.

 If demand decreases - priority for the particular job order have to

be decrease.

 Job priorities might change after the job order is issued to the
shop.

 Priorities determined on a weekly or daily basis.

 Once priorities are established, the assignment of work to work

centers in the factory must be made.
2. Maintain information on work–in-process
 Method of controlling the work-in-process in the factory.

 Managing the parts and assemblies that are currently being

processed in the shop.

 Quantities and completion dates for the various steps in the

production sequence are compared against the plan.

 Any discrepancies, due, parts scrapped in production, might

require additional raw materials to be ordered and adjustments
made in the priority plan for other components in that product.

3. Monitor shop order status

 Information on the status of the orders in the shop.

 It should be updated several times per week.

 It is sufficient to display in CRT.

  Exception report should be printed periodically in document form
when orders are behind schedule, machine breakdown.

 The accuracy and correctness of the work order status report are
dependent on the correctness and timeliness of the basic data
collected in shop.

 These data deal with – job completions, material movement, time

turned in against an order.

4. Production output data for capacity control

 Capacity control is concerned with making adjustments in labour
and equipment usage to meet the production schedule.

 To make these adjustments effectively, it must have up-to-date

information on production rates and order status from the
factory data collection system.
 Three phases of SFC System
Three phases

1. Order release

2. Order scheduling

3. Order progress

In today's implementation of shop floor control, these phases are executed by a

combination of computer and human resources.

1. Order release
 The order release phase of shop floor control provides the documentation
needed to process a production order through the factory.

 The collection of documents is sometimes called the shop packet.

Phases in Shop floor control
Shop packet consists of
(1) Route sheet, which documents the process plan for the item to be
produced.

(2) Material requisitions to draw the necessary raw materials from

inventory.

(3) Job cards or other means to report direct labour time devoted to the
order and to indicate progress of the order through the factory.

(4) Move tickets to authorize the material handling personnel to transport

parts between work centres in the factory.

(5) Parts list, if required for assembly jobs.

Conventional factory, which relies on manual labour, paper documents that

move with the production order are used to track its progress through the
shop.
In a modern factory, automated identification and data capture technologies are
used to monitor the status of production orders, thus rendering the paper documents
unnecessary.

The order release module is driven by two inputs

 The first is the authorization to produce that derives from the master
schedule.

 The second input to the order release module is the engineering and
manufacturing data base which provides the product structure and process
planning information needed to prepare the various documents that accompany
the order through the shop.

2. Order Scheduling
 The order scheduling module follows the order release module and assigns the
production orders to the various work centres in the plant.

 The order scheduling module prepares a dispatch list, which indicates which
production orders should be accomplished at the various work centres.
It also provides information about relative priorities of the different jobs,
for example, by showing due dates for each job.

The order scheduling module in shop floor control is intended to solve

two problems in production control:
• Machine loading
• Job sequencing

 Allocating orders to work centres is referred to as machine loading:

 The term shop loading is also used, which refers to the loading of all
machines in the plant.

 Job sequencing involves determining the sequence in which the jobs

will be processed through a given work centre.

 To determine this sequence, priorities are established among the jobs

in the queue, and the jobs are processed in the order of their relative
priorities.
Some of the dispatching rules used to establish priorities for
production orders in the plant include:
• First-come-first serve: Jobs are processed in the order in which they
arrive at the machine.

• Earliest due date: Orders with earlier due dates are given higher
priorities.

• Shortest processing time: Orders with shorter processing times are

given higher priorities.

• Least slack time: Slack lime is defined as the difference between the
time remaining until due date and the process time remaining. Orders
with the least slack in their schedule are given higher priorities.

• Critical ratio: The critical ratio is defined as the ratio of the time
remaining until due date divided by the process time remaining.
Orders with the lowest critical ratio are given higher priorities.
The relative priorities of the different orders may change over time.

Reasons behind these changes include:

(1) Lower or higher than expected demand for certain products,

(2) Equipment breakdowns that cause delays in production,

(3) Cancellation of an order by a customer, and

(4) Defective raw materials that delay an order. The priority control
function reviews the relative priorities of the orders and adjusts the
dispatch list accordingly.
3. Order Progress
 The order progress module in shop floor control monitors the status of the
various orders in the plant.

 The function of the order progress module is to provide information that is

Useful in managing the factory based on data collected from the factory.

 The information presented to production management is often summarized

in the form of reports.

Work order status reports. These reports indicate the status of production
orders. Typical information in the report includes the current work centre where
each order is located, processing hours remaining before completion of each
order, whether the job is on-time or behind schedule, and priority level.

Progress reports. A progress report is used to report performance of the shop

during a certain time period (e.g., week or month in the master schedule). It
provides information on how many orders were completed during a period,
how many orders to be completed during that period, and so forth.
 Factory data collection system
It play an important role in getting the feedback about the execution of work.

 Data collection equipment can be taken to that place -to collect the data.

These places of action can be a production line, a quality control station, a

maintenance location or even an unattached operation such as warehouse
conveyor system.

 Monitoring the progress of the jobs is an integrated part of CIM.

Collection of machine data statistics, estimation of the non-production

times and machine utilization, tracking of flow of materials, determination
of job completion times and realization of schedules, etc., are necessary to
evaluate the efficiency of the functioning of the system.

This requires automatic or direct data collection from the shop floor.

The techniques and technologies by which the status of production is

collected are called shop floor data collection.
Components of Shop Floor Information System
 VARIABLES AFFECTING THE MANUFACTURING
PRODUCTIVITY

SHOP DATA REQUIREMENTS

1. PEOPLE - AVAILABILITY
a: Workstations
b: Idle
c: Absent

2. MACHINES - STATUS
3. PARTS/RAW MATERIALS LOCATION
a: Idle
a: Raw Stores
b: Setup
b: Transit
c: Production
c: On-machine
d: Delay
d: Waiting
e: Downtime
e: Finished stores
f: Assembly
g: Missing
 SHOP FLOOR DATA COLLECTION
 Data collection techniques.
Some data by the employees
the rest are recorded automatically.

 Later on a fully automated system - no human intervention.

 These methods are collectively called as shop floor data collection

systems.

 These systems consist of various paper documents, terminals and

automated devices located through the plant in a plan.

The use of data collection in shop floor are:

(i) To supply data to the order progress module in the shop floor control
system.
(ii) To provide up to date information to the production supervisors and
production control personnel.
(iii) To enable the management to monitor implementation of master
schedule.
 TYPES OF DATA COLLECTION SYSTEMS
The shop floor data collection systems can be classified into two groups.
(i) On-line data collection systems
(ii) Off-line data collection systems

ON-LINE DATA COLLECTION SYSTEMS

In an on-line system, the data are directly entered to the computer and are
available to the order progress module.

The advantage lies in the fact that the data file representing the status of the shop is
always at the current state.

OFF-LINE (BATCH) DATA COLLECTION SYSTEMS

 In this the data are collected temporarily in a storage device or a stand alone
computer system in a batch mode.

 In this mode there is delay in the entry and processing of the data.

 So this system cannot provide real time information of shop floor status. The
advantage of this system is that it is easier to install and implement.
 DATA INPUT TECHNIQUES
 The data collection techniques include manual procedures and computer
terminals located on the shop floor.

 The manual data collection methods require the production workers to fill out
paper forms indicating order progress data.

 These forms are compiled using a combination of clerical and computerized

methods.

 The manual data collection methods rely on the co-operation and clerical
accuracy of the employees to record a data property on a proper document.

 Errors may creep in this type of method.

 The common forms of errors –wrong dates, incorrect order numbers and
incorrect operation numbers. These can be detected and corrected.

 Another problem is that there may be a delay in submitting the order progress
for compiling.

 The reason is that there will be always a time lapse between when occurrence of
events and recording of events.
VARIOUS TYPES OF INPUT SYSTEMS

1. CENTRALIZED TERMINAL

A single terminal is located centrally in the shop floor. This requires the
employees to go to the terminal and input the data. So employee’s time will be
wasted and in a big shop, this becomes inconvenient.

2. SATELLITE TERMINALS

These are multiple data collection centres located throughout the shop floor. In
this arrangement a balance is to be struck between the minimization of the
investment cost and maximization of the convenience of the employees in the
plant.

3. WORK CENTRE TERMINALS

The most convenient arrangements to the employees are to have a data collection
terminal at each work centre.

This reduces the time to go to the central terminal. This can be applied when the
amount of data to be collected is very large.
 AUTOMATIC DATA COLLECTION SYSTEM

The advantages of the automatic data collection methods are:

(i) The accuracy of data collected increases
(ii) The time required by the workers to make the data entry can be
reduced.

The basic elements in data collection systems are:

(i) Machine readable media
(ii) Terminal configuration
(iii) Software for data collection.
(i) MACHINE READABLE MEDIA
Typical machine readable media include:
(i) Bar Code Technology
(ii) Optical Character Recognition (OCR)
(iii) Magnetic Ink Character
(iv) Voice Recognition (VR)
(v) Magnetic Strip Technology
(vi) Smart Cards
 (i) BAR CODE TECHNOLOGY
 Bar code technology is primarily an automatic identification technique.

 The data is simply reduced to a printed form, which consists of a symbol

made of successive line segments.

 A bar code reader is used to illuminate the bar code symbol and examine
successive segments of the symbol.

 The detected area may be a highly reflected area (space) or a non-

reflective (bar).

 As the reader moves reader over the bar code symbol, due to reflectivity and
non reflectivity, alternate transitions from light to dark and dark to light
occur.

 These are detected and the time it will take will be converted to digital
representations of ones and zeros of the bar code messages.
MOST COMMONLY USED BAR CODES ARE:
(i) Universal Product Code (UPC), (ii) Interleaved 2 of 5 (ITF) , (iii) Code 39
There are two types of bar code readers
(a) Fixed Beam Reader
(b) Moving Beam Reader
(a) FIXED BEAM READER
Bar code readers are either fixture mounted or
hand held.

The simplest form of bar code reader is a light

pen.

The tip of the light pen is moved in contact with

the symbol and moves the tip from leading zone
through trailing zone in a smooth sweeping
motion.

The fixed beam light pen nearly or actually

touches the symbol.

Used in conveyor, packaging and shipping

operations. The product passes in front of the
scanner, the barcode scanned, and the data sent to
a computer for processing.
(b) MOVING BEAM READER
 These minimize limitations of the fixed beam reader i.e., intervention
problem and contact with the symbol.

 Moving beam reader, as the name indicates, scans the symbol by a line of
light emitted from the reader.

 This is actually a spot which moves at faster rates appearing as a straight

line.

 A moving beam reader takes less time to scan the symbol depending on
the type of equipment.
 (ii) OPTICAL CHARACTER RECOGNITION (OCR)
The optical character recognition (OCR) employs special fonts which can
be read by man and machine.

The conversion of written or typed text into a string of characters

formatted for machines.

This is more reliable than key entry but less reliable compared to bar
code technology. The data is considered less secure than barcodes and 2D
symbols.

 Some OCR software tools convert paper documents to electronic

documents.
Presence: Ensure the characters have been marked
Ensure the characters are present

Check the readability of OCR characters

Tracking: From stock through manufacturing to packaging

 Lot, batch, expiration dates, serial numbers

 A common barcode application

Identification: Identify part or contents of a container

Ensure proper labeling

Ensure product matches container

 (iii) MAGNETIC INK CHARACTER RECOGNITION
Magnetic Ink Character Recognition (MICR) uses stylized OCR fonts.

The fonts are printed with a magnetic ink to permit readability after being
overprinted or even smudged.

MICR is used to read smaller documents of size 7 to 20 cm. Like OCR, these
also require precise orientation and registration.

MICR code is printed on cheques and they let cheque processing easy.

The error rate for the magnetic scanning of a typical check is smaller than
with optical character recognition systems.

It can be easily read by humans.

 (iv) VOICE RECOGNITION
 Speech is the most natural way of communication.

 This eliminates the need of the user to understand a computer system.

 Voice technology is intelligently packaged and applied in several

applications.

 Moreover the training can be minimized and the key board entry can
be eliminated and hand and eye co-ordination is no longer needed.

Voice recognition (VR) is of two types:

(i) Speaker dependent

(ii) Speaker independent

 (v) SMART CARDS
Smart cards are made of plastic.
They are of the size of a credit
card and are embedded with one or
more microchips.

These have an 8-bit or higher

level microprocessors and will
have a storage capacity of about 8
kB.

Recent cards can carry up to 256

kB with the contacts removed and
integrated with keypads.

Personal identification numbers

(PIN) prevent unauthorized use of
smart cards.
 INVENTORY MANAGEMENT

 Inventory is crucial element in any manufacturing environment, and its

efficient control is an essential element for an MRP environment.

 Inventory systems integrate with nearly all components of the MRP

system and must manage the balance between required inventory and
available inventory.

 The inventory control (IC) component must control the issue and
transfer of material and adjust inventory levels.

 In a repetitive manufacturing environment, the IC module is responsible

for monitoring the number of inventory turns per year, with the
objectives of increasing the number of turns to maximize profit margins.

 Some MRP packages offer features such as theoretical consumption for

the process industry.
 Inventory Management Module
Two Major functions
1. Inventory accounting
2. Inventory planning and control
These functions are applied to all types of inventories.

1. Inventory accounting –
 It is concerned with inventory transactions and inventory records.

 The accuracy and completeness of these transactions and records

are important.

 Inventory transactions include – receipts, issues, returns.

 The purpose of entering various transactions is to maintain accurate

inventory records.

 The term item master file – computerized inventory record file.

RECORD OF AN INVENTORY ITEM
 2. INVENTORY PLANNING AND CONTROL

The planning and controlling functions are:

 Determining economic lot sizes.

 Determining safety stock levels.

 Determining ordering policies and reorder points.

 Analysis of usage rates for lot size calculations and

other purposes.

 Automatic generation of requisitions for purchasing.

The Inventory Management module usually has the following
capabilities:

 Creates audit trails with the exact time and operator for major files to
provide a record of additions, changes, and deletions.

 Prints the Inventory Usage Exceptions Report comparing actual to

forecast usage.

 Provides physical count tag support and cycle counting work sheets.

 Allows quick inquiry regarding the availability of any item.

Inventory Management soft wares

 3PL Warehouse Manager
 Inventoria Stock Manager
 SIMMS Inventory Management
 Fishbowl Inventory
 AdvancePro
 INVENTORY TYPES

 Raw materials and purchased components

 In process inventory – During the processing time the material are in

process.

 Finished product – Stored in the factory or warehouse before shipment.

 Maintenance, repair and tooling inventories – Cutting tools and

fixtures.

To maintain these various kinds of inventories, two alternative control

procedures can be used:
1. Order point systems – Traditional approach to inventory control. The
items are restocked when the inventory level become low.

2. Material Requirement planning – It controls Raw materials and

purchased components in process inventory.
 Order Point System
 It concerned with – When to order and how much to order

 When to order – accomplished by reorder point.

 When the inventory level of an item falls to the reorder point, it is the
time to restock the item.

 How much to order- Based on economic order quantity formula

2DS
EOQ 
H

Where EOQ = Quantity of the item to be ordered

D = Annual demand rate for the item
S = Setup cost or ordering cost per order
H = Annual holding cost
MATERIALS REQUIREMENTS PLANNING (MRP)
 MATERIALS REQUIREMENTS PLANNING (MRP)

 The MPS - direct input to the material requirements planning (MRP)

function, which determines the material needed at each work centre
location.

 MRP is the heart of any manufacturing control system.

 It uses information from the BOM, inventory, shop and purchase

orders.

 MRP accesses the data from the master production to determine what
products will be built during the planning period.

 Bills of material and routings define the raw materials required to

produce the product.

 MRP determines the total gross requirements and compares against

current inventory.
PURPOSE MRP
INPUTS AND OUTPUTS OF MRP
Sub-modules of Material Requirements Planning
The MRP modules carry out the following:
• Computes when and in what quantities component parts and raw
materials are required.

• Supports minimum, maximum, and multiple order quantity

modifications.

• Allows creation and modification of a shop calendar and a variety of

reporting calendars.

• Reports exceptions and recommends changes to order quantities and

dates.

• Supports changes in product structures.

• Uses actual components planned for shop orders as a firm planned bill
of material to accurately reflect true material needs.
 MANUFACTURING RESOURCE PLANNING (MRP II)

MRP II, goes several steps beyond MRP.

MRP stopped at the receiving dock, MRPII incorporates the value

stream all the way through the manufacturing facility to the shipping
dock where the product is packaged and sent to the end customer.

That value stream includes production planning, machine capacity

scheduling, demand forecasting and analysis modules, and quality
tracking tools.

MRPII also has tools for tracking employee attendance, labor

contribution and productivity.

MRP was strictly a materials and parts planning tool whose

calculations were based on the MPS.
 Cont…

It became evident that MRP should be tied to other software packages to
create a more integrated production planning and control (PPC) system.

The PPC software packages that evolved from MRP became known as
manufacturing resource planning, or MRP II, to distinguish' it from the
original abbreviation and perhaps to suggest that it was second generation; that
is, more than "just" MRP.

MRP-II can be defined as a computer-based system for planning, scheduling,

and controlling the materials, resources, and supporting activities needed to
meet the MPS.

 MRP II is a closed-loop system that integrates and coordinates all of the

major functions of the business to produce the right products at the right
times.

The term "closed-loop system" means that MRP II incorporates feedback of

data on various aspects of operating performance so that corrective action can
be taken in a timely manner; that is, MRP II includes a shop floor control
system.
 APPLICATION MODULES TYPICALLY PROVIDED IN A MRP II SYSTEM

• Management Planning. Functions included in this module are business

strategy, aggregate production planning, master production scheduling,
capacity planning and budget planning.

• Customer service. Typical components in this module are sales

forecasting, order entry, sales analysis, and finished goods inventory.

• Operations planning. This is the MRP module enhanced with capacity

requirements planning. The output consists of purchase order and work
order releases.

• Operations execution. This includes purchasing, production scheduling

and control, WIP inventory control, shop floor control and labour hour
tracking.

• Financial functions. These include cost accounting, accounts receivable,

account payable, general ledger and payroll.
 Software vendors continue to add new features to their MRP II
packages to gain competitive advantages in the market.

 Some of the applications that have been added to recent generations of

MRP- II are in the following areas:
 Quality control

 Maintenance management

 Customer field service

 Warranty tracking

 Marketing support

 Supply chain management

 Distribution management

 Product data management

 ENTERPRISE RESOURCE PLANNING (ERP)

 ERP is the next evolution of the MRP II system. While MRP helped companies
plan material purchases, and MRPII added in-plant scheduling and production
controls, ERP attempts to integrate the information flow from all
departments within a company: finance, marketing, production, shipping,
even human resources.

 ERP means the techniques and concepts for integrated management of

business as a whole from the viewpoint of the effective use of management
resources to improve the efficiency of enterprise management.

 ERP systems are the software tools used to manage enterprise data.

 ERP systems help organizations deal with

Supply chain, receiving

Inventory management, customer order management
Production planning, shipping, accounting
Human resource management and other business functions.
Evolution of ERP
 ADVANTAGES OF ERP

The direct advantages are

 Improved efficiency
 Information integration for better decision making
 Faster response time to customer queries
 Business integration
 Flexibility
 Better analysis and planning capabilities
 Use of latest technology

Indirect Benefits
 Better corporate image
 Improved customer goodwill
 Customer satisfaction
 ERP - Softwares

Name Platform technology Software license Countries of origin

Adaxa Suite Java GPL Australia/New Zealand

Adempiere Java GPL Spain

Compiere Java GPL/Commercial US

Dolibarr PHP, MySQL GPL France

EpesiBIM PHP, MySQL MIT license Poland, USA

Brazil, France, Germany,

ERP5 Python, Zope, MySQL GPL Japan, Kenya, Sénégal

ERPNEXT Python, JavaScript, MySQL GPL India

Fedena Ruby, MySQL Apache License India