•PROCESS

• Monitoring
• Structure
• Control Strategies

•QUALITY
• Measuring instruments
• Testing
 COMPUTER PROCESS MONITORING

 It is also called computer production monitoring.

 It is a data collection system – computer is connected directly to

the workstation and associated equipments for observing the
operation.

 This results in improved supervision of the process.

 The flow of data is in one direction only- from process to

computer.

 The components used are

Transducers Sensors Analog to digital
Multiplexers Real time clocks

 These components are assembled into various configurations for

process monitoring.
 THREE COMPUTER PROCESS MONITORING CONFIGURATIONS

1. Data logging systems

2. Data acquisition systems
3. Multilevel scanning

1. Data logging systems

 A data logger (DL) is a device that
automatically collects and stores
data for off line analysis.

 The data could be analyzed by a

person without the aid of computer.

DL can be classified into three types

 Analog input/ Analog output
 Analog input/ Analog and
digital output
 Analog and digital input/
Analog and digital output
 Cont..
2. Data acquisition systems (DAS)
 It is a system that collects data for direct communication to
a central computer (online system).
 Data sampling rate of up to 1000 per second.
 More expensive than the data logger.

3. Multilevel scanning
 Two or more process scanning levels.
 High level scan – key variables would be monitored.
 Low level scan – More complete data logging (all the process
data)
 Manufacturing Process Data
 Nature of the data communicated between the manufacturing process
and computers can be classified into three categories.

1. Continuous analog signals

• A continuous variable (or parameter) is one that is uninterrupted as
time proceeds, at least during the manufacturing operation.
• A continuous variable is generally considered to be analog, which
means it can take on any value within a certain range.
• Examples include: Force, temperature, flow rate, pressure, and
velocity.

2. Discrete binary data

• A discrete variable (or parameter) is one that can take on only certain
values within a given range.
• The most common type of discrete variable is binary, meaning it can
take on either of two possible values, ON or OFF, open or closed, and
so on.
• Examples of discrete binary variables and parameters in
manufacturing include: limit switch open or closed, motor on or off,
and work-part present or not present in a fixture.
3. Pulse data
 A special form of discrete variable (and parameter) is pulse data, which
consist of a train of pulses.

 As a discrete variable, a pulse train might be used to indicate piece

counts; for example, parts passing on a conveyor activate a photocell
to produce a pulse for each part detected.

Three types of
manufacturing
process data
 COMPUTER PROCESS INERFACING

 How computers are used to control manufacturing processes.

 The problem of interfacing the computer with the process.

 The computer must be capable of communicating with its

environment.

 In a data processing system, this communication is accomplished by

various input/output devices – card readers, printers etc.,

 In a process control system, the computer must be capable of sensing

the important process variables from the operation and providing the
necessary responses to maintain effective control over the process.
 System Interpretation of process data
 The three categories of manufacturing process data must be capable
of interfacing with the computer.

 For monitoring the process - input data entered into the computer.

 For controlling the process – output data must be generated by the

computer and converted into signals understandable by the
manufacturing process.

Six categories of computer- process interface representing the inputs and

outputs.
 Analog to digital
 Contact input
 Pulse counters
 Digital to analog
 Contact output
 Pulse generators
 Computer Process interface
 Analog to digital
It involves transforming real
valued signals into digital
representation of their
magnitude.
Different steps involved in the
transformation process with the
following hardware:
1.Transducers: Which converts a
measurable process characteristic
(flow rate, temperature, etc.,)
into electrical voltage levels.
 Cont..

2. Signal conditioning.
The continuous analog signal from the transducer may require
conditioning to render it into more suitable form.
Common signal conditioning steps include:
(1) filtering to remove random noise and
(2) conversion from one signal form to another,
for example, converting a current into a voltage.
3. Multiplexer.
Which connect several process monitoring devices to the analog to
digital converter.
4. Amplifier.
Amplifiers arc used to scale the incoming signal up or down to be
compatible with the range of the analog -to-digital converter.
5. Analog-to-digital converter (ADC). The function of the ADC is to
convert the incoming analog signal into its digital counterpart.

 Contact input interface – It is a set of simple contacts that can be

opened and closed to indicate the status of limit switches, button
positions.

 Pulse counter – It is used to convert the pulse trains into digital

representation.

 Digital to analog converter – Converts digital data generated by the

computer and transforms it into a signal.

 Contact output interfaces - It is a set of contacts that can be opened

and closed. Computer is used to turn on indicator lights, alarms and
equipment functions.

 Pulse generators – Converts digital words from the computer into

pulse trains, that are used to drive devices such as stepping motors.
 Computer process control

Continuous Control Discrete Control in

Comparison Factor in Process Industries Discrete Manufacturing
industries

Typical measures of Weight measures, liquid Number of parts, number

product output volume measures, solid
volume measures
Typical quality measures Consistency, concentration
of solution, absence of
contaminants,
conformance to
specification
Typical variables and Temperature, volume flow
parameters rate, pressure
Typical process time Seconds, minutes, hours
constants
of products
Dimensions, surface
finish, appearance,
absence of defects,
product reliability
Position, velocity,
acceleration, force
Less than a second
Process and discrete industries
Structure of a manufacturing process
 Structural Model of a Manufacturing Process
 Production operations – interacting process variables

Types : Input and output variables.

Input variables:
 Controllable input variables
 Manipulative variables- can be changed and controlled during
the process (feed and speed, flow rate, temperature).

 Uncontrollable input variables

 Cannot be manipulated – tool sharpness, hardness, workpiece
geometry.

 Fixed variables
 Conditions of the setup, tool geometry and work-holding device,
which can be changed between operations and not during
operation.
 Structure of a manufacturing process

 Output variables:

 Measurable output variables.

 Measured online during the process – flow rate, temperature,
vibration, voltage and power.

 Performance evaluation variables

 Overall process performance – Economics of the process or
quality of the product manufactured.

The problem in process control:

 Control the measurable output variables so as to achieve some
desired result in performance evaluation .
 This is accomplished by manipulating the controllable inputs to the
process.
 Process control strategies
1. Feedback control
2. Regulatory control
3. Feed-forward control
4. Preplanned control
5. Steady-state optimal control
6. Adaptive control

7. Feedback control
 By measuring the output variable and comparing it to the input
variable, there by forming automatic feedback control system.

The feedback control system is also called a closed loop system.

 2. Regulatory control

The objective is to maintain the overall performance evaluation

variable at a certain set point level.

Performance may be product quality and it was desired to maintain at a

particular level.
3. Feed-forward control

 The trouble with regulatory control and feedback control is –

Compensating action is taken after a disturbance has affected the
process output.

 In feed-forward control the disturbances are measured before they

upset the process, and anticipatory corrective action is taken.
 The feed-forward controller contains a mathematical or logical model
of the process which includes the effect of disturbance.

 This control is helpful when the process is characterized by long

response time or lead time.

4. Preplanned control
Use of the computer for directing the process or equipment to carry
out a predetermined series of operation steps.
Control sequence must be developed in advance.
(i) Computer Numerical Control
It involves the use of computer to direct a machine tool through
a program of processing steps.

(ii) Program Control

 It involves the application of the computer to startup or shut
down a large complex process.
 Use of computers in batch processing to direct the process through
the cycle of processing steps.
 With program control the objective is to direct the process from
one operating condition to a new operating condition in
minimum time.
Example : Paper Industry – various grades of paper
Slightly different operating cycle is required for each grade.

(iii) Sequencing Control

 Guiding the process through a sequence of on/off type steps.

 The process must be monitored to make sure that each step has
been carried out before proceeding to the next step.

 Example: Automated production flow line – sequence of

workstation power feed motions, parts transfer, quality
inspections.

 Tool change schedules may also be included as one of the

computer functions.

 The operators are directed by the computer when to change

cutters.
5. Steady state optimal control
(i) Performance evaluation variable
 Measure of system performance is also called
Objective function, index of performance, figure of merit.

 Performance objectives: cost minimization, profit maximization,

production rate maximization, quality optimization.

(ii) Mathematical model of the process

 The relationship between the input variables and the measure
of process performance must be mathematically defined.
 The model is assumed to be valid throughout the operation of the
process.
 The model of the process may include constraints on some or
all of the variables.

With these two attributes of the process defined, the solution of the optimal
control problem consists of determining the values of the input variables that
optimize the objective function.
Steady state optimal control
6. Adaptive control
It possesses attributes of both feedback control and optimal control.

Identification function.
 In this function, the current value of the index of performance of the system is
determined, based on measurements collected from the process.

 Since the environment changes over time, system performance also

changes. Accordingly, the identification function must be accomplished
more or less continuously over time during system operation
Decision function.
 Once system performance has been determined, the next function is to
decide what changes should be made to improve performance.

 The decision function is implemented by means of the adaptive

system's programmed algorithm.

 Depending on this algorithm, the decision may be to change one or

more input parameters to the process, to alter some of the internal
parameters of the controller, or other changes.

Modification function
 The third function of adaptive control is to implement the decision.

 Whereas decision is a logic function, modification is concerned with

physical changes in the system. It involves hardware rather than
software.

 In modification, the system parameters or process inputs are altered

using available actuators to drive the system toward a more optimal
state.
 FORMS OF COMPUTER PROCESS CONTROL
There are various ways in which computers can be used to control a process.
In process monitoring- the computer is used to simply collect data from the process,
while in process control, the computer regulates the process.

(a) Process monitoring, (b) open-loop process control,

and (c) closed-loop process control.
 Process control configuration
Type 1 – Centralized control
Type 2 – Optionally distributed control
Type 3 – Fully distributed control

1. Centralized Control
 It consists of a central control station with sensors and actuators located
out in the plant.
 Signal connections are made to input data from the sensors to the
controller and to transmit commands back to the actuators.
 The data and command signals may be analog or digital.
 All of the controllers, switches, dials, recorders and displays are located
in the central control room, where the operator can monitor the process
and take appropriate action to maintain smooth operation of the plant.
CENTRALIZED CONTROL
2. Optionally distributed Control

 In this the controllers are located in satellite control stations.

 A digital data bus, capable of transmission in both direction, is used

to connect the central control room with the satellite stations.

Advantage
Less signal noise, better protection against damage
Satellite function as a local controller.
3. Fully distributed Control

 The regulation of individual process control is achieved by individual

controllers mounted in the plant.

 This improves reliability by reducing electrical noise.

 Direct Digital Control (DDC)
 Direct digital control replace the conventional analog control devices
with the digital computers.

 With DDC, the computer calculates the desired values of the input
variables, and these calculated values are applied directly to the process.

 Analog devices were limited in terms of the mathematical operations.

 DDC increases flexibility in the control action.

Components of Analog system

Transducers and sensors – located in plant
Actuators - Servomotors, valves, which operate at the commands of the
controller unit.
Analog controller – controls the electronic or pneumatic devices that
operate on the error signal to drive the output variable into agreement with
the set point.
Recording and display devices.
Set-point dial and comparator – allow the operator to set the desired
operating level for the particular process variable.
 Typical analog control loop

Components of a DDC system

BENEFITS OF DIRECT DIGITAL CONTROL
 DDC is more efficient control actions
 DDC provides more control options than traditional analog control
system
 DDC has the ability to integrate feedback measurements multiple loops
and to implement optimizing strategies to improve overall performance
 A digital computer in DDC makes editing the control programs much
easier and less costlier
 Supervisory Computer Control
 It is concerned with overall process performance and optimization.

 The problem is to determine the appropriate set points of each control loop.

 In DDC decisions about set point values are left to the operator.

 In supervisory control, the computer determined the appropriate set point

values to optimize the process performance.

 The performance objective of the process might be

 Maximum production rate, minimum cost per unit of product, yield

 Based on the mathematical model of the process, which is programmed into

the computer, it calculates the set point values.

 The control strategies used in supervisor computer control are

Regulatory control, feed-forward control, preplanned control, optimal
control and adaptive control.
Supervisory Computer Control System
 Cont…
 In addition to set point adjustments in the control loops, the supervisory computer
may also be required to control discrete variables in the process. Example:
starting and stopping motors, opening valves.

 This operation consists of performing sequence of on/off steps called sequencing

control.

 Supervisory computer control perform a combination of sequencing control and

set-point control.

 In a supervisory computer control system, adjustments in the set points are

accomplished in either two ways:
1. Analog control - If the individual feedback loops are controlled by analog
devices, the control computer is connected to these devices.

The set point adjustments are made through the appropriate interface hardware
between the computer and the analog elements.

2. Direct digital control – If the feedback loops operate under direct digital control,
the supervisory control program provides the set point values to the DDC
program.
 QUALITY

INTRODUCTION
Definition
Inspection vs. Testing
Benefits

CONTACT TECHNIQUES
CMM

NONCONTACT TECHNIQUES
Optical
Non optical
 QUALITY
Dictionary - The degree of excellence which a thing possesses.

Crosby - “Conformance to requirements“

Juran - “Fitness for use" and "quality is customer

satisfaction”

The American Society for Quality Control (ASQC) –

“The totality of features and characteristics of a
product or service that bear on its ability to satisfy given
need,"
 Quality Assurance
 In the 1980s the issue of quality control (QC) became a national concern
in the United States.

 The Japanese automobile industry had demonstrated that high-quality

cars could be produced at relatively low cost.

 US believed that superior quality is achieved only at a premium price.

 Japanese wages were in fact lower at that time, the reality that Japanese
products were not only cheaper, they were better quality.

It was a combination of factors, including:

(1) A well developed work ethic and orientation toward quality that is
instilled into the Japanese worker.

(2) A philosophy of continuous improvement (the Japanese call it kaizen).

(3) Attention to the use of QC techniques,

 Quality Control
 Quality control, which encompasses inspection, measurement and
testing, is a vital part of any manufacturing activity.

 It is applied to ensure high quality in manufactured goods.

 The quality control (QC) function has traditionally been performed
using manual inspection methods and statistical sampling
procedures.

 Manual inspection is generally a time consuming procedure.

 Parts may have to be removed from the vicinity of the production
machines to a separate inspection area.
 Manufacturing schedules are also often upset because of this delay.
 QC AND CIM
 A wide range of computer-based instrumentation is being used for quality control.

 Inspection and testing are meant to reduce wastage and make maximum use of
resources.

 The incorporation of digital techniques in manufacturing systems and the use of

microprocessors for controlling manufacturing processes.

 The present day concern in any manufacturing shop: To ensure that every
component and the end product produced should meet well defined quality levels.

 It aim at a cost effective inspection system, and which has the potential for
providing information to implement corrective action before the process goes out
of control.

 This can be carried out by both contact type and non-contact type inspection
which can collect the data not only to qualify or classify a component but also to
correct the manufacturing process that may cause undesirable deviation.
OBJECTIVES OF COMPUTER AIDED QUALITY CONTROL(CAQC)

 Improve product quality

 Increase productivity in the inspection process

 Increase productivity

 Reduce lead-time

 Reduce wastage due to scrap/rework

The strategy for achieving these objectives is basically to automate the

inspection process through the application of computers combined
with sensor technology
 Difference of Inspection and Testing
Inspection Testing
To observe the specific parameters of Examine by giving measured
the product. inputs to the material and
measuring the output (effect).
The inspection is done by scaling the The testing is done in a material
dimension, weighing, tapping with a under forces until it deforms or
hammer, scratching with nail. fails its dimensions.

These are done temporary. This is a permanent.

Probability of errors is high in this Probability of errors is less in this
method. method.
Re checking is necessary. Re checking is not necessary
Easy to perform. Not easy to perform.
Time saving method. Time consuming method.
 ROLE OF COMPUTER IN QC

 Computer-aided inspection (CAI) and computer aided testing (CAT)

are the two major segments of computer-aided quality control.

 These activities have been traditionally performed manually (with the

help of gauges, measuring devices and testing apparatus).

 CAI and CAT are performed automatically using computer and

sensor technology.

 Today, CAI and CAT can be well integrated into the overall CIM
system.
 Benefits of CAQC
 With CAI and CAT, inspection and testing will typically be done on a
100% basis rather by the sampling procedures normally used in
traditional QC.

 Inspection is integrated into the manufacturing process to reduce the

lead-time to complete the parts.

 With non-contact sensing devices the parts can be inspected while in

operation. The inspection can thus be completed in a fraction of a
second.

 The on-line non-contact sensors are useful as the feedback element of

adaptive control systems.

 An important feature of QC in a CIM environment is that the

CAD/CAM database will be used to develop inspection plan.
 Inspection Techniques
(1) Contact inspection techniques- physical contact is made between the
object and the measuring instrument.

(2) Noncontact inspection techniques- no physical contact is made.

Contact inspection :
 It involves the use of a mechanical probe or other device that makes
contact with the object being inspected.

 It is usually concerned with some physical dimension of the part.

 Accordingly, these techniques are widely used in particular in the

production of metal parts (machining, stamping, and other metalworking
processes).
 The principal contact inspection technologies are:
• Conventional measuring and gauging instruments, manual and
automated.

• Coordinate measuring machines (CMMs).

• Stylus type surface texture measuring machines - roughness and waviness.

Importance of contact inspection

methods :

• They are the most widely used

inspection technologies today.

• They are accurate and reliable.

 CONVENTIONAL MEASURING AND GAUGING TECHNIQUES

 Conventional measuring and gauging techniques use manually

operated devices for linear dimensions such as length, depth, and
diameter, as well as features such as angles, straightness, and
roundness.

 Measuring requires more time to accomplish but provides more

information about the part feature.

 Gauging can be accomplished more quickly but does not provide as

much information.
 COORDINATE MEASURING MACHINE (CMM)

 Coordinate metrology is concerned with the measurement of the actual

shape and dimensions of an object and comparing these with the
desired shape and dimensions, as might be specified on a part drawing.

 It consists of the evaluation of the location, orientation, dimensions,

and geometry of the part or object.

 It is an electromechanical system designed to perform coordinate

metrology.

 A CMM consists of a contact probe that can be positioned in three-

dimensional (3D) space relative to the surfaces of a work-part.

 The x, y, and z coordinates of the probe can be accurately and precisely

recorded to obtain dimensional data concerning the part geometry.
 CMM- General Construction
CMM components:
The two basic components of the CMM:
(1) Probe (2) Mechanical structure

 Probe head and probe to contact the work-part surfaces.

 Mechanical structure that provides motion of the probe in three Cartesian axes
and displacement transducers to measure the coordinate values of each axis.

• Drive system and control unit to move each

of the three axes.

• Digital computer system with application

software.

CMM Construction
The part is usually located on a worktable
that is connected to the structure.
 PROBE in CMM

The contact probe is a key component of

a CMM.

It indicates when contact has been made

with the part surface during measurement.

The tip of the probe is usually a ruby ball.

Ruby is a form of corundum (aluminum

oxide), whose desirable properties in this
application include high hardness for
wear resistance and low density for
minimum inertia.

Probes can have either a single tip, or

multiple tips
Most probes today are touch-trigger probes, which actuate when the probe
makes contact with the part surface.

Various triggering mechanisms:

 The trigger is based on a highly sensitive electrical contact switch that
emits a signal when the tip of the probe is deflected from its neutral
position.

 The trigger actuates when electrical contact is established between the probe
and the (metallic) part surface.

 The trigger uses a piezoelectric sensor that generates a signal based on

tension or compression loading of the probe.

 Immediately after contact, the coordinate positions of the probe are

accurately measured by displacement transducers and recorded by the CMM
controller.

 Common displacement transducers used on CMMs include optical scales,

rotary encoders, and magnetic scales.
 CMM - Mechanical Structure
There are various physical configurations for achieving the motion of the probe, each
with its relative advantages and disadvantages.
1. Cantilever : In the cantilever configuration, the probe is attached to a
vertical quill that moves in the z-axis direction relative to a horizontal arm
that overhangs a fixed worktable.
 The quill can also be moved along the length of
the arm to achieve y-axis motion, and the arm
can be moved relative to the worktable to
achieve x-axis motion.

Advantages are:
(1) Convenient access to the worktable.
(2) High throughput-the rate at which parts can be
mounted and measured on the CMM.
(3) Capacity to measure large work-parts (on large
CMM,).
(4) Relatively small floor space requirements.
Its disadvantage is lower rigidity than most other
CMM constructions.
2. Moving Bridge: In the moving bridge design, the probe is mounted on a bridge
structure that is moved relative to a stationary table on which it is positioned the part
to be measured.

 This provides a more rigid structure than the cantilever design and its advocates
claim that this makes the moving bridge CMM more accurate.

 However, one of the problems encountered with the

moving bridge design is yawing {also known as
walking), in which the two legs of the bridge move at
slightly different speeds, resulting in twisting of the
bridge.

 This phenomenon degrades the accuracy of the

measurements.

 Yawing is reduced on moving bridge CMMs when

dual drives and position feedback controls are
installed for both legs.

 The moving bridge design is the most widely used in industry. It is well suited to
the size range of parts commonly encountered in production machine shops.
3. Fixed Bridge:
 In this configuration, the bridge is attached to the CMM bed, and the
worktable is moved in the x direction beneath the bridge.

 This construction eliminates the possibility of yawing, hence increasing

rigidity and accuracy.

 However, throughput is adversely affected because of the additional mass

involved to move the heavy worktable with part mounted on it.
4. Horizontal Arm
 The horizontal arm configuration consists of a cantilevered horizontal arm
mounted to a vertical column.

 The arm moves vertically and in and out to achieve y-axis and z-axis motions.
To achieve x-axis motion, either the column is moved horizontally past the
worktable (called the moving ram design), or the worktable is moved past the
column (called the moving table design).

 The cantilever design of the horizontal arm

configuration makes it less rigid and therefore less
accurate than other CMM structures.

 On the positive side, it allows good accessibility to

the work area.

 Large horizontal arm machines are suited to the

measurement of automobile bodies, and some
CMMs are equipped with dual arms so that
independent measurements can be taken on both
sides of the car body at the same time
5. Gantry
 This construction, is generally intended for
inspecting large objects.

 The probe quill (z-axis) moves relative to the

horizontal arm extending between the two rails of
the gantry.

 The workspace in a large gantry type CMM can be

as great as 25 m in the x-direction by 11m in the y-
direction by 6 m in the z-direction.

6. Column
This configuration, is similar to the construction of a
machine tool.

The x- and y-axis movements are achieved by

moving the worktable, while the probe quill is moved
vertically along a rigid column to achieve z-axis
motion.
 CMM Operation and Programming
 Positioning the probe relative to the part can be accomplished in several
ways, ranging from manual operation to direct computer control (DCC).

 Computer-controlled CMMs operate much like CNC machine tools, and

these machines must be programmed.

CMM Controls.

The methods of operating and controlling a CMM can be classified into

four main categories:

(1) Manual drive,

(2) Manual drive with computer-assisted data processing,
(3) Motor drive with computer-assisted data processing, and
(4) DCC with computer-assisted data processing.
(i) Manual drive CMM
 The human operator physically moves the probe along the machine's
axes to make contact with the part and record the measurements.

 The three orthogonal slides are designed to be nearly frictionless to

permit the probe to be free floating in the x, y, and z directions.

 The measurements are provided by a digital readout, which the

operator can record either manually or with paper printout.

 Any calculations on the data (e.g., calculating the centre and diameter
of a hole) must be made by the operator.

(ii) Manual drive with computer-assisted data processing

 It provides some data processing and computational capability for
performing the calculations required to evaluate a given part feature.

 The probe is still free floating to permit the operator to bring it into
contact with the desired part surfaces.
(iii) A motor-driven CMM with computer-assisted data processing

 It uses electric motors to drive the probe along the machine axes
under operator control.

 A joystick or similar device is used as the means of controlling the

motion.

 Features such as low-power stepping motors and friction clutches

are utilized to reduce the effects of collisions between the probe and
the part.

 The motor drive can be disengaged to permit the operator to

physically move the probe as in the manual control method.

 Motor-driven CMMs are generally equipped with data processing to

accomplish the geometric computations required in feature
assessment.
(iv) CMM with direct computer control

 It operates like a CNC machine tool.

 It is motorized, and the movements of the coordinate axes are controlled

by a dedicated computer under program control.

 The computer also performs the various data processing and

calculation functions and compiles a record of the measurements
made during inspection.

 As with a CNC machine tool, the DCC CMM requires part

programming.
DCC Programming

Two methods of programming a DCC measuring machine:

(1) Manual lead-through

(2) Off-line programming.

(1) Manual Lead-through

 In the manual lead-through method, the operator leads the CMM

probe through the various motions required in the inspection
sequence, indicating the points and surfaces that are to be measured and
recording these into the control memory.

 This is similar to the robot programming technique.

 During regular operation, the CMM controller plays back the program
to execute the inspection procedure.
2. Off-line programming
 It is accomplished in the manner of computer-assisted NC part
programming.

 The program is prepared off-line based on the part drawing and then
downloaded to the CMM controller for execution.

 The programming statements for a computer-controlled CMM include

motion commands, measurement commands, and report formatting
commands.

 The motion commands are used to direct the probe to a desired

inspection location.

 The measurement statements are used to control the measuring and

inspection function of the machine, calling the various data processing and
calculation routines into play.

 Finally, the formatting statements permit the specification of the output

reports to document the inspection.
 An enhancement of off-line programming is CAD programming, in which
the measurement is generated from CAD geometric data rather than
from a hard copy part drawing.

 Off-line programming on a CAD system is facilitated by the Dimensional

Measuring Interface Standard (DMIS).

 DMIS is a protocol that permits two-way communication between CAD

systems and CMMs.

Use of the DMIS protocol has the following advantages

(1) It allows any CAD system to communicate with any CMM;

(2) It reduces software development costs for CMM and CAD companies
because only one translator is required to communicate with the DMIS;

(3) User training requirements are reduced.

 Other CMM Software
 CMM software is the set of programs and procedures documentation
used to operate the CMM and its associated equipment.

 In addition to part programming software used for programming DCC

machines, other software is also required to achieve full functionality of a
CMM.

Additional software

(1) Core software other than DCC programming

(2) Post-inspection software

(3) Reverse engineering and application-specific software.

1. CORE SOFTWARE OTHER THAN DCC PROGRAMMING.

 Core software consists of the minimum basic programs required for the
CMM to function, excluding part programming software, which applies
only to DCC machines.

 This software is generally applied either before or during the inspection

procedure.

Core programs normally include the following

(i) Probe calibration

This function is required to define the parameters of the probe (such as tip
radius, tip positions for a multi-tip probe, and elastic bending coefficients
of the probe)

It avoids the necessity to perform probe tip calculations.

(ii) Part coordinate system definition

 This software permits measurements of the part to be made without requiring a

time-consuming part alignment procedure on the CMM worktable.

 Instead of physically aligning the part to the CMM axes, the measurement
axes are mathematically aligned relative to the part.

(iii) Geometric feature construction

 This software addresses the problems associated with geometric features

whose evaluation requires more than one point measurement.

 These features include flatness, squareness, determining the centre of a hole or

the axis of a cylinder, and so on.

(iv) Tolerance Analysis

This software allows measurements taken on the part to be compared to the
dimensions and tolerances specified on the engineering drawing.
2. POST-INSPECTION SOFTWARE
 Post-inspection software is composed of the set of programs that are applied
after the inspection procedure.

(i) Statistical analysis

 This software is used to carry out any of various statistical analyses on the data
collected by the CMM.

 For example: Part dimension data can be used to assess process capability of
the associated manufacturing process or for statistical process control .

(i) Graphical data representation

The purpose of this software is to display the data collected during the
CMM procedure in a graphical or pictorial way, thus permitting easier
visualization of form errors and other data by the user.
3. Reverse Engineering and Application-Specific Software
Reverse engineering software is designed to take an existing physical part and
construct a computer model of the part geometry based on a large number of
measurements of its surface by a CMM.

Application-specific software
It refers to programs written for certain types of parts and whose applications are
generally limited to specific industries.

Examples
1. Gear checking
These programs are used on a CMM to measure the geometric features of a gear,
such as tooth profile, tooth thickness, pitch, and helix angle.

2. Thread checking : Inspection of cylindrical and conical threads.

3. Cam checking. This specialized software is used to evaluate the accuracy of

physical cams relative to design specifications.

4. Automobile body checking: Used to measure sheet metal panels, sub-

assemblies, and complete car bodies in the automotive industry.
CMM Applications and Benefits
 The most common applications are off-line inspection and on-line/post-
process inspection.

 Machined components are frequently inspected using CMMs.

 One common application is to check the first part machined on a

numerically controlled machine tool.

 If the first part passes inspection, then the remaining parts produced in
the batch are assumed to be identical to the first.

 Audit inspection and calibration of gauges and fixtures. It refers to the

inspection of incoming parts from a vendor to ensure that the vendor's
quality control systems are reliable.

 This is usually done on a sampling basis.

The advantages of using CMMs over manual inspection methods
 Reduced inspection cycle time. Because of the automated techniques
included in the operation of a CMM, inspection procedures are speeded and
labour productivity is improved.

 Reduced inspection cycle time translates into higher throughput.

 Flexibility: A CMM is a general-purpose machine that can be used to

inspect a variety of different part configurations with minimal
changeover time.

 In the case of the DCC machine, where programming is performed off-

line, changeover time on the CMM involves only the physical setup.

 Reduced operator errors. Automating the inspection procedure has the

obvious effect of reducing human errors in measurements and setups.

 Great inherent accuracy and precision: A CMM is inherently more

accurate and precise than the manual surface plate methods that are
traditionally used for inspection.
 Avoidance of multiple setups.
 Traditional inspection techniques often require multiple setups to
measure multiple part features and dimensions.

 All measurements can be made in a single setup on a CMM,

thereby increasing throughput and measurement accuracy.

Limitations of CMM

 CMMs are located in a separate space away from the

manufacturing area – unnecessary transportation and handling.

 Components need to be kept in a climatising room before

inspection room.
 NON CONTACT- OPTICAL INSPECTION TECHNIQUES

1. MACHINE VISION

 Machine vision can be defined as the acquisition of image data,

followed by the processing and interpretation of these data by
computer for some useful application.

 Machine vision (also called computer vision, since a digital computer

is required to process the image data) is a rapidly growing technology,
with its principal applications in industrial inspection.

 Vision systems are classified as being either 2-D or 3-D. Two-

dimensional systems view the scene as a 2-D image.

 Examples include dimensional measuring and gauging, verifying the

presence of components.
Basic functions of a machine vision system
The operation of a machine vision system:

(1) Image acquisition and digitization.

(2) Image processing and analysis.

(3) Interpretation.

1. Image Acquisition and Digitization

 Image acquisition and digitization is accomplished using a video camera and

a digitizing system to store the image data tor subsequent analysis.

 The camera is focused on the subject of interest, and an image is obtained by

dividing the viewing area into pixels in which each element has a value
that is proportional to the light intensity of that portion of the scene.

 The intensity value for each pixel is converted into its equivalent digital
value by an ADC.
Dividing the image into a matrix of picture elements, where each element has a
light intensity value corresponding to that portion of the image:

(a) (b) (c)

(a) The scene

(b) 12 x 12 matrix superimposed on the scene
(c) Pixel intensity values, either black or white, for the scene.
  The figure illustrates the likely image obtained from the simplest type of
vision system called a binary vision system.

 In binary vision, the light intensity of each pixel is ultimately reduced to

either of two values, white or black.

 A mort sophisticated vision system is capable of distinguishing and

storing different shades of gray in the image. This is called a gray-scale
system.
2. Image Processing and Analysis
 The second function is image processing and analysis, the amount of
data that must be processed is significant.

 A number of techniques have been developed for analyzing the image

data in a machine vision system.

 One category of techniques in image processing and analysis is called

segmentation.
 Segmentation technique are intended to define and separate regions of
interest within the image.

 Two common segmentation techniques are thresholding and edge

detection.

 Thresholding involves the conversion of each pixel intensity level into a

binary value, representing either white or black.

 This is done by comparing the intensity value at each pixel with a

defined threshold value.

 If the pixel value is greater than the threshold, it is given the binary bit
value of white, say 1.

 If less than the defined threshold, then it is given the bit value of black,
say 0.

 Reducing the image to binary form by means of thresholding usually

simplifies the subsequent problem of defining and identifying objects in
the image.
 Edge detection is concerned with determining the location of
boundaries between an object and its surroundings in an image.

 This is accomplished by identifying the contrast in light intensity that

exists between adjacent pixels at the borders of the object.

 For example the area of the object can be determined by counting the
number of white (or black) pixels that make up the object.

 Its length can be found by measuring the distance (in terms of pixels)
between the two extreme opposite edges of the part.

 Another set of techniques in image processing and analysis that normally

follows segmentation is feature extraction.

 Some of the features of an object include the object's area, length, width,
diameter, perimeter, center of gravity, and aspect ratio.
 3. Interpretation
For any given application, the image must be interpreted based on the
extracted features.

The interpretation function is usually concerned with recognizing the

object, a task termed object recognition or pattern recognition.

The objective in these tasks is to identify the object in the image by

comparing it with predefined models or standard values.

Two commonly used interpretation techniques are template matching and

feature weighting.

Template matching is the name given to various methods that attempt to

compare one or more features of an image with the corresponding
features of a model or template stored in computer memory.
 The most basic template matching technique is one in which the image
is compared pixel by pixel with a corresponding computer model.

 Within certain statistical tolerances, the computer determines whether the

image matches the template.

 One of the technical difficulties is the problem of aligning the part in

the same position and orientation in front of the camera, to allow the
comparison to be made without complications in image processing.

 Feature weighting is a technique in which several features (e.g., area,

length, and perimeter] are combined into a single measure by assigning
a weight to each feature according to its relative importance in
identifying the object.

 The score of the object in the image is compared with the score of an
ideal object residing in computer memory to achieve proper
identification.
 Machine Vision Applications

The reason for interpreting the image is to accomplish some practical objective
in an application.

Machine vision applications in manufacturing divide into three categories:

(1) Inspection

(2) Identification

(3) Visual guidance and control

(1) Inspection

Machine vision installations in industry perform a variety of automated

inspection tasks, most of which are either on-line-in-process or
on-line/post-process.
 Typical industrial inspection tasks
Dimensional measurement: Determining the size of certain dimensional features
of parts or products usually moving at relatively high speeds on a moving conveyor.

It must compare the features (dimensions} with the corresponding features of a
computer-stored model and determine the size value.

Dimensional gauging: This is similar to the preceding except that a gauging

function rather than a measurement is performed.

Verification of the presence of components in an assembled product.

Verification of hole location and number of holes in a part.

Detection of surface flaws and defects.

Detection of flaws in a printed label: The defect can be in the form of a poorly
located label or poorly printed text, numbering or graphics on the label.
2. Part identification applications
 Vision system is used to recognize and perhaps distinguish parts or
other objects.

 Part sorting, counting different types of parts flowing past along a

conveyor, and inventory monitoring.

 Part identification can usually be accomplished by 2-D vision systems.

 Reading of 2-D bar codes and character recognition.

3. Visual guidance and control

 A vision system is teamed with a robot or similar machine to control the
movement of the machine.

 Examples of these applications include seam tracking in continuous

arc welding, part positioning and/or reorientation, bin picking,
collision avoidance, machining operations, and assembly tasks.

 Most of these applications require 3-D vision.

 2. Scanning laser system
 Laser stands for light amplification by stimulated emission of radiation.

 Laser for measurement applications are low power gas lasers such as
helium-neon, which emits light in the visible range.

 The light beam from a laser is

Highly mono- chromatic – single wave length
Highly collimated – light rays are parallel

 The scanning laser uses a laser beam that is deflected by a rotating mirror to
produce a beam of light that can be focused to sweep past an object.

 A photo-detector on the far side of the object senses the light beam except for
the time period during the sweep when it is interrupted by the object.

 This time period can be measured with great accuracy and related to the size
of the object in the path of the laser beam.
The scanning laser beam device can complete its measurement in a very
short time cycle.

Hence, the scheme can be applied in high-production on-line / post-

process inspection or gauging.

A microprocessor counts the time interruption of the scanning laser

beam as it sweeps past the object.

Makes the conversion from time to a linear dimension, and signals

other equipment to make adjustments in the manufacturing process on the
production line.

Applications of the scanning laser technique

 Rolling mill operations

 Wire extrusion
 Machining and grinding processes
SCANNING LASER SYSTEM
 3. LINEAR ARRAY DEVICES
 The operation of a linear array for automated inspection is similar in some
respects to machine vision, except that the pixels are arranged in only one
dimension rather than two.

 The device consists of a light source that emits a planar sheet of light
directed at an object. On the opposite side of the object is a linear array of
closely spaced photo diodes.

 Typical numbers of diodes in the array are 256, 1024, and 2048.
 The sheet of light is blocked by the
object, and this blocked light is measured
by the photo diode array to indicate the
object's dimension.

Advantages
 Simplicity, accuracy, and speed.
 It has no moving parts.
 It can complete a measurement in a much
smaller time cycle than either machine
vision or the scanning laser beam
technique.
 4. OPTICAL TRIANGULATION TECHNIQUES

Triangulation techniques are based on the trigonometric relationships

of a right triangle.

It is used for range-finding, that is, determining the distance or

range of an object from two known points.

A light source (typically a laser) is used to focus a narrow beam at

an object to form a spot of light on the object.

A position-sensitive optical detector is used to determine the

location of the spot.
 Optical Triangulation Technique
The angle A of the beam
directed at the object is fixed
and known and so is the
distance L between the light
source and the
photosensitive detector.

Accordingly, the range R of

the object from the base line
defined by the light source
and the photosensitive
detector can be determined as
a function of the angle from
trigonometric relationships as
follows:

R=LcotA
 NONCONTACT NON-OPTICAL INSPECTION TECHNIQUES
 In addition to noncontact optical inspection methods, there are also a
variety of non-optical techniques used for inspection tasks in
manufacturing. Examples include sensor techniques based on electrical
fields, radiation, and ultrasonic.

Electrical Field Techniques.

 Under certain conditions, an electrical field can be created by an
electrically active probe.

 The field is affected by an object in the vicinity of the probe.

 Examples : Reluctance, Capacitance, and Inductance.

 In the typical application, the object (work-part) is positioned in a defined

relation with respect to the probe.

 An indirect measurement or gauging of certain part characteristics can be

made, such as dimensional features, thickness of sheet material and in
some cases, flaws (cracks and voids below the surface}in the material.
 RADIATION TECHNIQUES

 Radiation techniques utilize X-ray radiation to accomplish noncontact

inspection procedures on metals and weld-fabricated products.
 The amount of radiation absorbed by the metal object can be used to
indicate thickness and presence of flaws in the metal part or welded
section.
 An example is the use of X-ray inspection techniques to measure thickness
of sheet metal made in a rolling mill.
Radiographic Images
 ULTRASONICS INSPECTION METHODS
 Ultrasonic techniques make use of very high frequency sound (greater than
20.000 Hz] for various inspection tasks.

 Some of the techniques are performed manually, whereas others are automated.

 One of the automated method, involves the analysis of ultrasonic waves that
are emitted by a probe and reflected off the object to be inspected.

 In the setup of the inspection procedure, an ideal test part is placed in front of
the probe to obtain a reflected sound pattern.

 This sound pattern becomes the standard against which production parts are
later compared.

 If the reflected pattern from a given production part matches the standard (within
an allowable statistical variation), the part is considered acceptable; otherwise,
it is rejected.

 One technical problem with this technique involves the presentation of

production parts in front of the probe. To avoid extraneous variations in the
reflected sound patterns, the parts must always be placed in the same position
and orientation relative to the probe.