CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

This is a self – assessment test on the part of the students to assess his

competency in creativity.

During the course of study, the student is put on a sound theoretical

foundation of various mechanical engineering subjects and of course, to a

satisfactory extent. Opportunities are made available to him to work on different

kinds of machines, so that he is exposed to various kinds of manufacturing process.

As a students learn more and more his hold on production technology becomes

stronger. He attains a stage of perfection, when he himself is able to

design and fabricate a device.

This is the project work. That is the testimony for the strenuous training,

which the student had in the institute. This assures that he is no more a student, he

is an engineer.

This report discuses the necessity of the project and various aspects of

planning , design, selection of materials, fabrication, erection, estimation and

testing

1
 CHAPTER 2
CONSTRUCTION

Block Diagram:

ELECTRO
Switch MAGNETIC Brake
DC Power to BRAKE lever
Supply apply
brake

Wheel

Fig1.1 Block Diagram of Electromagnetic Braking System

CONSTRUCTION:
This unit consists of
1) M.S. FABRICATED STAND UNIT

2) POWER SUPPLY UNIT

3) ELECTROMAGNETIC COIL UNIT

4) BRAKING UNIT

2
1. M.S. FABRICATED STAND UNIT :

The rear wheel for two wheeler bike is dismantled and mounted in the M.S.

fabricated stand. This stand is made in 25x25x 3 mm size L angle. In this

electromagnetic coil unit is fitted . this solenoid coil has one central iron rod which

is connected to brake drum lever against spring force control.

2. POWER SUPPLY UNIT:

INTRODUCTION:

All the electronic components starting from diode to Intel IC’s only work

with a DC supply ranging from +5V to +12V. We are utilizing for the same, the

cheapest and commonly available energy source of 230V-50Hz and stepping

down, rectifying, filtering and regulating the voltage.

STEP DOWN TRANSFORMER:

When AC is applied to the primary winding of the power transformer, it can

either be stepped down or stepped up depending on the value of DC needed. In our

circuit the transformer of 230V/15-0-15V is used to perform the step down

operation where a 230V AC appears as 15V AC across the secondary winding.

Apart from stepping down voltages, it gives isolation between the power source

and power supply circuitries.

RECTIFIER UNIT:

In the power supply unit, rectification is normally achieved using a solid

state diode. Diode has the property that will let the electron flow easily in one

direction at proper biasing condition. As AC is applied to the diode, electrons only

flow when the anode and cathode is negative. Reversing the polarity of voltage

will not permit electron flow. A commonly used circuit for supplying large

amounts of DCpower is the bridge rectifier. A bridge rectifier of four diodes (4 x

IN4007) are used to achieve full wave rectification. Two diodes will conduct

during the negative cycle and the other two will conduct during the positive half

cycle, and only one diode conducts. At the same time one of the other two diodes

conducts for the negative voltage that is applied from the bottom winding due to

the forward bias for that diode. In this circuit due to positive half cycle D1 & D2

will conduct to give 0.8V pulsating DC. The DC output has a ripple frequency of

100Hz. Since each alteration produces a resulting output pulse, frequency = 2 x 50

Hz. The output obtained is not a pure DC and therefore filtration has to be done.

The DC voltage appearing across the output terminals of the bridge rectifier

will be somewhat less than 90% of the applied rms value. Normally one alteration

of the input voltage will reverse the polarities. Opposite ends of the transformer
will therefore always be 180 degree out of phase with each other. For a positive

cycle, two diodes are connected to the positive voltage at the top winding.

3) ELECTROMAGNETIC COIL UNIT;

Fig1.2 Electromagnetic coil

This unit having one solenoid coil operated in 12VDC supply voltage. There is a

metal rod centrally mounted in the coil under spring force. When the supply is

given to the coil unit ,the solenoid core rod moves inward in to the coil and the

metal rod pull the brake lever pedal downward direction. This coil is connected

to the power supply through a button.

4) BRAKING UNIT:

Fig1.3 Brake Drum

Drum brakes consist of a backing plate, brake shoes, brake drum, wheel cylinder,
return springs and an automatic or self-adjusting system. When you apply the
brakes, brake fluid is forced, under pressure, into the wheel cylinder which, in turn,
pushes the brake shoes into contact with the machined surface on the inside of the
drum. When the pressure is released, return springs pull the shoes back to their rest
position. As the brake linings wear, the shoes must travel a greater distance to
reach the drum. When the distance reaches a certain point, a self-adjusting
mechanism automatically reacts by adjusting the rest position of the shoes so that
they are closer to the drum.
WORKING OPERATION:

In this project we propose to deal with a new type of electromagnetic brake using
solenoid switch.
This unit having one solenoid coil operated in 12VDC supply
voltage. There is a metal rod centrally mounted in the coil under spring force.
When the supply is given to the coil unit ,the solenoid core rod moves inward in
to the coil and the metal rod pull the brake lever pedal downward direction. This
coil is connected to the power supply through a button.
The electro magnetic brake operates in 12VDC power supply. When the supply
given to the electromagnetic coil which pulls the brake lever to apply the brake to
the rotating wheel.

ADVANTAGES:

1. Easy to install and low cost.

2. Repair and maintenance is simple.

3. It is used as a safety device due to over load

DISADVANTAGES:

1. Braking speed is constant

 2. This braking is not a smooth one.

3. High battery power is required.

4. May be chance of electro-magnetic coil failure

APPLICATIONS:

1. Used in machinetool spindle gear box system to change the speed.

2. Used in crane control system

3. Used in winch controlling

4. Used in lift controlling

5. Used in automobile purpose

BASIC REQUIREMENTS OF A BRAKE:

The brake must be strong enough to stop the vehicle with a minimum

distance. The distance should be the shortest during Emergency braking. The

distance moved by the vehicle after the application of the brake is known as

braking.

The brakes must have good ant fade characteristic. In other words the brakes

should not loose their effectiveness on prolonged application. This is only possible

by proper and effective cooling of brakes.

PURPOSE OF BRAKES:

1. To control the speed of the vehicle as well as to stop it when and where

desired quickly and efficiently without sticking.

2. To keep the vehicle is any possible position after it had been actually

brought to a complete rest when the driver is not present.

3. These purposes are accomplished by providing two independent braking

systems in a motor vehicle service brake and a parking (or) emergency on

hand brake.
 CHAPTER 3
WORKING PRINCIPLE

The principle of braking is the reverse of that applied during accelerating a

vehicle. in accelerating, the heat energy of the fuel is converted into the power of

kinetic energy is converted into heat by means of friction produced between low

mating surface of the brake drum. similar to the effective effort produced at the

peripheries of the driving of the motor of brake produces a retarding effort

(or) a negative attractive effort is limited bay the adhesion available between the

brake lining and the brake drum similar to the limit providing by the adhesion

available between the wheels and the grant. the force of friction (or) force exerted

on the shoes by the retarding mechanism and the co-efficient of friction for the two

materials.

BRAKE TESTING:

When the vehicle is moving, it can be stopped by applying the brakes. It is to

be noted here that brake pedals cannot be passed instantaneously and the vehicle
cannot be stopped instantaneously. First the drive thinks, then lift the leg., presses
the brake pedal and the vehicle stops after moving some distance. So it is necessary
to note how much time is required to stop the vehicle and how long it will travel
after applying the brake. These two factors are directly dependent on the speed o
the vehicle.

STOP TEST:

For testing the brakes, this test is usually adopted by mechanical or

driver after overhauling the brakes the moves the vehicle at a speed and suddenly
applies the brakes. Then he checks how much time it has taken to stop and how
long it has moved after spring the brakes. Also, he sees the impressions of the four
tyres on the road, whether equal or not, and whether the vehicle is pulling a side or
not.

STOP WATCH TEST:

To perform this test, the vehicle is moved at about 70km/hr. then the
brakes are applied. The time and distance are noted.

Let T = time taken to stop the vehicle after applying the brakes.

D = distance moved by the vehicle after applying the brakes.

Then, brake efficiency is given by

N = (D-T2)*6 ¼

Brake testers are also used for testing the brakes. They work on the principle of
decelerometer. Taply brake meter is a type of brake tester. This brake meter is
placed on the vehicle floor for testing the brakes. It consists of a round ring with
numbers. There is a pendulum inside the dial which remain dipped in oil. As soon
as the brake are applied, the vehicle speed decreases which causes the pendulum
ring to move. The number on the ring gives reading which can be obtained by an
inspection plate.

BRAKE SERVICE:

Following is the procedure to service the brakes

1. Check the fluid level in the master cylinder

2. Check brake pedal adjustments.
3. Check brake pedal travel: If the pedal travels more than halfway to the floor,
the brakes may require adjusting to compensate for lining wear or they may
be require relining.
4. If the brakes pull to one side after adjustment, check tyre pressure. All tyros
must be inflated to recommended pressures to ensure even braking. Check
brake linings for foreign materials and clean as required. If the side pull
persists, check from wheel alignment and balance.
5. Check the bake system for leaks by applying a steady pressure on the break
pedal. If the pedal falls away the break system has leak somewhere. Find the
leak points and remove them.
6. A spongy brake pedal indicates the presence of air in the hydraulic system.
This condition must be corrected by bleeding the brakes.
7. If the brakes become locked so that the vehicle cannot be moved the brakes
must be released by opening, the bleeder screw on any one of the wheel
cylinders
 CHAPTER 4

DESCRIPTION OF BRAKE SYSTEM

INTRODUCTION:

Brakes are one of the most important control components of the vehicle.
They are required to stop the vehicle within the smallest possible distance and this
is done by converting the kinetic energy of the wheels into the heat energy which is
dissipated into the atmosphere.

Types of brakes based on method of actuation:

1. Mechanical brakes
2. Hydraulic brakes
3. Electric and electronic brakes
4. Vacuum brakes
5. Air brakes

Types of brakes based on application

1. Drum brakes
2. Disc brakes
3. Parking Brakes
DRUM BRAKES:

The modern automobile drum brake was invented in 1902 by Louis Renault,
though a less - sophisticated drum brake had been used by Maybach a year earlier.
In the first drum brakes, the shoes were mechanically operated with levers and rods
or cables. From the mid-1930s the shoes were operated with oil pressure in a small
wheel cylinder and pistons, though some vehicles continued with purely-
mechanical systems for decades. Some designs have two wheel cylinders.
The shoes in drum brakes are subject to wear and the brakes needed to be adjusted
regularly until the introduction of self adjusting drum brakes in the 1950s. In the
1960s and 1970s brake drums on the front wheel of cars were gradually replaced
with disc brakes and now practically all cars use disc brakes on the front wheels,
with many offering disc brakes on all wheels. However, drum brakes are still often
used for handbrakes as it has proved very difficult to design a disc brake suitable
for holding a car when it is not in use. Moreover, it is very easy to fit a drum
handbrake inside a disc brake so that one unit serves for both footbrake and
handbrake.

Early type brake shoes contained asbestos. When working on brake systems
of older cars, care must be taken not to inhale any dust present in the brake
assembly. The United States Federal Government began to regulate asbestos
production, and brake manufactures had to switch to non-asbestos linings. Owners
initially complained of poor braking with the replacements; however, technology
eventually advanced to compensate. A majority of daily-driven older vehicles have
been fitted with asbestos-free linings. Many other countries also limit the use of
asbestos in brakes.

Drum brakes consist of a backing plate, brake shoes, brake drum, wheel
cylinder, return springs and an automatic or self-adjusting system. When you apply
the brakes, brake fluid is forced, under pressure, into the wheel cylinder which, in
turn, pushes the brake shoes into contact with the machined surface on the inside of
the drum. When the pressure is released, return springs pull the shoes back to their
rest position. As the brake linings wear, the shoes must travel a greater distance to
reach the drum. When the distance reaches a certain point, a self-adjusting
mechanism automatically reacts by adjusting the rest position of the shoes so that
they are closer to the drum.

BRAKE SHOES:

Like the disc pads, brake shoes consist of a steel shoe with the friction
material or lining riveted or bonded to it. Also like disc pads, the linings eventually
wear out and must be replaced. If the linings are allowed to wear through to the
bare metal shoe, they will cause severe damage to the brake drum.
Fig1.4 Brake shoes

BACKING PLATE:

The backing plate is what holds everything together. It attaches to the axle
and forms a solid surface for the wheel cylinder, brake shoes and assorted
hardware. It rarely causes any problems.

BRAKE DRUM:

Brake drums are made of iron and have a machined surface on the inside
where the shoes make contact. Just as with disc rotors, brake drums will show
signs of wear as the brake linings seat themselves against the machined surface of
the drum. When new shoes are installed, the brake drum should be machined
smooth. Brake drums have a maximum diameter specification that is stamped on
the outside of the drum. When a drum is machined, it must never exceed that
measurement. If the surface cannot be machined within that limit, the drum must
be replaced.

WHEEL CYLINDER:

Fig1.5 Wheel Cylinder

The wheel cylinder consists of a cylinder that has two pistons, one on each
side. Each piston has a rubber seal and a shaft that connects the piston with a brake
shoe. When brake pressure is applied, the pistons are forced out pushing the shoes
into contact with the drum. Wheel cylinders must be rebuilt or replaced if they
show signs of leaking.

The major components of the drum brake assembly is shown in the

following figure the detailed exploded view of drum brake components.
RETURN SPRINGS:

Return springs pull the brake shoes back to their rest position after the
pressure is released from the wheel cylinder. If the spring are weak and do not
return the shoes all the way, it will cause premature lining wear because the linings
will remain in contact with the drum. A good technician will examine the springs
during a brake job and recommend their replacement if they show signs of fatigue.
On certain vehicles, the technician may recommend replacing them even if they
look good as inexpensive insurance.

SELF ADJUSTING SYSTEM:

The parts of a self adjusting system should be clean and move freely to
insure that the brakes maintain their adjustment over the life of the linings. If the
self adjusters stop working, you will notice that you will have to step down further
and further on the brake pedal before you feel the brakes begin to engage. Disc
brakes are self adjusting by nature and do not require any type of mechanism.
When a technician performs a brake job, aside from checking the return springs, he
will also clean and lubricates the self adjusting parts where necessary.

PARKING BREAKS:

The parking brake (a.k.a. emergency brake) system controls the rear brakes
through a series of steel cables that are connected to either a hand lever or a foot
pedal. The idea is that the system is fully mechanical and completely by passes the
hydraulic system so that the vehicle can be brought to a stop even if there is a total
brake failure.

In drum brakes, the cable pulls on a lever mounted in the rear brake and is
directly connected to the brake shoes. This has the effect of by passing the wheel
cylinder and controlling the brakes directly.

1. Support plate
2. Park brake shoes
3. Equalizer
4. Springs
5. Hold down clips
6. Adjuster

Disc brakes on the rear wheels add additional complication for parking brake
systems. There are two main designs for adding a mechanical parking brake to rear
disc brakes. The first type uses the existing rear wheel caliper and adds a lever
attached to a mechanical corkscrew device inside the caliper piston. When the
parking brake cable pulls on the lever, this corkscrew device pushes the piston
against the pads, thereby bypassing the hydraulic system, to stop the vehicle. This
type of system is primarily used with single piston floating calipers, if the caliper is
of the four piston fixed type, then that type of system can’t be used. The other
system uses a complete mechanical drum brake unit mounted inside the rear rotor.
The brake shoes on this system are connected to a lever that is pulled by the
parking brake cable to activate the brakes. The brake “drum” is actually the inside
part of the rear brake rotor.
 On cars with automatic transmissions, the parking brake is rarely used. This can
cause a couple of problems. The biggest problem is that the brake cables tend to
get corroded and eventually size up causing the parking brake to become
inoperative. By using the parking brake from time to time, the cables stay clean
and functional. Another problem comes from the fact that the self adjusting
mechanism on certain brake systems uses the parking brake actuation to adjust the
brakes. If the parking brake is never used, then the brakes never get adjusted.

DISC BRAKES:

Disc brakes consist of a metal disc attached to the wheel hub that rotates
with the wheel. Calipers are attached to the frame or fork along with pads that
squeeze together on the disc. Such brakes have been successfully used on
motorcycles for decades, and been the principal choice there. The disc brake is a
lot like the brakes on bicycle. Bicycle brakes have a caliper, which squeezes the
brake pads against the wheel. In a disc brake, the brake pads squeeze the rotor
instead of the wheel, and the force is transmitted hydraulically instead of through a
cable. Friction between the pads and the disc slows the disc down.
 CHAPTER 5

HYDRAULIC DISC BRAKE

A Disc brake uses a flat, round disc or rotor, attached to the wheel
hub instead of a drum. Brake pads are positioned on the opposite sides of the rotor
and are mounted in the brake caliper. The caliper contains the hydraulic piston
used to apply the shoes and to transmit the braking forces from the shoes to the
suspension members.

All disc brakes are non energized, non servo brakes; lining pressure is
directly proportional to brake pedal pressure.
Centrifugal force will throw the contaminants off the rotor. A disc brake will have
much cooler operation than drum brakes because of increased area that is exposed
to the air flowing past it.

All modern automotive brake system uses a hydraulic system to transmit the
application forces from the brake pedal to the brake shoes.
The brake’s hydraulic system begins at the master cylinder. The master
cylinder is basically a piston type hydraulic pump operated by the brake pedal. As
brake pedal is pushed, brake fluid is pumped to the caliper or wheel cylinder
piston. This fluid pushes on the pistons, which push the brake shoes against the
rotor.
ADVANTAGES OF DISC BRAKES OVER DRUM BRAKES

 In case of disc brakes the frictions surface is directly exposed to the cooling
air, so the heat dissipation is much easier in disc brake than drum brakes.

 The frictional surface in case of disc brakes are flat when compared to
curved surface of drum brakes, this mean in disc brakes there is uniform
wear.

 Frictional pad material is not subjected to any bending, thereby increasing

the range of materials from which to choose the suitable one.

 The design of disc brakes is such that there is no loss efficiency due to
expansion, as the system becomes hot, expansion of drum of internally
expanded shoe types if brake tends to move the friction surface apart,
causing a loss of effective pedal travel, on the friction surfaces slightly
without tending to increase the clearance.

 Disc brake weigh less than their conventional drum type counterpart a
saving approximately 20% being possible.

 Disc brake has a better anti fade characteristics than drum brakes.
DISADVANTAGES:

 Any leakages of hydraulic fluid leads to brake failure

 Air bubbles if any got trapped in the hydraulic circuit will result is brake
failure.

 Sufficient level of brake fluid should always be maintained all the time

 Hydraulic disc brakes usually require relatively specialized tools to bleed the
brake systems.

 Repairs on the trail are difficult to perform, whereas mechanical disc brakes
rarely fail completely.

Considering the above mentioned advantages and superior nature of disc brakes
we decided to choose modifications in disc brakes to make it much simpler and
more effective and cheaper design.

HYDRAULIC VS MECHANICAL:

Two main disc brake systems exist: hydraulic and mechanical (cable-
actuated). Mechanical disc brakes (which are almost always less expensive than
hydraulic) have less modulation than hydraulic disc brake systems, and since the
cable is usually open to the outside, mechanical disc brake tend to pick up small
bits of dirt and grit in the cable lines when ridden in harsh terrain. Hydraulic disc
rakes use fluid from a reservoir, pushed through a hose, to actuate the pistons in the
disc caliper that then actuate the pads. Hydraulic disc brake systems generally keep
contaminants out better. However, since hydraulic disc brakes usually require
relatively specialized tools to bleed the brake systems, repairs on the trail are
difficult to perform, whereas mechanical disc brakes rarely fail completely.
Hydraulic disc brakes occasionally require bleeding of the brake lines to remove
air bubbles. There are two types of brake fluid used in disc brakes today: mineral
oil and DOT fluid. Mineral oil is generally inert and while DOT has a higher
boiling point, it is known to be corrosive to frame paint. The two are generally not
interchangeable, as the different fluids may cause seals to swell or be corroded.
Also, the hydraulic fluid may boil on steep, continuous down hills. This is due to
heat building up in the disc and pads and can cause the brake to lose its ability to
transmit force through incompressible fluids, since some of it has become a gas,
which is compressible. To avoid this problem, 203 mm (8 inch) diameter disc
rotors have become common on downhill bikes. Larges rotors dissipate heat more
quickly and have a larger amount of mass to absorb heat. For these reasons, one
must weigh the advantages and disadvantages of using a hydraulic system versus a
mechanical system.
 CHAPTER 6

POWER SUPPLY UNIT

INTRODUCTION:

All the electronic components starting from diode to Intel IC’s only work

with a DC supply ranging from +5V to +12V. We are utilizing for the same, the

cheapest and commonly available energy source of 230V-50Hz and stepping

down, rectifying, filtering and regulating the voltage.

STEP DOWN TRANSFORMER:

When AC is applied to the primary winding of the power transformer, it can

either be stepped down or stepped up depending on the value of DC needed. In our

circuit the transformer of 230V/15-0-15V is used to perform the step down

operation where a 230V AC appears as 15V AC across the secondary winding.

Apart from stepping down voltages, it gives isolation between the power source

and power supply circuitries.

RECTIFIER UNIT:

In the power supply unit, rectification is normally achieved using a solid

state diode. Diode has the property that will let the electron flow easily in one

direction at proper biasing condition. As AC is applied to the diode, electrons only

flow when the anode and cathode is negative. Reversing the polarity of voltage

will not permit electron flow. A commonly used circuit for supplying large

amounts of DCpower is the bridge rectifier. A bridge rectifier of four diodes (4 x

IN4007) are used to achieve full wave rectification. Two diodes will conduct

during the negative cycle and the other two will conduct during the positive half

cycle, and only one diode conducts. At the same time one of the other two diodes

conducts for the negative voltage that is applied from the bottom winding due to

the forward bias for that diode. In this circuit due to positive half cycle D1 & D2

will conduct to give 0.8V pulsating DC. The DC output has a ripple frequency of

100Hz. Since each alteration produces a resulting output pulse, frequency = 2 x 50

Hz. The output obtained is not a pure DC and therefore filtration has to be done.

The DC voltage appearing across the output terminals of the bridge rectifier

will be somewhat less than 90% of the applied rms value. Normally one alteration

of the input voltage will reverse the polarities. Opposite ends of the transformer

will therefore always be 180 degree out of phase with each other. For a positive

cycle, two diodes are connected to the positive voltage at the top winding.
FILTERING CIRCUIT:

Filter circuits which is usually capacitor acting as a surge arrester always

follow the rectifier unit. This capacitor is also called as a decoupling capacitor or a

bypassing capacitor, is used not only to ‘short’ the ripple with frequency of 120Hz

to ground but also to leave the frequency of the DC to appear at the output. A load

resistor R1 is connected so that a reference to the ground is maintained. C1, R1 is

for bypassing ripples. C2, R2 is used as a low pass filter, i.e. it passes only low

frequency signals and bypasses high frequency signals. The load resistor should be

1% to 2.5% of the load.

1000f/25V : for the reduction of ripples from the pulsating

10f/25V : for maintaining the stability of the voltage at the load side.

0.1f : for bypassing the high frequency disturbances

BLOCK DIAGRAM FOR POWER SUPPLY:

STEP DOWN BRIDGE POSITIVE

TRANSFORMER RECTIFIER CHARGE
CAPACITOR

5V
REGULATOR

MOTHER
BOARD DISPLAY
BOARD RELAY

Fig1.6 Block Diagram for Power Supply

12V
REGULATOR
 CHAPTER 7

FINISHING AND PAINTING

 JOB PREPARATION:

Before welding, remove any bend in the L angle with the sludge hammer on the

anvil block. Then it is cut to the required length with the hacksaw blade and

fabricated to required dimensional shape with arc welding.

 FINISHING OPERATION BEFORE PAINTING:

After welding, any slag on the welded area is removed with the chipping hammer

and cleaned with the metal wire brush. Then all the surfaces are rubbed with the

emery sheet.

Metal primer is applied on the surfaces with the brush. After drying the metal

primer, the second coating is applied with the pa

 CONCLUSION

We make this project entirely different from other projects. Since concepts

involved in our project is entirely different that a single unit is used to various

purpose which is not developed by any of other team members. We have

successfully complete this project work at our Institute. By doing this project work

we understood the working principle of uses of various Brakes, switches, control

systems.
 COST ESTIMATION

1. Electromagnetic coil unit --- 2100.00

2. Brake unit with wheel --- 1600.00

3. M.s. fabricated stand --- 600.00

4. DC power supply 12VDC --- 900.00

5. Wires, Screws and switch --- 300.00

6. Miscellaneous charges --- 200.00

-------------------
5900.00
 CHAPTER 9

BIBLIOGRAPHY

1. “Automotive Braking System”, by Thomas W. birch.

2. “Automotive Engineering Fundamentals” by Richard Stone, Jeffrey K. Ball

3. Automobile engineering-----G.B.S. Narang

4. Automobileengineering------Dr.KripalSingh