,.

CHAPTER FOL:R

THE CHA.NDOGYAUPA.NISAD

The Chandogya Upani~ad and the Authority ef the Vi,dicTradition

The ChiindogvaL'panisad(Chl!) is usually regarded as one of the ,Try

oldest Upani~ads, though possibly younger than the Brhadiiranyaka.
The ChU comprises the last eight of the ten chapters of the Chiindogya
Briilzma1Ja.As the name of the text indicates, the ChU belongs to the
Siimaveda:a dzandoga("one who sings in verse") is a person who chants
from the Siimaveda.As we shall sec, many of the main ideas in the ChU
reflect the particular concerns of the Siimavedapriests.
Like the authors of the Brhadiira7Jcvaka
Upanisad,the composers of the
Clz[Jare attempting to negotiate a space for their text and the textual
tradition of the Siimavedavis-a-vis the textual authority of the /J.gvedic
tradition. But whereas the BrlzadiirwrvakaUpanisaddirectly challenges the
authority of the /J.gvedaand its subsequent textual tradition, as shown
in the contest scene at .Janaka's court, the ClzU accepts and embraces
the authority of the Rgveda, and suggests that the Siimaz,edais insepara-
bly linked to the Rgveda. By implication, the authority of the /J.gvedais
reflected in its "partner text", the Siimaveda.
The close relationship between the Siimaveda and the /J.gvedais
expressed through sexual metaphors in the ChU:
The ~g is nothing but speech, and Saman is the breath, and the udpJthais
the syllable orn. Speech and breath, ~g and Saman, each of these pairs is
a couple making love. This couple making love unite in the syllable om,
and when a couple unite in love, they satisf)· each other's desire. \\'hen
someone knows this and worships the udgftha as this syllable, he will
become one who satisfies his desires. 1

\Ve should note that the term mithuna ("pair, couple') has obvious
sexual connotations, ,vhich reinforces the dose connection between
the two texts in the view of the Upani~adic authors. Although the

I ChU I. l..'i-b.
 ..
102 CHAPTER FOUR
ChC recognizes a threefold Veda,~ the text also plays with the idea of
the textual "couple'' of the Rgteda and the Siimal'eda,reflected in the
dualistic structures of the cosmos and the human body. 3 \Ve should
note, however, that in these sexual metaphors, it is the Samavedathat
becomes the male, and therefore perhaps the dominant partner in this
loving couple:
The ]!.g is the earth, and the Siiman the fire. The Siiman therefore lies down
on the ]!.g, and therefore one sings the Siiman on top of the ]!.g. S11("she")
is the earth, and iima ("he'') is the fire, and that makes S11man.+
The ChU contains several quotations from the /Jgveda.These quotations
are explicitly introduced as re,or stanzas from the Rgveda.In one case, a
stanza is referred to as re even if the stanza is found both in the /Jgveda
and the Samaveda.-,These quotes emphasize the importance of /Jgvedic
authority in the ChU The ChU also contains a reference to the sage
Kau~Itaki, who closely associated with the /Jgvedaand has given name
to one of the fiikhas of the !Jgveda:
And this is what Kau~naki once said to his son: ''I sang the praise of the
sun alone. Therefore, you are my only child. Turn to its rays, and you
will have many children. [. .. ] And this is what Kau~naki once said to
his son: "I sang the praise of the breath in the mouth alone. Therefore,
you are my only child. Turn your songs to all the breaths, and think: "I
will have many children." 6
Another f!.gvedirsage, Aitareya, is quoted as an authority in ChU 3.16. 7:
And this is what Mahidasa Aitareya knew when he said: "Because of
this, I am not gong to die. So why do you afflict me with it?" Ht' lived
to be a hundred and sixteen. Anybody who knm\·s this will also liw to
a hundred and sixteen.
This mention of two Rgvedic sages as sources of authority underscores
the close connection between the ChU and the ]J.gveda.
2 111
E.g. ChU 1.1.19; 1.4.2; 2.2 I. I.
ChU 1.6, 1.7.
' ChC 1.6.2.
' ChU 3.17.7 = RV 8. 6. 30 = ST" 1.20.
" ChU 1.5.2-4.
THE CK{ \DOGH [ 'PA.\IS,W 103
The Ihvine Sound
The ChU's association with the Siimaveda,the Veda of the Chants, is
reflected in the many passages on chanting and sound. In this context,
it is highly significant that the opening word of this Upani~ad is OT(l.
7
The sacred syllable om is referred to as the "high chant" (udgftha), an
integral part of the OJ!,niy{oma
sacrifice, and discussed throughout the text.
The identification of the udgfthachant with orrzseems to have originated
in the ChU.8 The three syllables of the word udgfthaare identified with
the threefold cosmos, as well as with the threefold Veda.' 1
O!ivelle has observed that "one finds with almost annoying frequency
such ''etymological" connections in these documents, especially in the
"C:hiindogya".10
It is perhaps no coincidence that the ChU is particularly
rich in "false etymologies", or connections between words based on
phonetic similarities:
Ai'1girasworshipped the High Chant as breath. Peopk think of Angiras as
that (breath), bt'eausc it is the essence (rasa)of tht' limbs (miga).Brhaspati
worshipped the High Chant as breath. People think of Brhaspati as that
(breath), becaust' speech is great (brhas),and it is the lord (pati) of speech.
Ayasya worshipped the High Chant as breath. People think of Ayasya as
11
that (breath), because it comes out (~yate)of the mouth (11sya).
One should worship the High Chant (udgitha)as the warmth-giving sun
up in tht' sky. Rising (udyan) it sings the High Chant (udgiiyatz)for the
living beings. 1"
The breath in here and the sun up there are the same. This is warm, and
that is warm. They call this sound (svara),and they call that "shining"
(smra) and "reflected shining" (pra(viisvara).
1
;
One should worship tht' syllables of the word udgztha:Cd, _1;1,and tho. Tht'
syllable ud is called words (gfr). The syllable tlza is food, for the word is
based (sthita)on food. 1+
CM.' L'i.l.
8
See van Buitenen 1959: 180.
" ChU l.'.U.
Olivelle 1998a: 2.'i.
11
Oz[' 1.2.10-12.
12
ChC 1.3.1.
1.1 ChU 1.3.2.
II Chli 1.3.6.
 ►
104 CHAPTER FOUR
They covered (rhad)it with the meters. Because the gods covered ,vith them,
1
this gave name to and reveals the nature of the meters (chandas).'
One should worship the sevenfold Saman as the sun up there. The sun is
Siiman because it is always the same (sama).1"
'\'hen it is past noon but before the afternoon, the sun is the response
chant (pratihara),and embryos are connected with it. Therefore, embryos
are held up (pratihrta),and do not fall out, for they partake in the response
of the Saman.17
,vhen it is past afternoon but before sunset, the sun is the finale chant
(upadram),and wild animals are connected with it. For when they see a
person, wild animals run away (upadravanti)into the bushes and hide, for
they partake in the finale of the Siiman.18
,vhen it has set, the sun is the conclusion (nidhana),and the ancestors arc
connected to it. Therefore, people lay their ancestors to rest (nidadhati),
for they partake in the conclusion of the Siiman.111
Everything that there is, this entire universe, all that is the GayatrI mete_r.
And GayatrI is speech, for speech sings (gqvati) and protects (trqyati)this
entire univcrse. 20
Because it purifies the whole world when it moves (_yan),it is the sacrifice
(yajna).21
This is how breath (ana)is the same as food (anna).22
You are power (ama),for the whole world is by your side (ama).'i
If he venerates brahmanas water (iip), a man ½ill obtain (apnoti)all his
desires and become completely satisfied. 21
The connections between words that sound similar are made through-
out this Upani~ad, and these connections are highly relevant to the
worldview of this Samavedic text. The world of the ChU is a universe
of sound and chants, and in this context, phonetic similarities are
regarded as deeply significant.
IC, ChL' 1.4.2.
'" ChU2.9.l.
17
ChU 2.9.6.
Ill ChU 2.9.7.
l'I ChU 2.9.8.
'"ChU3.12.l.
21
ClzU 4.16.1.
22
ChU 5.2.1.
'' ClzU 5.2.6.
'' ChU 7.10.2.
105
In ChU 2.2, the universe itself is compared to the Saman chant and
its five parts:
One should venerate the fivefold Siiman in the worlds. The earth is the
syllable hirr!.The introductory chant is the fire. The udgzthachant is the
intermediate space. The response chant is the sun. The final chant is
the sky.
Then, the other way around: The syllable hirrzis the sky. The introductory
chant is the sky. The udpfthachant is the intermediate space. The response
chant is fire. The final chant is the sky.
He who knows this and venerates the fivefold Siiman in the worlds, both
in ascending and descending order, is favored by the worlds.
One should venerate the fivefold Siiman in the rain. When the wind
blows, that is the syllable hirrl. When clouds form, that is the introductory
chant. Whrn it rains, that is the udgzthachant. When lightning strikes
and thunder roars, that is the response chant. "'hen the rain stops, that
is the final chant. r,
Thus, in the ChU, the authority of the Samavedictradition is underscored
by the cosmic nature of the Saman chant.
The U dgrtha in the Ch U
The udgithachant in particular assumes cosmic significance in the ChU
The chanting of the udgitha is of central importance in the agniJtoma
ritual, and echoes of this ritual can be found throughout the Upani~ad.
Since the chanting of the udgitha during the agniJ(omais the exclusive
domain of the priests of the Samaveda,elevating both the Soma sacri-
fice and the ud,__ef,tha
chant to cosmic status, it also serves to underscore
the importance and authority of the Samavedaand its accompanying
traditions.
There are frequent references to Soma in the ChU 2" Indeed, the life
of a human being is compared to a Soma sacrifice. 27
Man is a sacrifice. His first twenty-four years are the morning pressing
of Soma. The GayatrI meter has twenty-four syllables, and therefore the
morning pressing of Soma is accompanied by the GayatrI. The Vasus are
connected with this. The Vasus are the breaths, for they place (viisayanti)
this word. If someone falls ill during this time of his life, he should say:
'' ChU 2.2.1-2.3.1.
'" ClzC 2.22.1; 2. 24. I; 5.4.2; 5.5.2; 5. I 0.4; 5.12.1.
27
Chll 3.16.1-6.
106 CHAPTER FOUR
'·O breaths! 0 Vasus! l\Iay my morning offering continue until the midday
offering. l\Iay I, who am the sacrifice, not die among the breaths and
among the Vasus." He will then recover and become well again.
His next twenty-four years are the midday pressing of Soma. The Tri~tubh
meter has twenty-four syllablt>s, and therefort' the midday pressing of
Soma is accompanied by Tri~\ubh. The Rudras are connected with this.
The Rudras are the breaths, for they makt' tht' world Wt't'p (roda;wzti).If
someone falls ill during this time of his life, he should say: ''() breaths!
0 Ru<lras! May my midday offering continue until the third offering.
May I, who am the sacrifice, not die among the breaths and among the
Rudras." He will then recover and become well again.
And his next forty-eight years are the third pressing of Soma. The Jagan
mt'ter has forty-eight syllables, and therefore the thii·d pressing of Soma is
accompanied by JagatL The Adityas are connected with this. The A.dityas
are the breaths, for they take back (adadate)this world. If someone falls ill
during this time of his life, he should say: "O breaths! 0 Adityas! May
my third offering continue until the end of my natural life. May I, who
am the sacrifict', not die among the breaths and among the Adityas." He
will then rt'cover and become well again.
The course of a human life is here intimately linked with the course
of the agniytomaritual. The text continues a few passages later: "The
bath after the sacrifice is his death." 28
The resonances of the agni!/fomaritual in this text serve to disprove
Deussen's view that the Upani~ads are "radically opposed to the Vedic
sacrificial cult". 29 Rather, the Upani~ads represent, I will argue, the
reinterpretation of the Vedic sacrificial cult within a metaphysical
framework.
Mantras and Animal Soundr
There is frequent mention of words with no known semantic mean-
ing in the ChU The most well known of these is orrz,but others such
as him and hurn (in the ChU particularly connected with animalsl, or
the more unknown jalan 30 are also mentioned. In addition, the ChU
contains a surprisingly large number of references to animals and the
sounds they make:
2
" C/zU3.17.5.
"' Deussen l 90ti (1966): 396.
lll ChU 3.14.1.
,Oat,
107
I choose the roaring way of singing the Stiman, the singing that is like
the roar of an animal. .. ii
In one passage of the ChU, we hear about the ud,_eftha
of the dogs:
And now tht' udgfthaof the dogs: One day Baka Dalbya, or alternatively,
Glava Maitreya, went to perform his Vedic recitation, and a white dog
appeared in front of him. Othn clogs gathered around the white one,
and they said to him: "Please, Sir, sing and get us some food. \\'c are
very hungry." And he said to them: "Come back in the morning and
meet me right here." Baka Dalbhya, or alternatively, Glava Maitreya,
kept watch. The dogs then came in, sliding furtiwly in just like priests
slide furtively in, and they held each other's backs and chanted the hvmn
called Bahi~pa\·amana. They all sat down together and made the sc;und
hum. They chanted: "Orrz,let's eat. Oni, let's drink. Oni, may the gods
Varu1_1a,Prajapati and Savitr bring food here. Lord of food, bring food
here. Bring it, bring it, orµ." 3~
At first sight, this may seem to be a satirical passage, poking fun at
Hindu priests. Koskikallio, in his study of Baka Dalbhya in \'edic texts,
interprets this Upani~adic passage as satire_i:i But seen in conjunction
with the many passages in the ChU connecting ritual chants and ani-
mal sounds, there appears to be more to this passage than mere satire.
Animals are frequent bearers of ½isdom in the C/zU:
So he initiated the boy and chose four hundred thin and weak cows and
said: "My dear, watch these!" \\'hen he drove them away, Satyakama said:
"I will not return w-ithout a thousand!". He lived elsewhere for some years,
and when the cows had become a thousand, the following happened:
The bull called to him: "Satyakama!" He said: "Yes sir?" The bull said:
"l\Iy dear, we have become a thousand. Take us back to the teacher's
house, and I \,·ill tell you about one quarter of brahman.,.
"Please tell me, Sir!"
The bull told him: "One-sixteenth part of it is the cast, one-sixteenth is
the west, one-sixteenth is the south, and one-sixteenth is the north ... ":H
Satyakama is instructed further by the fire, a goose, and a water bird. 35
Three of his four teachers are animals, and apparently fully capable
of transmitting the truth about brahman.
" Chl" '.?.22.1.
U1C 1.12.1-5.
'' Koskikallio 19~)5.
" ChU 4.4.5-4.5.2.
ic, ChC4. 6-8.
 .,
108 CHAPTER FOUR
The composers of the ChU seem intrigued by animal sounds. Animal
utterances appear to have some significance, and yet lack semantic
meaning, which makes animal sounds similar to mantras.One may not
be prepared to go as far as Frits Staal in concluding that mantrasmay
have their origins in animal noises, 36 but the ChU certainly does seem
to imply that animals are capable of producing mantras.
In interpreting animal noises as mantras, the authors of the ChU
also imply that religious authority does not lie exclusively within the
domain of the textual tradition. The description of the singing dogs
of the ChU suggests that wisdom may be found in unexpected places,
and that animals may naturally possess the knowledge that humans are
striving for. By locating knowledge and wisdom in animals, the ChU
shifts focus away from the textual tradition. But we should note that
understanding animal speech is, even in the ChU, the prerogative of
certain enlightened individuals, such as Satyakama, and not a form of
knowledge accessible to all.
In the law book of Apastamba, a later text also affiliated with the
Samaveda,we find a similar reverent attitude toward animals and animal
noises expressed in a curious passage stating that one must interrupt
one's Veda studies when one hears certain sounds, such as the chanting
of Samans, the sound of musical instruments, or dogs barking, donkeys
braying, wolves or jackals howling, or owls hooting. 37 This rule seems
to imply an equivalence between Saman chants and animal noises.
Speechand Knowledge
Although the ChU, more than any other Upani~adic text, dwells on
the mystical efficacy of spoken language, the authors of this Upani~ad
insist that language can only be truly effective when the speaker has
the correct knowledge:
Those who know this and those who do not both perform these rituals
while they use this syllable. But knowledge and ignorance are different.
Only what is done with knowledge, faith, and an awareness of the upanisad
becomes truly effective. 38
% Staal 1985a.
n Apastamba 1.3.10.19. See Wintt'mitz 1907 (1981): 157.
lH ChU I.I.IO.
THE CJL!\DOGD! /'Rt \1SAD 109
The ChU, like the BrhadiirmyakaUpanisad,also contains threats of shat-
tered heads when one's knowledge is insufficient:
Then Silaka Salavatya said to Caikitayana Dalbhya: "It is evident,
Dalbhya, that your Sa.manis without support. If someone were to say:
'Your head will shatter apart!', then your head would shatter apart."
"Very well, sir, let me learn it from you."
"You do that," he answered.
"\Vhcre does that world lead to?"
"This world," he answered.
"\\'here does this world lead to?"
"One should not go beyond the world that is the support," he answered.
"We bring Sa.manto rest in the world that is the support, for this support
is the place where Sa.manis sung."
But then Pravaha1_1ajaivali saidt "It is evident, Salavatya, that your Sa.man
is limited. If someone were to say: 'Your head would shatter apart!', then
your head would shatter apart."
"Very well, sir, let me learn it from you."
"You do that," he answered.' 9
A few chapters later, a similar incident is related:
He arrived at the sacrifice after it had started. He sat next to the u~gii.tr
priests as they were getting ready to sing the song of praise in the des-
ignated area. He said to the prastotrpriest: "Oh, prastotr!ff you sing the
introductory praise without knowing the deity connected to it, your head
will shatter apart! He also said to the u~gii.tr
priest: "Oh, udgii.tr!
If you sing
the high chant without knowing the deity connected to it, your head will
shatter apart!" And he also said to the pratihartrpriest: "Oh, pratihartr!If
you sing the response song without knowing the deity that is connected
to it, your head will shatter apart!" So they all stopped singing and sat
down silcntly. 10
The idea that the sacred chant is ineffective without the proper knowl-
edge serves two very important functions in the ChU: First, this idea
protects the ritual and intellectual domain of the Siimavedicpriests by
implying that even if someone else could learn the mystical chant, it
would not be effective in the wrong hands. Second, the idea that ritual
chant must be accompanied by knowledge facilitates the transition from
the ritual worldview of the Vedas to the emerging philosophy of the
Upani~ads.
l'I ChC 1.8.6-8.
+o ChU I.I 0. 7--I I.
r •
110 CHAPTER FOUR
''E\·sence"and the Cosmir Soma Sacrifice
\Ve find a large number of references to "essence" or "sap" (rasa)m
the ChU:
The essence (rasa)of the li\ing beings is the earth. The essence of the
earth is the waters. The essence of the waters is plants. The essence of
the plants is man. The essence of man is speech. The essence of speech
is the Rg verse. The essence of the f!_gverse is the Siiman. The essence
of the Siiman is the udgftha.The udgfthais the essence of all essences; it is
the highest, the final, the eighth.+ 1
Prajapati incubated the worlds. And when they were being incubated,
he extracted their essences (ra.w): Fire from the earth, wind from the
intermediate region, and the sun from the sky.+"
The atman itself is understood as the essence (rasa)of the person. In
a famous passage, Uddalaka Arm,1i teaches his son about the atman as
essence:
"Put this salt in a pot of water and come back tomorrow." Sn'taketu
did so. His father said: "Bring that salt you put in the water last night
over here!" He reached for it, but he could not find it, because it was
completely dissolved.
"Now sip from this corner. How is it?"
"Salty."
"Sip from the center. How is it?"
"Salty."
"Sip from that corner. How is it?"
"Salty."
"Throw it out and come back again later." He did so, but the salt was
always right there. His father said to him: "You did not see it there, my
dear; an yet it was always there. The finest essence here, that is the iitrnan
of the whole world. That is the truth. That is the iitrnan.And so you are,
Svetaketu." 13
The prevalence of this image of essence in the ChU is quite significant.
In an earlier Brahma1,1a of the Samaz·eda,the Jaiminfva Upan~adBraluna7Ja
(I. 1), the creation of the universe itself is compared to squeezing out
the sap. The creator squeezes and squeezes, until the final essence or
sap (rasa)emerges: the akJaraOf!l.
" ChC I.I.2-3.
+a ChU4.17.I.
H CH/6.13.1-3.
THE C1lA.\1Jor;n1 f'R{\l.\'.1/)
111
This idea of esse_ncein the Chlf is part of the text's underlying meta-
phor: Both the um\·erse and human beings can be compared to the
Soma sacrifice. S~ueezing out sap or essence is the most significant part
of the a,gnzJtomantual that pervades Samavedic thought, and it is little
wonder that the idea of essence or sap is reflected throughout the text.
In the Jmmmfya Brahmaiw l 11aniJad,sap is squeezed out of the cosmic
word and becomes the universe, and the essence of the universe is the
gods, a,~d the esse~ce ~f the gods is the threefold Veda. 14 Similarly, in
the Chu, the Upam~ad1c quest for the iitmanis also understood in terms
of essence and sap: In the world view of the Chl!, the universe is still
to be understood metaphorically as a cosmic Soma sacrifice, and the
ultimate, inner essence, the sacred juice, is the atman itself
The metaphor of essence or sap is also applied to the mantra Df!l:
Prajapati hatched these worlds, and when thev had been hatch d th
l \' , e , e
t 1ree "edas came forth from them. He hatched the three Vedas, and
when they had been hatched, the syllables bhiir,bhumb, smr came from
them. He hatchc~ these syllables, and when they had been hatched, the
S):llable 01?1came forth from them. Just like all leaves arc penetrated by a
pm, so all words are penetrated by om. The whole world is Ol?l.;s
Again, the central C/zU metaphor of sap is invoked here: The essence
of all the Vedas, and of all the worlds, is Of!l itself Additionally, the
metaphor of hatching is introduced.
In an intriguing passage, the Clzl! suggests that this essential mantra
Of!lis a new locus of textual authority, replacing the entire older textual
tradition.
The Chlr relates how ewn the gods themselves abandon the three
Vedas:
The gods were afraid of death, and took refuge in the three Vedas. The
c~vered themselves (chad) with meters. Because they covered themselve~
with these, the meters are called chandas.
Death saw them there in the f!_g,in the Siirnan,and in the ra;·us ·ust
· h • • , 1 as
one nug t see a fish m the water. When they found this out th~v re .
f h ' , >se
:mt o t c f!_g,out of the Saman, and out of the lajus, and took refuge
111 sound.+b
" Jaimin[ya Briihmana l 'panisad 1.23.'.lf[
+c,Chl' 2.23.2.
11
' ChU l.·t.2-3.
d
112 CHAPTER FOUR
The C'lz{Jthen goes on to describe the sacred sound om, which becomes
the ultimate refugt> of the gods.
Brahman in the Ch U
Throughout the ChU, brahmanis identified with iikiisa,or space. Brahman
is the space outside and inside a personY Brahman is both the mind
of a person, and space (iikiisa)on a cosmic level. 48 Brahman is identified
with space (kha) in ChU 4.10.4, and again in 8.14, where iikiisa, space,
is said to be that which produces name and form. Space (iikiisa)is,
not surprisingly, a central concept in the Samavedic tradition, since
it is space that makes the all-important sound possible. Space is the
medium in which sound can exist, which explains its significance in
this Upani~ad of sounds.
Related to the idea of bralzmanas the space in which things exist,
is the metaphor of the ''city of bralzman" (bralzmapura),found in the
eighth chapter of the ChU The city of brahmancontains within itsdf
the whole ,vorld and all living beings. 49 The city metaphor is used to
express the idea that everything is contained within brahman.Brahmanis
also elsewhere in the ChC identified with the whole world: sarvarr1 kfzalu
idwn brafzma("all this is indeed bralzman").'0
In the fable alluded to earlier,',1 four animals each tell the young
wisdom seeker Satyakama a quarter each of the truth about brahman:
A bull describes the four cardinal directions as one quarter of brahman.
The fire tells him that one quarter of brahman consists of the earth,
atmosphere, sky, and ocean. A goose tells him that one quarter of bra/z-
man consists of firt', the sun, the moon, and lightning. A water bird tells
him that a quarter of brahman consists of breath, sight, ht'aring and
mind. The point of the story is clearly the identification of brahman
with the universe as a whole.
Mystical speculations about the four quarters of brahman are also
found at ChU 3.18. 2 6. Again, brahmanis regarded as the whole, and
various parts of the universe are his constituents.
"ChU3.12.7-9.
"" ClzU3.18.I.
l'J ChU 8.1.4.
,,,, ChU 3.14. l.
'' ChU 4.5-8.
THE C1L4..\D()(;1;4cnt \1.\'.W 113
~~c "w~rld of brahman"(brahmaloka)is described in 8.3-5. The juxta-
pos1t10n of the two terms bralzmapura("city of brahman")and bralzmaloka
("world of brahman") is interesting. "The city of brahman" is used to
describe the world in which we all live, whereas "the world of brahman"
is evidently a higher plane of existence that one needs to strive to reach.
Although both brafzmapuraand bralzmalokaare ultimatdy forms of bralz-
man, we should note that brahmapura,with its associations to a walled
contained city, presents a striking contrast to the more unboundt'd
bralzmaloka.The world of bmlzmanis reached when one has cast off one's
2
body.-' One who has obtained the world of brahmandoes not rt'turn
again (na ca punar iivartate)_:i:,
Similarly, a person who is established in
brahmanreaches immortality (braltmasaf{lstlzo 'mrtatvameti).5~
It is evid~nt from passages such as these that there are two aspects
to bralzmanm the ChU. Brahman is the universe in its totality, contain-
ing everything within itself, but brahmanis also described as something
beyond our world, something that we must strive to obtain. Thus,
Brahmalokais in many ways related to the idea of rno¼a,or liberation.
As i~dica~t'd in the Upani~ads, that ,vhich will ultimately lead beyond
th,e city of brahmanto the more expansive world of bralzrnan is knowledge
of the true nature of iitman and brahman.
Atman in tlzeCh U
The discovery of iitman is the most central philosophical theme in the
ClzU. "The iitman that is fret' from (Til, free from old age and death,
free from sorrow, fret' from hunger and thirst-that is the iitrnanyou
should try to perceive_,,-,.,
Atman is described as the inner essence of a person/ 6 located in
57
the heart. This essence that is iitman is expressly identified with the
8
cosmic brahman.:' The relationship between the two terms in the ChU
is a complex one, but in sum, we may say that ritmanis the unknown
12
UzU8.l3.
,,., ChU 8. L'i.
'" ChU 2.23.1.
ChU 8.7.1.
"· ChU 6.8.7.
ChU '.-l.l 4.2-4; 8.3.3.
'" ChU 8.3.4.
 +
CHAPTER FOUR
114
which a person must discover~ and once the iitman is discovered inside
one's own heart, that person reaches the "world of brahman".
The search for the iitman is encapsulated in the myth recounted in
ChU 8. 7-12 where the gods and the asuras are attempting to discover
the true nature of the atman. The gods are represented by Indra, and
the asuras by Virocana. Indra and Virocana approach the creator god
Prajapati and become his students in order to learn ~bout iitma~.
Prajapati first teaches them that iitmanis the body. Atman does mdeed
often mean "body" in the Upani~ads, and the term is often used in this
sense throughout the ChU as well. 1 Virocana is happy wit~ the explana-
0
''
tion, but Indra suspects that there is more to iitman than JUSt the body,
and he returns to Prajapati to learn more. He is then taught that the
iitman is identical with the dream consciousness. However, Indra is still
not content, and Prajapati then teaches him that the iitmanis the subject
of dreamless sleep. But Indra is still not satisfied with the explanation
given, and in the end Prajapati reveals that iitman is consciousness. .
This myth foreshadows the doctrine of the four parts of the iitman m
the Miindiikya UpaniJad3- 7. Whereas Virocana is satisfied with knowing
only one quarter of iitman, Indra insists on knowing the \,vholc truth.
Indra therefore becomes a model wisdom seeker in this text, whose
efforts make him capable of understanding the true nature of the
elusive iitman.
Indra in the ChU
In the myth recounted above, the god Indra is portrayed as an
Upani~adic wisdom seeker. Indra has a similar function in other older
Upani~ads, such as the KausztakiUpaniJad(3.1-2) and the Kena Upanisad.
Whereas the Indra we encounter in the Kau{ztakiUpaniJadseems to be
a fully enlightened teacher, the Indra of the ChU is still grasping for
the truth. Indra is an ideal figure, not because he initially possesses full
knowledge of reality, but because of his untiring quest to understand
the nature of the Self.
We may ask why the brawny god of thunder and war, the great
dragon-slayer of the Vedas, is cast in the role of a great wisdom seeker
59 Chl' 1.2.14; 1.7.1; 3.18.1; 4.3.3; 8.8.1; 8.8.4.
THE C1IA.\DOGlA CRL\75:W 115
in the Upani~ads. In addition to his roles as war-god and thunder-god,
Indra is associated with wisdom and insight already in the JJ.gveda:
dyumiim asi krat11mii111.
indra dhzra/1
Splendid arc you Indra, intelligent and insightful. (f!gueda I. 62. 12)
The physical strength and intellectual power associated with Indra
blend in the intriguing metaphor in IJ.gveda6. 4 7.10:
irzdramiirla mlil!J'ajzl'atum idza
codayadhfyam dj'arnna dharii.m
Be generous, Indra, and lengthen my days.
Sharpen my thought like a blade of iron.
Here, the sharp iron blade naturally associated with the god of war
becomes a metaphor for mental acuity as well.
Indra's well-known epithet satakratu("he of a hundred kratu"), used
from the IJ.goeda onwards, may also have inspired the portrayal of Indra
as a wisdom seeker in the Upani~ads. The term kratu has the double
meaning of "sacrificial rite" and "intelligence". Although Indra is later
associated ,vith a hundred sacrifices, the alternati\'e meaning of kratu
may also resonate in the Upani~adic depictions of the wise Indra.
Finally, the positive attitude exhibited toward Indra, the .Rgvedic god
par excellencemay also indicate the ClzU's generally positive ,iew of the
/J.gN'da.As we shall see, Indra is often portrayed as a fully enlightened
wisdom teacher in the Upani~ads of the IJ,gveda.
The Wisdom Teachersef the Ch U
Like the BrhadiirarJyakaUpaniJad,the Clziindogyadescribes a number of
wisdom teachers and their doctrines. Some of these teachers are also
known from other texts.
In ClzU 1.8, three wisdom teachers are portrayed, Silaka Salavatya,
Caikitayana Dalbhya, and Pravahal).a Jaivali. All these three men
believe that they have mastered the udgztha,in other words: they regard
themselves as proficient priests of the Siimal!fda.Caikitayana Dalbhya
believes that the ultimate foundation of the Siiman is the heavenly
world. Silaka Salavatya finds his colleague's explanation insufficient,
and indicates that his head might shatter if he does not learn what
the real foundation is. Silaka Salavatya himself believes that it is this
world that is the ultimate foundation, since it is in this world that the
 +
116 CHAPTER FOUR
Sa.manis sung. The third man, Pravahar:iaJaivali, however, suggests that
Silaka Salavatya's own head is in danger of exploding, since he does
not know the ultimate foundation of the Sa.maneither: It is Pravahai,1.a
Jaivali who then identifies the ultimate foundation of the cosmos and
of the Sa.manchant: iikii..fo("space").
Pravaha1,1.ajaivali is here first and foremost presented as a man who
has mastered the udgithachant, Later in this text (ChU 5.3), as well as
60
in the Brhadii.rarJyaka Upani~ad, Pravahar:iaJaivali is described as a king.
His social status is irrelevant in this passage, however; the emphasis is
on his knowledge of iikiifa ("space'').
Not surprisingly, space, the medium through which sound travels,
takes on a cosmic significance throughout this Upani~ad. \Ve should
note the parallels between this scene and the contest scene at king
Janaka 's court in the BrhadiiraryakaUpani,rnd:Those who claim to know
the ultimate foundation, but do not, are in danger of having their heads
shattered. However, the ultimate foundation is described quite differently
in the Upani~ads of the Yajurvedaand the Siimaz,eda:The foundation is
brahman,but whereas the brahmanof the YajurvedaUpani~ads is an incf~
fable power, the braltmanof this SiimavedaUpani~ad is identified with
iikii.fa,which makes all sound possible.
Sanatkumiira
The philosophy of Sanatkumara is described in some detail in a long
dialogue between this teacher and his student Narada in the seventh
chapter of the ChU. Sanatkumara is not known from any other Vedic
sources. According to Sanatkumara, it is happiness (sukha) that is the
basis of the human quest for the transcendent reality: From happiness
comes actions, from actions creation, from creation faith, from faith
thought, from thought knowledge, and from knmvledge the truth about
the ultimate reality; brahman.
Happiness (sukha)is, however, more than simple hedonistic pleasure
in the teachings of Sanatkumara. Happiness is identified with bhuman,
"fullness". Sanatkumara emphasizes that bhuman should not be under-
stood as mere worldly wealth, like cows, horses, elephants, gold, slaves,
wives, farms, or houses. Rather, "fullness' is a mode of perception;
611
BU 6.'2.1 8.
THE (Jl{\l)()(i/.1 Cl'{ \l.\:-ID 117
"fullness" is seeing that iitman is the entire world.'; 1 If a person secs
2
himself or hersf'lf as distinct from the world, this is "powrty" (alpal,li
according to Sanatkumara. Here, the physical universe is regarded as
a manifestation of the inner iitman of human beings.
UddiilakaAruni
In contrast to Sanatkumara's tt:achings, thf' teachings of Uddalaka
Arm,1.i,as presented in the Ozl/, arc much closer to later Indian specu-
lations about the illusory character of the physical universe.
Uddalaka Arur:ii's instruction of his son Swtaketu is one of the most
well known stories of the Upani~ads:
Svetaketu was the son of Aru1_1i.One day his father said to him: "Sveta-
ketu, you should become a studt'nt and practice chastity. For there is
nobody in our family, my dear, who is not learned and is a Brahman in
name only."
Then he set off and became a stucknt when he was twelve years old. He
memorized all the Vedas and returned at the age of twenty-four, swollen-
headed and arrogant, and tho~ght himself very learned.
Then his father said to him: "Svetaketu, my dear, here you are, swollen-
headed and arrogant, and thinking yourself very learned. Have you
inquired about the rule of substitution, through which you can hear what
has not been heard, think what has not been thought, and perceive what
has not been percei\·ed?'"
"How docs that rule of substitution work?"
"In this way, my clear: By means of a single lump of day you can perceive
all things made of clay. For its pt'rmutations arc only a dt'signation and
a name, but reality is this: It is clay.
In this way, my dear: By mt'ans of a single ornament of copper you
can perceive all things made of copper. For its permutations arc only a
designation and a name, but reality is this: It is copper.
In this way, my dear: By means of a single pair of scissors you can perceive
all things made of iron. ror its permutations are only a designation and
a name, but reality is this: It is iron.
This, my son, is the rule of substitution."
"But my famous teacht>rs must not ha,·e known this! For if they had known
this, how could they not have told me? Can you tell me about it?"
"I can, my dear," he said.
r...l
11
• ChU 7.'24.1.
bC ChU 7.24.1.
 +
118 CHAPTER FOUR
·'Put this lump of salt in a bowl of water, and come back tomorrow.''
The son did as he was asked. The father said to him: "That lump ol salt
you put in the water last night, go get it please."
He reached for it, but he did not find it, since it was completely dis-
solved.
"Have a sip from this corner," said his father. "How does it taste?'"
"Saltv."
"Ha;e a sip from the middle. How does it taste?"
"Salty."
"Have a sip from this corner. How docs it taste?"'
"Salty."
"Then spit it out, and come back later."
He did as he was asked, and he discowred that the salt was always there.
His father said to him:
"You did not see it there, my dear, but it was always there. The most
subtle essence, that which is brahrnan,,that is the truth, and that is this
Self (iitrnan).For this is how you are, Svetaketu!"
(ChU6. 1.1-7 and 6.13.1-3).
Uddalaka Anu:ii teaches a form of monism; all reality is one, identical
to the inner iitman. In his assertion that all modifications of substances
are merely designations and names, it is possible to see a germ of what
becomes the later Vedantic doctrine of mayii (illusion): only the Self
is real, and the manifold is illusory. But above all, Uddalaka Arm:ii's
teachings relate to the overall theme of the ChU: The quest for the
essence of all things.
The story of Uddalaka Arm:ii and S:etaketu has been brilliantly ana-
lyzed by Olivelle, 63 who compares the Svetaketu stories in Brhadiira1J,yaka
UpaniJad6.2.1 -8, C'lzU5.3ff, and KausftakiUpani:;ad1. The same passages
are also the subject of a study by Si:ihnenY 4
Uddalaka Aruni's conviction that the world has arisen from sat
("being") rather tl~an from asat ("non-being") follows logically from his
postulate that the iitman, which is defined as pure being, is the source
of the external reality. However, the relationship between sat ("being")
and asat ("non-being"l is a fairly complicated one the Ch[!, and requires
some elaboration.
'" Olivelle 1999.
IA Sohnen 1981.
THE C:I-H\DOG lA I Rt \1S'.4D 119
Sat and Asat in the Ch U
The C'/1U introduces two contradictory notions regarding the roles of
being and non-being in the creation of the universe. In ChU 3, the idea
that the universe has arisen from non-being is introduced:
In the beginning. this world was merely non-being (asaf). Being was that.
Then it developed and became an egg. It lay there for a year, and then
it hatched ... 65
Later on in the text, however, Uddalaka Arm:ii himself contests this
idea, and insists that the universe must have arisen from being, rather
than from non-being:
In the beginning, my dear, this world was merely being (sat), one onlv,
without a second. J\;ow, some people say: "In the beginning, this world
was merely non-being (asat), one only, without a second, and being arose
from that non-being." But, my dear, how could this be? How could being
arise from non-being? On the contrary, my dear, in the beginning this
world was merely being, one only, without a second_,;,;
One of the reasons that the doctrine of primordial non-existence
is finally rejected in the ChU may be the close connection between
this doctrine and the tradition of the lajurveda.The ,5atapathabriihmana
I
declares: asad va idam agreasft ("in the beginning this was merely non- I
being ... ". G7 Since this statement is embodied, not only in a text of the
Yqjurveda,but at the very beginning of the elaborate description of the
agnicayanaritual so closely connected to the Yo.jurveda,it is perhaps not
surprising that this idea of primordial non-existence is first brought up
and then later challenged in rival texts of the Siimavedatradition.
The Number Five in the ChU
As in the Brhadiira1J,yaka
UjianiJad,the number five is highly significant
in the Chll Knipe has demonstrated the significance of the number
68
five in many of the early Upani~ads.
"' cnu3.19.1.
bb Ch[' 6.2.1 -2.
"7 !)736.1.1.1.
"" Knipl" 1972.
120 CHAPTER FOUR
T THE C1L{\D0Gl:4 CJ',1.\/S"ID
The Saman chant has five parts, there arc five s, · ve bh
, b reat hmfi ra 111a-
70
puruJai (servants of brahman), five questions that Pravahar:iaJaivali asks
the less-than-knowledgeable Svetaketu.' 1 and, most significantly, in this
text there are five sacrificial fires that make up the universe itself.
The five sacrificial fires into which the gods offer are the loka("world")
fire in which they offor "faith" to produce Soma, the Paijar~vafire in
which they offi·r Soma to produce rain, the prthivz("earth") fire in which
thev offer rain to produce food, the /mruya ("man") fire in which they
ofl;r food in order to produce semen, and the yo}·ii ("woman") fire in
which they offer semen to produce an embryo. 72 On one level, these
five "fires" are simply a uni\·ersal chain of causality: Because it rains
from heaven, food grows on earth, and man has to eat food to maintain
his virility and produce semen, and semen is necessary to make new
babies. Describing this causal chain as a series of fires underscores the
central idea of th~ ChU that the universe itself is like a giant sacrifice,
and that the sacrifice mirrors the functioning of the universe.
The number five is encountered elsewhere in the Upani~ads as a
significant number as well, 7 i but in no other Upani~adic_ text is this
number invoked as frequently as in the C'lzl!.One of the ob\1ous reasons
why the number five assumes such significance in the ChU is that the
Saman chanted during the agn(l'lomasacrifice consists of five parts. Since
the authors of the ChU attempt to demonstrate the universal nature
of the chant, it is not surprising that they divide many aspEcts of the
uniwrse into five to correspond to the fivefold chant.
The Doctrinec!f Reincarnationin the C:hU
Theft' are fiw questions that lem·e Svctaketu stumped in thE ChU. Some
of these questions relate to the idea of reincarnation, with which the
young student is dearly unfamiliar:
Svetaketu, the son of Aru1_1i,came to the assembly of the Pa11calas.
Pravaha1_1aJaivali asked him: "Dear boy (kumara),did your father teach
you?"
"'' Chl:3.13.
"' ChU 3,13.
71
Chl! 5.3.
72
OzU 5.+-9.
BC 1.4.17, n· 1.7.
J_
121
"Yes, he did, sir!"
"Do you know where people go from here when they die?"
''No, sir."
"Do you know how they come back again?"
"No, sir."
"Do you know how the two paths diverge, the path of the gods and the
path of the fathers?"
"No, sir."
"Do you know why the world up there is not filled up?"
"l\lo, sir.~,
"Do you know why, during the fifth offering, the water assumes a human
voice?"
"No, I really don't, sir.'' 7"
As it turns out, the boy's father, Uddalaka Arur:ii, who is a !Earned
man and portrayed in a positiw light in the ChC, has never heard of
these teachings either. Father and son come back together to learn
more. King Pravahar:ia Jaivali finally agrees to share the knowledge
with thEm, but adds: "As you said, descendant of Gautama, before you
this knowledge never reached the Brahmans." 7 ' This last statement has
sometimes been taken to support the theory that the ideas of karma and
reincarnation originated in K~atriya circles. The older version of this
passage in the ]aiminfya UpaniyadBrahmm:zadoes not, however, ascribe
this doctrine to K~atriyas. 7''
The reincarnation process and the two paths are described to Sveta-
ketu and U ddalaka Arur:ii in the following way:
Those who know this and the people in the wilderness who worship in
this manner: "Asceticism is faith", they go into the flame, and from the
flame to the day, from the day to the fortnight of the waxing moon, from
the fortnight of the waxing moon into the six months when the sun goes
north, and from these months to the year, from the year to the sun, from
the sun to the moon, and from the moon to lightning. And then someone
non-human leads them to brahman.That is the path of the gods.
But the people in villages here who worship in this manner: "Giving gifts
is to offer to gods and priests", they go into the smoke, from the smoke
to the night, from the night to the fortnight of the waning moon, and
from the fortnight of the waning moon into the six months when the sun
goes south. They do not go to the year, but from these months they go
to the world of the fathers, and from the world of the fathers to space,
74
Chl! 5.3.1-3.
75
C'hl_/5.3.7.
70
Bodewitz 1973: 110-49 and 1996: 5'.?.
..
122 CHAPTER FOUR
and from space to the moon. This is Soma, who is the food of the gods,
and the gods eat it. They stay there as long as there is anything left, and
then they go back the same way: First to space, and from space to the
wind. When the wind is created, it turns into smoke; when the smoke is
created it turns into a thundercloud; when the thundercloud is created, it
turns into a rain cloud; when a rain cloud is created, it rains. Then they
come up on earth as rice and barley, as plants and trees, as sesame and
beans, and it is very difficult to get out of that. ½'hen someone eats that
food and then loses his semen, they come into being again from him. 77
A precursor to the idea of karma is also hinted at in the ChU: "vVhen
someone knows this, bad actions will not cling to him, in the same way
that water does not cling to a lotus leaf." 78
The emerging ideas of karma and reincarnation become linked in
the ChU:
People here who behave pleasantly will enter a pleasant womb, like
that of a Brahman, K~atriya, or Vaisya woman. But those who behave
disgustingly will enter a disgusting womb, like that of a dog, pig, or
CaQ.c;lalawoman. 79
MetricalAna(ysis
The ChU is mainly composed in prose, although we find a few scat-
tered verses throughout the text. These verses may be divided into
three categories:
a) quotes from the Rgveda
b) verses marked with an introductory formula
c) unmarked verses.
Each of these categories will be analyzed in detail below.
a) Quotes from the lj_gveda:3.12.16 (=lj_V 10.90.3), 3.7.17 (=lj_VS.630
and 1.50.10), and 5.2.7 (=lj_V 5.82.1). These verses are always
introduced in the Chandogyatext as re, or lj_gvedaverses. Because of
the ChU's close allegiance to the lj_gveda,it is not surprising to find
these Vedic quotes here.
78
ChU 5.10.1 6.
ChU 4.14.3.
79
C'hU 5.10.7.
f'
THE CHAYDOGJA CRL\f.\'.W 123
b) Stanzas that are introduced in the ChU text with the introductory
formula tad e.yaslokafz("On this (su~ject) there is this sloka"). We have
seen that similar introductory formulas were used in the Brhadara7JYaka
Upani.yad.The stanzas following these introductions in the ChU 80
are not quotes from any known texts (unlike in the BrhadaraT_lyaka
Upani.yad,where a few stanzas that are introduced in a similar way
are from known texts). Hauschild argues that ChU 3.11.2 is "offenbar
ein altes Zitat", since it contains two perfect forms (nimumlocdnand
udryiiya)used in the present sense in one brief sentence. 82 It is true
that perfect forms used in present sense are indications of a very
early date of composition. There is, however, no need to interpret
these perfect forms in this manner, since they can equally well be
understood as ordinary narrative perfect forms.
It is remarkable that not a single one of the "quotations" marked as
slokasin the ChU is from a text that has survived. It is possible that these
stanzas are original to the ChU, and that the formula tad esa sloka~is
merely used to mark the transition from ordinary prose to verse. Since
there are other passages in the ChU that are metrical, yet not preceded
by any such introductory formula, it does not seem likely that the for-
mula is simply used as a textual marker for the verse which follows.
The authors of the ChU are clearly well versed in classical meters,
as demonstrated by the discussions of the mystical significance of the
various Vedic meters in 3.16. The fact that many of the verses in the
ChU, regardless of their actual metrical form, are referred to simply
as slokas("verses"), suggests that they may have their origin in popular
literature. These stanzas may have been part of a popular philosophical
literature of gnomic verses that was in the process of forming, and from
which the Upani~ads have drawn a great deal of their material. Whereas
most of the older Upani~ads have a core that is structurally, metrically
and linguistically unified, which leads us to assume that these texts were
composed by a particular person or group of persons at a specific point
in time, I think it is safe to assume that the authors of these texts must
have had a great deal of popular philosophical material to draw from.
8
° ChU 2.21.3-4; 3.11.2; 5.2.9; 5.10.9; 5.24.4; 7.26.2, and 8.6.6.
81
This reading is uncertain; see discussion in Olivelle 1998a: 543.
"
2
Hauschild 1961: 36.
 "
124 CHAPTER FOUR THE GL4..VDOGYA l.'R1.\JXW 125

Tht' stanzas marked in a similar manner in the Brhadarar;yakaUpani,rnd CJUnmarked stanzas, often found in the middle of a prose passage.rm
probably also originated in this popular literature. The scansion of these stanzas is as follows: ·
The stanza ChU 8.6.6 is also found in Katha UpaniJad6.16. Renou
tristubhA 3
claims that the Katha UpaniJadpassage is "sans doute sa place origi- tri,,tubhB 8
nelle". 83 Rau, 84 Weller,85 and Hauschild 86 have argued against this view, tristubhC 1
claiming that the Katha UpaniJadis obviously quoting from the older tn.stubhwithout caesura I
ClzU Both views are equally unconvincing. This stanza fits awkwardly j1zgat1A I
into both texts. In the ChU it is separated out from the surrounding text jagatf without caesura I
by means of the introduction tad eJasloka~,and in the Katha UpaniJadit pathya I
occurs at the very end of the text, after the statement etavadanusasanam first vipula 3
("Thus far is the teaching"). 87 Its position in the Katha UpaniJad,after third l'ipula 2
fourth vipula I
this summary statement and before the final stanza declaring that
minor Ionic I
Naciketas attained brahman,indicates that it does not fit very well into major Ionic 5
the text, and we can hardly regard Katha Upanisad 6.16 as "sa place cliiambic 4
originelle". Again, I suspect that the stanza probably originated in
9 syllables
popular wisdom literature.
The scansion of the stanzas marked with the introductory formula tad Again, we should nott' the presence of older metrical forms, such as
esasloka~in the ChU suggests a date of composition not too far removed triy(ubhA, jagat1 A, and the Vedic vipulas minor and major Ionic and
in time from that of the surrounding prose text. The distribution of diiambic. Like the stanzas that are marked as slokas in the text, these
meters in these stanzas is as follows: unmarked stanzas must, on metrical grounds, be dated to a period ear-
lier than the metrical sections of the Isa, Katha,Mur;rjaka,or Svetasvatara
tristubhA 2
Upani:,ad.The unmarked verses often occur in direct speech. They are
triJtubhB 3
2 so deeply incorporated into the surrounding prose story that there can
tristubh C
triJtubhwithout caesura 2 be no doubt that they belong to the original text.
9 syllables 2 The nine syllable verse initially appears to be an anomaly. However,
pathya 5 as Hauschild has pointed out, original nine syllable verses do occur in
third vipula 1 Indo-lranian, particularly in the older Avesta, but also in Vedic texts_wi
fourth vipula 1 It is therefore not strictly necessary to assume that a nine-syllable \'CTsc
major Ionic 2 line is corrupt. \Vhen identifying metrical sections within a prose text,
We should particularly note the presence here of the older form of however, typically one would not choose to include padas that are not
triJtubh(A), and the Vedic vipula major Ionic. These are old metrical immediately recognizable as familiar metrical units.
forms, quite consistent with the age of the surrounding prose text. The Among the stanzas mentioned above, ChU 4.3.6 and 4.3. 7 are also
mt'trical varieties found in these stanzas resemble those found in the found in a known te-xt, the- Samvargavid_yasection of the ]aiminfya Upan~ad
90
third category of verses in the ChU, as I discuss below. Brij/1mar;a 3.2. The ClzU adds a short line after 4.3.6, which does not

88
83
Renou I 955 a: I 02. C:h[; 1.4.2; 2.24.4; 3.15.1; 3.15.3; 4.3.6; 4.3. 7, 4.17 .96-!0a, 5.2.6, 5.11.5, and
8
" Rau 1957: 539. 8. I 3.1.
1
8
' Weller 1953: l 97f "' Hauschild 1%1: '.'l.'i.See also Oldenlwrg 1383: 1.55-16'.? and Wintcrnitz 1907:
8
" Hauschild 196 I: 5 7. l06.
8
' KU6.15. "" Sec Li.iders: Philologi.calndica, 361 f[
r .,
126 CHAPTER FOUR THE C:H{\D0G1A /"RL\1.\'.4D 127

occur in the JUE: _J'a.smai va etad annam tasma etan na dattam ("this food
has not, indeed, been given to him to whom it belongs"l. Hauschild
argues that this line should be interpreted as metrical, consisting of
two padas of seven syllables each.' 11 I do not see that it is necessary to
assume an unusual metrical form here rather than a simple prose line.
It makes sense in this context to assume that the ChU has borrowed
these wrses from the older Samavedatext.
Renou obserYes that the verses of the ChU deal mainly with magical
themes and anecdotes, and that they may be considered popular illus-
trations to the text.' 12 He regards some of the stanzas as later additions
to the prose text.qi Hauschild also argues that some of the verses are
later additions. He points out, for example, that 2.21.3 -4 interrupts the
continuity of the surrounding text. 9" However, there is no metrical or
linguistic evidence to support this conclusion.
Some of the unmarked stanzas of the ChU may simply be spontane-
ous poetical rhythms occurring within a prose text composed by poets
used to hearing verse. I see no reason to assume that most of these
stanzas are later additions to an older text. Instead, I would suggest
that what we see in spontaneously metrical passages such as these is a
transition from the prose literature of the Brahmal)as to the metrical
rhythms of the verse Upani~ads. Sanskrit authors have never loved
prose. It is not surprising that even prose texts occasionally gravitate
towards metrical form in a literary tradition as resonant with metrical
rhythms as the Sanskritic one.
LinguisticAnarysis
a Rh,ik priest. .. ").% Double sandhi occurs in sa e.~ako:fovasudhanah("this
chest contains wealth"), which must be read as .saisakoJ'ovasudlziinalz. "7
For the sake of the meter, the piida di.fahy a~ya.sraktaya~("the directions
arc its corners") in the same stanza must be read as diJ'ohi a.rya.sraktaya~.
Final -o does not merge with a follo\\ing vowel in the compoundgoa.foa. 98
The final -o of vocatives are treated as pragrhyain th<" ChU.99
Final -is and -us berom<" -is and -us before the t- of a pronoun or the
partick tu in cak,rn)·tu, 1110agnf, te,101 and madgus{e.102 As we have seen, the
same phenomenon is found in the Brhadara!JyakaUpanisad.This .sandhi
phenomenon is known from older Vedic texts,w 1 and it is an indication
of th<"relative old ag<"of the passages in which it is found.
All of the above non-standard sandhi phenomrna have parallels in
other late Vedic and Upani~adic texts. As we shall see, these instances of
pr<"-classical sandhi gradually begin to disappear in later Upani~ads.
Some scholars have remarked on the colloquial character of the
language of the ChU Hoffinann calls the sixth chapter of the ChU
"ein Stuck spatv<"discher Umgangssprache", and remarks on the "volks-
ti.imliche Argumentation, die W<"der gedanklicher noch stilistischcr
Un<"benhciten entbehrt". 104
Morgenroth, similarly, points to what he
calls "eine ganze Reihe volkstiimlicher Elemcnte" in the language of
the C/zU101 Others, like Bohtlingk, hav<" simply chosen to emend any
forms that are not in accordance with classical Sanskrit grammar, ignor-
ing the fact that the language of th<"late Vedic period is not identical
,vith classical Sanskrit.
100
The form sa}!lk/p{vai appears to be a dative form, but it is clearly
used in an ablative meaning. Both Bohtlingk 107 and Little 108 have there-
fore emended the form. However, this emendation is unnecessary, since

The ChU contains numerous instances of pre-classical sandhithroughout.

Sandhi between a short final -a and a following vowel must be dissolved
in 3.15.1 (a stanza not marked as either sloka or re):Dyaur a.ryauttaraJ!l 'Iii C/zU4.17.10.
("Its upper lid is the sky"). 95 Similarly, brahmaivaika
bilam (for a.ryottaraJ!l) "' Chl! 3. I 5.1.
rtvik must be read as brahmaeva eka rtvik ("The Brahma priest alone as ''" C'l1C7.24.2, cp. RCb.1.10.
"" Clll' 6.8.9: o.9.4: G.l 2 I b.'.1:,\\.·rtakrto111.
10
(1 Chl/ 5.13.2.
iui ChLr4.6.1.

1()'
2 Chl/ 4.8.1.
101
41
Whitney 1889 a,§ 188 b, Macdonell 1910, § 78.2 b.
Hauschild 1961: 41. 1114
Hoffmann 1976: '.HO.
12
' Renou 1955 a: I 00. 11
"' Morgenroth 1980-81: 283.
93
Idem. lllb ChC 7.4.2.
'H Hauschild 1961: 34. 1
"' Biihtlingk 1889 b.
5
" F i.irst suggests the alternative reading diaur for dyaur instead. 1118
Little I 900.
 •
128 CHAPTER FOUR THE Cll{ W)OGl:4 CPANSAD 129

there are many parallel instances in the BrahmarJasand older Upani~ads
of genitive/ ablative feminine forms in -ai formed from -i stems. 109
The Vedic nominative dual form qyavaprtlzivz ("lwaven and earth") 1111
is used in the ChU. The same Vedic dual form in -f occurs throughout
the BrhadaranyakaUpani5ad.111
Accusative plural forms in -as (rather than -fs) are formed from -1
stems twice in the CMJ: sa ya evam eta/Jsakvaryoloke5uprota veda ("He
who knows these Salman verses as woven on the worlds ... ") 112 and sa
ya evam eta revarya/J pa.{u5uprota veda ("He who knows these Revatzverses
as woven on the animals ... "). 113 This use of what are normally nomi-
native forms in the accusative is very uncommon and is found only in
these two passages in the ChU. I think the simplest explanation for this
uncommon usage is to regard it as influence from the' sections imme-
diately preceding these passages, where the nominative forms occur in
their t'xpected nominative sense: etaf;sakvaryoloke5uprota!J("These are
the f;akvati,·erses woven on the worlds"), 114 and eta remtya!Jpa.fo;uprotiilz
("These are the Revatzverses woven on the animals"). 11''
The locative singular a¼irJioccurs in 1.7.5, 4.15.1, and 8. 7 .4. The
normal Vedic locative sing1.1larform of this noun is ak5an,1i,; a form
which is used both in the BrfzadararJyaka 117
and the Kau5ztakiUpani,wd.118
The form akyini is, however, also attested hoth in the BrhadararJyaka
Upanisad119 and the Kau51takiUpaniFzd120 and must be regarded as a
normal late Vedic form.
Optatives are quite commonly used in the Upani~ads, but the only
optative not formed from a present stem is the aorist optative vilopsfya
("let it be broken") in ChU 3.16.2. 121 This optative fiwm is used with
the prohibitive particle ma. There is only a single example in the ]J.gieda
of an optative (bfzzgema)used with the prohibitive ma.m \Vhitney has
suggested emending vilopsije 'ti to vilopsz'ti,12:i and Little' follows him. I24
I would prefer to keep the lectiodijici!iorvilopsfyahere.
Imperatives in -tat are found twice in the ClzU paryavartayatat("turn
to!"), 125 and abhig4yatat("sing!"). 126 In both cases, they signify the 2.
person singular. Imperatives in -tat are quite common in Vedic. In the
Upani~ads, they occur only in the CfzU and the Brhadara,JYaka Upani5ad.
In later Sanskrit, these forms become very rare.
There are two possible examples of injunctive forms used without
the prohibitive particle ma in the ChU ma pratar upaszdatlzii iti ("come to
127
me in the morning"), and atlzamo 'pasTdatfza
iti ("come to me"). 128 Both
I29 130
Fi.irst and Renou regard upaszdatfziias an i1~unctive form. In both
cases, the' ma is interpreted not as the prohibitive particle, but as the
accusative first person pronoun ma. Renou suggests that the use of the
injunctive here has arisen from the false interpretation of the personal
pronoun mii as the prohibitive particle. Bohtlingk, who is always quick
to emend, corrects to upaszdain his edition of the ChU.131 He remarks
that an emendation to upaszdetfziif; is tempting, but he cannot defend
the use of the optative or the middle \'Oice. He therefore chooses the
form upaszda,suggesting that the -tfza could have come from the fol-
lowing tatlza.132 Hoffmann, however, points out that the expected form
from a syntactic perspective would be the imperative future in -tat. He
suggests that the forms in -thas are attempts to create a second person
singular form to replace the form in -tat.133 He then attempts to explain
how an analogical re-creation of -tat into -tfziiscould occur only once
in late Vedic literature. Hoffmann regards upasfdathafzin 6.13.1 and
1
6.13.2 as an indication of the text's colloquial character. 131 I prefer the
much simpler explanation that Hoffmann's postulate, that injunctives

II)') Witzel 1989: 132.

1111 120
Ch(T 7.4.2. \\'hitncy 1889a § 579 b. Cp. Macdonell l!ll0, § 648, note 5.
111 1
Cp. Furst 1916: 16. " Whitney 1890 a: +14.
112
CnU2.17.2. "' Little 1900: 180.
11
ill ChU 2.18.2. ) C'hll 1.5.2.
114
Chl' 2.17.1. )'.?Ii Ch[! 1.5.4.
11
' ChU2.18.l. in Chl'6.13.l.
11
" Macdonell 1910, § 327. l'.?B ChL' 6.13.2.

Iii BU 2.2.3, 2.3.6, 4.1.2, 5.6.3, 5.6.5. l'.?'.l Fiirst 1916: 20.

'" Renou 1937: :rn.

1
I IH K1U 4.17.
11
" BU 4.2.3. Ill Bohtlingk 1889 b.
12
° KsU 4.2. 110
Biihtlingk 1889 h: 105.
121
C)ptatives formed from s-aorists are not uncommon in Vedic, set> Macdonell 1.n Hoffrnann 1976: 369.
1
1910, § 525 . " Hoffinann 1976: 370.

..
 130 CHAPTER FOUR THE CHA\DOGYA CPA..\JSAD 131

with imperative sense do not occur in the Upani~ads, may not be quite would have fallen off. .. if you had come"),1'-, ablzaviv•at . .. vyajiiiipayivat
accurate. 135 I believe Furst and Renou are correct when they regard ("if there were ... it would be known"). 156 The large number of condi-
upasTdatlza~ as an injunctive form. tional forms found in the ClzU is unusual for the Upani~ads. The only
As in the other older Upani~ads, some verbs that in the classical other conditionals in the older Upani~ads are found in the Brlzadiirmgaka
language take middle endings occur in the active in the ClzU: asrayat,136 Upani;ad157and the Aitar~yaUpanifad.158 The conditional is rare at any
I
adlzyeti,137 adl1yefi,138 adlzflzi,u 9 vyablzetsyat,
IfO zyajiiapa_visyat,
i.i manvani.IH stage in Sanskrit. There is only a single example in the f!.gveda(ablzariv•at,
143
Similarly, middle is used instead of active in sarrikalpayate and alapa:yif- f!.V 2.30) a few in the Brahmal)as (although it occurs more than fifty
J'atlzas.1++ Bohtlingk attempts to emend most of these forms in his edition times in the ,S'atapatlzabralzmaJJa), one in A1anu, and twenty-five in the
159
of the ClzU However, since active and middle forms are used more entire J1alzablziirata.
interchangeably in late Vedic than in classical Sanskrit, there is no Additionally, most of the conditional forms of the ClzU occur within
reason to assume that these forms are erroneous. the same two narratives, which both contain the same central idea. ClzU
Conditional forms are very common in the ClzU:prastosyas ... vyapat~yat l. 11 contains the story of U ~asti Cakrayal)a, a wise man who claims that
("if you had sung ... it would have fallen off'"\ 145 udagasyas... z:yapatiD 1at if the various priests were to sing their chants without understanding
("if you had chanted ... it would ha\·e fallen off"), i+,; praryalzan:vas ... zyap the significance of these chants, their heads would fall off Similarly, in
ativat ("if you had taken up the pratilzara... it would have fallen off"), 147 ClzU 5 .12-1 7, the story of the great householders coming to U ddalaka
("you would have made me speak"), 148 avedivam... avakD•arr1
aliipa_vi-ryatlziis Arul,li for instruction is narrated. Uddalaka Arul,li tells the householders
("if I had known ... I would have told"), 149 vyapati~yat ... agamivas ("it about the terrible things that would have befallen them if they had not
150
would have fallen off. .. if you had come"), ablzavivas. .. agamivas ("you come to him, including one person's head falling off, as in the story
would have become ... if you had come"), 1" 1 udakramivat... agami~yas of U~asti Cakrayal)a. Thus, the large number of conditional forms
("it would have departed ... if you had come"), 152 ~yaffryat... agami~yas in the ClzU may very well be explained as a stylistic feature of two
("it would have crumbled ... if you had come"), 153 vyablzetsyat ... iigam0as ("it of its central interrelated stories, rather than as an unusual linguistic
15
would have burst. .. if you had come"), ) ~vamlasyetiim ... iigamivas ("it phenomenon of the C'lzU.
The preverb is separated from the verb in a cagacclzeyur upa ca nameyu~
("they will come to him, and they will fall to his share"), 160 uddlzaivatata
("he arises from it"), 161 upa ca nimrerjeran ("they delight [him]"). 162 anv eva
163
i:JJ 1--Ioffinann 1967: 36. mii blzagavabsiidhi ("instruct me, sir"), upa tva neve ("I will receive you
l ;,, Ch[J 3. I.4. [as a student] "),1''1 upa vayar11 tam blwiijamas("we serve him"),11;"apeva
n 7 Ch[I 5.11.2, 5.11.4.
r18 Chll 5.11.6.
nihnute("he conceals"), ir;(i prati lza ti0tlzati("he becomes firm"), lti 7 sarrilza
l:)(f Clz[T7.1.1.
]-HI ChlJ 5.16.2.
111
ChU 7.2.1.
l·tl Chll 8.12.5. i-i-1 C'lzl'r5.17.2.
lH (,1/d/1.2.6, 7.4.11 7.5.l. "'" U1C 7.2.1.
1
1H ChL,T4.2.5. "' Bl' 1.4.3.
1
l"tS Cfll/ 1. 11.5. ·•" AU 1.3.3-9.
1th 1
Ch[/ 1.11.7. '''' Whitney 1889 a§ 941. Cp. Macdonell 1910, § 538.
1
" ChU 1.11.9. "'" ChC 2.1.4.
l lll ChU 4.2.5. lbl Chl/ 3.16.2.
119
Ch[;T5.3.5. lb 2 Cfz[T3.19.4.

rn C:hU5.12.2. lh'i C'hl: 4.2.4.

4
i;i ChU 5.13.2. lh C'ld/ 4.4.5.
2
ChLl 5.14.2. 1ti.· ChlJ 4.12.2.
1
IJ

I~).) Chll 5.15.~. \()(,Chl"' 4.14.2.

i-1f C!lli 5.16.2. ]h/ (,Ill 5.1.3.
T
 •
l32 CHAPTER FOUR

'smai kama/1padyante ("his desires are successful"), 168 anu tva ~(isat("he
has instructed you"), 16'' anu tva 'frsam("I instructed you"), 170 and .fon-rasya
CHAPTER FIVE
na.samanz'esa na.fyati("it is destroyed when the body is destroyed"). 171 As
we have seen, this separation of verb and preverb is a common feature
THE AITAREYA UPA \1SAD
of the Vedic language.
To sum up, when we set aside the quotations from the }!gDeda,there
are no linguistic forms, stylistic features, sandhiphenomena, or metrical
The AitarryaUpan~ad(AU) is a short prose text in three chapters. The AU
forms in the ChU that would indicate that any particular sections are
is commonly regarded as one of the oldest Upani~ads, though younger
additions to the rest of the text. The few metrical forms that do occur
than the BrhadaraJ!)'aka or the U1andogyaUpanisad.1 The AU belongs to
in the ChU, the linguistic forms, and the sandhiphenomena all indicate
the Aitarrya school of the }!gveda.
a date of composition earlier than all of the other Upani!;,ads, except
The AU comprises the fourth, fifth, and sixth chapters of the second
for the Madkya'f(ldinarecension of the Brhadarar;yaka Upan4ad.
book of the AitarryaAran_yaka.Occasionally, the first three chapters of
the second book of the Aitar~yaAran_yaka are called an Upanisadas well,
and given the name Bahurca-Brahmar;a Upan~ador Maha-Aitar~yaUpan4ad.
The third book of the AitarryaArar;yakais also sometimes regarded as
an Upani~ad, called the Sarrzhitopanisad. The AU is deeply imbedded in
the text of the Aitarqa Aran_yaka. There can be little doubt that the AU
is simply a part of the Aitar~yaArar;yakathat has been given a separate
name. The relationship between the AitarryaArar;yakaand the AU helps
to illustrate how the Upani~adic genre came into being: The Upani~ads
were at first chapters within the Brahmar.ias and AraI,1yakas, dealing
with the topic of atman. Later on, these chapters took on a literary life
of their own, and de\'eloped into a new textual genre.
A few scholars have suggested that the text of the AU in its pres-
ent form may be heterogeneous. Schneider suggests, on philosophical
grounds, that the first adkyiiyais the historical core of the text. 2 Smith,
who regards the AC as one of the earliest Upani~ads, claims that the
last chapter of the AU is a later interpolation, but does not state why
he thinks so. 1 In fact, there are reasons to assume that the first chapter
of the text is older than the last two.

!IJ8
C'lzl'5.l.4. 1
!b9 See e.g. Demscn 1906 ( l 966): 24, Olivelle 1996: xxxvi.
ChU 5.3.1.
170 Schneider 1963: 6 I.
ChU 5.3.4.
lil ' Smith l 9.'i2: 99.
ChU 8.9.1.
'f"

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