Solar Compass 7 (2023) 100053

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Solar Compass
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/solcom

Inventions, innovations, and new technologies: Flexible and lightweight

thin-film solar PV based on CIGS, CdTe, and a-Si:H
Samantha Wijewardane a,∗, Lawrence L. Kazmerski b
a
Clean Energy Research Center, University of South Florida, Tampa, FL 33620, United States
b
Renewable and Sustainable Energy Institute (RASEI), University of Colorado Boulder, United States

a b s t r a c t

This survey examines new and emerging applications and technology advancements that hold potential for effective use and market expansion of thin-film solar
photovoltaics (PV). We review recent inventions and innovations to enhance the distinctive properties and functionalities of thin-film devices for successfully adapting
in the emerging applications. Also, we present a brief review of the evolution and status of the three current major thin-film technologies, highlighting some strengths
and concerns. Selected notable patents are listed at the end. The objective is to draw attention to the inventions, innovations, and new technologies that thin-film
PV could impact, leading to a net-zero carbon future.

Introduction indicating the domination of crystalline Si, reflecting the manufacturing

Thin film solar cells shared some common origins with crystalline Si
for space power in the 1950s [1]. However, it was not until 1973 with
the onset of the oil embargo and resulting world focus on terrestrial so-
lar energy as a priority that serious research investments in these PV
technologies were realized [2,3]. The race to develop electric-power al-
ternatives to fossil fuels facilitated the exploration of diverse materials
and devices. The discovery, design, and qualification processes over the
next decades provided a selection basis for competitive technologies.
The arguments for thin-film photovoltaics have been based upon an ex-
tensive list of potential benefits, from low materials use and materials
and device diversity to large-scale, simplified, and low-energy manufac-
turing [4]. Products were demonstrated to be lightweight, have better
operating temperature characteristics, and more efficient in collecting
solar energy both earlier and later in the day [5,6]. They posed advan-
tages for the built environment (a sector still lacking in PV potential
power contribution [7]) in that they could be manufactured in flexi-
ble roll-to-roll production formats, with engineered transparencies, and
specific architectural requirements [7,8]. And in the 1990s to mid-2000s
with the urgencies of the environment and global climate change, thin
films were considered to become major players in world PV markets
[9]. However, in the 2010s, the ascendancy of Asia in manufacturing
impeded the investments and progress in thin-film PV. This is partially
indicated in the regional and country PV annual shipments (MWp) by
technology shown in Fig. 1 [10], with a manifest rise in China’s position
in product supply. Fig. 2 presents the same data by technology, clearly
investments.
Because PV technology continues to experience evolutionary, disrup-
tive, and even revolutionary progress, a continued growth is assured-and
even unanticipated advances can alter technology roadmaps or elevate
other approaches into competitive positions through innovation. This
has been experienced with GaAs devices replacing Si for most space ap-
plications [11] (although recently, SpaceX announced it plans to use
commercial Si-PV technology in its space power for potential cost ben-
efits [11–13]). And the current high interest in hybrid-perovskites has
again opened the technology playing field. Thin-film PV remains part of
the global solar markets—and can have major roles in the next genera-
tion of solar electricity required for the 100% renewable energy future
[14].
Production costs of thin-film solar panels are competitive and
module efficiencies of CdTe and CIGS cells are in the same range
as the Si-leader [10]. However, thin-film PV is still waiting to ful-
fill its deployment potential. Although global thin-film solar markets
are expected to exceed $25 billion by 2030 from $12.2 billion in
2021 [15], this prediction is just a small fraction of that provided
by Si.
This paper examines new innovations, global economic forecasts and
evaluates new and emerging markets and technologies that might be
“game changers” for thin-film PV. To provide insights on potential mar-
ket expansions in which thin-films pose advantages, some initial analysis
of where thin-film solar technology has been, its status and expectations,
as well as its advantages and limitations are presented.

∗
Corresponding author.
E-mail address: swijewar@usf.edu (S. Wijewardane).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.solcom.2023.100053
Received 16 May 2023; Received in revised form 20 June 2023; Accepted 24 June 2023
2772-9400/© 2023 The Author(s). Published by Elsevier Ltd on behalf of International Solar Alliance. This is an open access article under the CC BY license
(http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/)
S. Wijewardane and L.L. Kazmerski
Fig. 1. Photovoltaic annual shipments (MWp /) by geographical region for 2001–2022 [After Ref. 10].
Historical development and technology status: a brief survey
Amorphous silicon (a-Si:H) technology
Investigations of amorphous silicon (a-Si) date to the 1960s
[4,17,18]. Pure a-Si has no long-range ordering, resulting in a very
high density of dangling bonds and high carrier recombination that re-
stricts its semiconductor behavior. Amorphous Si exhibiting semicon-
ductor properties was reported in the late 1960 to mid-1970 time frame
under certain fabrication conditions [18–21]. Although not acknowl-
edged initially, the growth of this thin film in the presence of hydrogen
(either from the growth method or purposely introduced) produced hy-
drogenated a-Si or a-Si:H—in which the hydrogen terminated dangling
bonds. This reduced the density of gap states leading to band gaps larger
than c-Si (∼1.7 eV) [21,22]. In 1976, Carlson and Wronski reported the
first solar cells with an efficiency up to 2.4% [6,16,23], giving birth to
this solar technology and later, a promising industry.
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Solar Compass 7 (2023) 100053
Fig. 2. Annual PV Shipments (GWp ) over period 2006–2022
comparing technologies [After Ref. 10].
The major device type was a p-i-n structure, in which the “intrinsic
or i-layer” allowed the generated carriers to live long enough to be col-
lected [24]. And the a-Si:H band gap could be adjusted by composition,
mainly the amount of hydrogen incorporated into the layer. This led
first to tandem devices and then to 3-junction architectures that could
absorb larger portions of the incoming solar spectrum and lead to higher
efficiencies [25–30]. The initial 2% to 5% research efficiencies in single-
junction devices multiplied more than doubled over the first decade,
with confirmed cell efficiencies exceeding 10% and modules >7–8% by
the 1990s (Fig. 3) [16,31].
But early on, an effect was noticed when the devices were exposed
to the sun—a significant drop in the initial efficiency and power output
occurred, a property not desirable for solar technology. This Staebler-
Wronski Effect (SWE) was identified to affect mainly intrinsic (undoped)
a-Si:H layers [26,27]. As noted, hydrogen passivation can reduce dan-
gling bond densities by several orders of magnitude. However, some of
the dangling bonds passivated by a hydrogen atom lose their hydrogen
S. Wijewardane and L.L. Kazmerski
Fig. 3. Best research cell efficiencies as a function of time for thin-film CdTe, CIGS, and a-Si:H technologies. (Following validated data in NREL efficiency chart
[16] through June 2023.).
atom, under the influence of light and leading to this SWE. These de-
fects act as recombination centers and limit efficient charge collection.
Despite extensive research investments to overcome the light-induced
degradation, it only could be partially engineered. This light-induced
degradation property led to lowering the confidence in the operating
lifetime and adoption of this technology.
The research community observed that the “degradation” did level
off after periods of initial exposures to the light. The standard device
testing groups established procedures that would report “stabilized” ef-
ficiencies, such as those presented in Fig. 3 [16,28]. Although the prob-
lem of the SWE was not ever solved, the device engineers were able to
minimize the losses to single-digit percentages—and the labels on the
modules warrantied the product at a stated power, operating voltage,
and operating current with degradation (e.g., usually <15%, <11%),
and >4% respectively) of the stated specifications after some initial op-
eration (e.g., 8–10 weeks). Failure rates have been low—and in many
cases, the power degradations were less than 8–9% providing the sys-
tems with higher-than-expected outputs even after a decade of operation
[29,30].
The record efficiency of a Si:H research single-junction cell is 10.2%
(1-cm2 area). For multiple junctions: (1) triple-junction a-Si:H/nc-
Si:H/nc-Si:H best validated efficiency is 14% (1-cm2 ), and (2) a-Si:H/nc-
Si:H 12.7% (1-cm2 ) [16,31]. The champion large-area module (14,322-
cm2 ) a-Si:H/nc-Si cell was validated with an efficiency of 12.3%. This
relatively small performance differences between laboratory-scale so-
lar cells and commercially produced modules shows the maturity of
the thin-film deposition technology. However, as can be seen from the
Fig. 3 [16] there have been no major validated records in cell efficiency
in the last two decades. This is, of course, due to the near elimination
of research funding for a-Si:H, and the loss of most of the major manu-
facturing organizations. Of the 9.3-GW of thin-film PV shipped in 2022,
only about 1% was in the a-Si:H category [10].
Copper-(indium/gallium)-selenide (CIGS) technology
Following the demonstration of a CdS/single crystal copper-indium-
selenide (CIS) solar cell at Bell Telephone Laboratories [32], the first
confirmed thin-film CIS solar cell was reported by the University of
Maine in 1975 [33]. At the time, this technology was treated more as a
technical curiosity because the major program investments were in the
Cd(Zn)S/Cux S cell that eventually surpassed the 10%-efficiency level
in 1981 [34]. However, cell stability issues brought this thin-film pro-
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Solar Compass 7 (2023) 100053
gram abruptly to a halt. During this same period, a parallel effort on
the ternary was supported by the US Department of Energy at the Boe-
ing Corporation. That work substantially improved the cell by adding
Ga (small amounts substituting for the In) to increase the voltage, pro-
vided better uniformity using controlled deposition from separate el-
emental evaporation sources (i.e., Cu, In, Ga, and Se), and improved
the processing through low-temperature post-deposition annealing. The
cell was confirmed with >10% efficiency in 1984 [35,36]—establishing
the potential as a higher efficiency and stability alternative to either
CdS/Cux S or a-Si:H.
Performance progress evolved significantly in the 1980s and 1990s,
with leading contributions from the research and industry laboratories
(NREL, the University of Stuttgart, EuroCIS, Boeing, ARCO). These pro-
vided engineering and science understanding through the gradation of
the Cu and In across the film, the control and optimization of the inter-
faces, improvement of contacting and window materials [37,38]. Cells
were confirmed with efficiencies above 20% by 2008. CIGS has reached
efficiencies up to 23.6% (2023) for a small 1cm2 -area produced by
Evolar/Upsala University [39] [Note: Evolar was acquired by First Solar in
May 2023], and submodule efficiency of 19.8% made by Avancis of a cell
area of 665-cm2 (2021) [40]. The efficiencies of commercially available
larger modules are still around 16% [41]. The high efficiency of these
cells has always been one of the key motivations for its R&D, and also
now the buffer layer can be fabricated without Cd [41]. Stability has
been heralded for this device, although there are light-stability issues in
that the efficiencies increase for a period after sun exposure. The com-
mercial module development might have been impeded by the precipi-
tous drop in manufacturing organizations that could not compete with
the falling prices in crystalline-Si modules from China. The closing of the
gap in efficiencies from cell level to large-area modules is one priority
for this technology’s future. Remaining issues with shading-induced hot
spots and potential induced degradation depend on the quality of the
module [42]. Despite a limited commercial production capacity, ∼80
GWp was shipped into the world markets in 2022, primarily from Eu-
rope but some from the US and Taiwan facilities [10].
Cadmium telluride (CdTe)
Thin-film CdTe PV has been by far the most successful of these thin-
film technologies gauged by commercial production and market deploy-
ments. In 2022, CdTe shipments accounted more some 9.2 GWp, about
98% of the thin-film product dispatched (mainly from the US, Malaysia,
S. Wijewardane and L.L. Kazmerski
and Vietnam manufacturing facilities) [10]. The CdTe production ca-
pacity was estimated to be 10.5 GW in 2022—and expected to more
than double in the next 5 years. And the 2022 global prices for these
modules are reported to be among the lowest of all PV panels (ranging
from $0.30 to $0.45/Wp) [10].
Interest in CdTe photovoltaics dates back to the 1950–1960 time-
frame with research on both single-crystal and thin-film devices
[43–47]. With the focus turning toward terrestrial solar power, Bonnet
and Rabenhorst reported a 6% thin-film solar cell that brought credibil-
ity of this material at an opportune time and need [46,47]. Device de-
velopment was led by industry research laboratories, with the first con-
firmed efficiency at 8.1% by Matsushita [48] (Fig. 3), followed by series
of contributions from Monosolar, Kodak, AMETEK, and Photon Energy
[49]. The University of South Florida provided insights into the con-
trol of the interfaces and improved contacts leading to significant effi-
ciency improvements to the 16% level in the mid-1990s [49]. In the last
decade, First Solar was responsible for the major device records (22.1%
in 2016 and the current leading efficiency of 22.3% [50,51])—and 2.8
m2 -modules with >19% datasheet efficiencies [51]. This is a respectable
demonstration of closing the gaps in performance between research de-
vices and large-scale commercial panels.
This technology did encounter perceived concerns about toxicity as-
sociated with cadmium. But because of this scrutiny, this technology
came to the forefront of sustainability by extensive evaluations of its en-
vironmental and performance readiness. Early installations were tightly
controlled (“behind the fence”) to ensure and demonstrated quality and
safety. The major manufacturer was the first company to provide global
recycling of its modules—resulting in current >90% recovery of module
materials. Additionally, the modules have undergone extensive testing
(fire, leaching, etc.) that can assure the consumer of a safe product. To
date, this thin-film module is a PV model with among the lowest car-
bon footprints and fastest energy payback times of the entire menu of
large-scale PV products.
Recent innovations: flexible and lightweight PV technology
Innovation, growth in clean electricity demands, and tenaciousness
continue to drive research and commercial progress with the thin-film
PV community. In this section, we survey some recent and noteworthy
science and technology advancements relevant to two major aspects of
strength for thin-film PV— flexibility and lightweight. A list of selected
recent patents related to flexible PV is appended in Section 7. Flexible
and lightweight PV may have some special purpose and relevance to
emerging and new applications discussed in Section 4.
Hydrogenated Amorphous Silicon: A-Si:H thin film technology is
a mature, high-throughput technology that built its strength on flexible
modules fabricated mainly on metallic [21,26] but also polymeric and
other substrates [52]. The ability to fabricate a-Si:H modules on long rol-
lable flexible substrates at low temperatures with a very high frequency
(VHF) PECVD deposition process makes a-Si:H one of the most success-
ful manufacturable flexible solar cell products. Flexible a-Si:H cell tech-
nology has been demonstrated to be robust, with Uni-Solar modules still
in operation and within specifications after more than 30 years in the
field [30,53,54]. The amorphous nature of the material keeps its phys-
ical flexibility longer, an advantage of this type of cell. Uninterrupted
20–30 m long solar foils fabrication has been demonstrated by Uni-Solar,
PowerFilm, and Hyet Solar [52–55]. Interestingly, a-Si:H has the lowest
efficiency loss with up-scaling, and therefore these films have a certain
advantage for large-area applications.
From an environmental consideration, these films have been success-
fully deposited on cellulose/paper substrates [56–58]. Cellulose/paper
is a low cost, biodegradable, and disposable material. The substrate ac-
counts for ∼50% of total material costs in the commercial counterpart
[59]. Therefore, the use of this substrate holds potential for the “very
lower-cost” thresholds needed for a broad range of disposable consumer
products.
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Solar Compass 7 (2023) 100053
However, one technical barrier is that commercially available cel-
lulose substrates have relatively rough and porous surfaces at the mi-
crometer scale due to their cellulose fiber 3D structure. Such surfaces
represent a challenge for needed uniform thin-film deposition. Smooth-
ing the paper surface can make it suitable to uniform thin-film coating by
physical vapor deposition (PVD) and chemical vapor deposition (CVD)
technologies. Recorded paper-based efficiencies are small, even with a
textured back reflector. However, this technology is still maturing with
indications for performance enhancement. For example, solar cells were
reported on a plain white regular office copying paper (80 g/m2 ) with
a 6.7% conversion efficiency [60]. The market competitiveness of these
disposable electricity devices could be improved, offsetting the disad-
vantage of low efficiencies with their very low material fabrication costs
in volume production.
Copper-Indium, Gallium-Selenide: CIGS has a history of fabrica-
tion of cells and modules on both rigid glass and flexible substrates with
comparable conversion efficiencies. For example, a 22.2% CIGS cell on
a flexible polymer film has been reported [61]. For flexible PV, ultra-
thin flexible glass substrates might have issues with this semiconductor
because of dissimilar thermal expansion coefficients compared to soda-
lime glass. However, this approach has not been investigated. Unlike the
CdTe cell design, this CIGS cell is grown on a metallic back contact that
is coated on the glass. However, the higher deposition temperatures re-
quired for the higher efficiency CIGS devices might prove to be an issue
for the softening of the ultra-thin, flexible glass substrate.
Several commercial ventures used flexible stainless-steel substrates
[62,63]. Miasole had confirmed a record efficiency of 19.4% for a small
cell and light-stabilized module efficiency of 17.1% for CIGS on SS sub-
strates [64]. However, the diffusion of impurities from the steel sub-
strate, particularly Fe, forms deep states in the CIGS absorber and limit
the performance. A diffusion barrier is required to block impurity mi-
gration. Most commercial stainless-steel sheet surfaces contain deep
grooves, spikes, and cavities. This requires surface polishing, coating,
or processing for reasonable device yields. It should be noted that early
portable PV products with CIGS on stainless steel were successfully in-
troduced by Global Solar for military and recreational use [62,63].
Organic substrates such as polyimide films can be used to temper-
atures of ∼450 °C, offering an alternative for flexible CIGS. Polyimide
films are insulating and have an advantage over metal foils to enable
direct monolithic interconnections. This approach can be effective for
a semi-transparent flexible CIGS panel. However, the limitation in pro-
cessing temperatures is one disadvantage over rigid glass approaches.
Additionally, the alkali elements (e.g., Na that would normally come
from processing on a soda lime glass) has to be supplied by postdepo-
sition treatment. An efficiency of 20.8% [65] was achieved by optimiz-
ing alkali post deposition parameters/sequence and by using heat-light
soaking (HLS) treatment the efficiency is increased to 21.4% [31]. Fur-
ther, by modifying the composition of the absorption layer and increas-
ing the grain sizes, the record efficiency of 22.2% has been achieved
[16,31].
Flexible CIGS modules face a number of major challenges. Maintain-
ing the higher efficiencies under longer outdoor operating conditions
has yet to be proven. The encapsulation with polymeric layers that have
to endure high-UV levels and elevated moisture conditions requires ad-
ditional science and engineering investments. Some recent reports of
very thin oxides (e.g., Al2O3) that show promising results under acer-
ated aging tests may provide a durable encapsulation [66].
CdTe: Conventional, CdTe solar modules are fabricated on rigid
glass substrates with their main deployments for power plants. Higher-
temperature (500–650 °C) deposition techniques such as closed-space
sublimation (CSS) and vapor transport deposition are used for best-
performance (efficiency, reliability) commercial products [67].
These higher temperatures are challenges for the polymer substrates,
a preferred choice for flexible substrate. The best-performing polymer
substrates (such as Upilex-S, and CPI [Crystal Clear] Kapton® by Du
Pont) typically have ∼450 °C temperature limits [68,69]. Although low
S. Wijewardane and L.L. Kazmerski
temperature processes such as thermal evaporation can be used on these
polymer substrates, the achievable efficiency is likewise lower. The effi-
ciency of only 13.8% has been reported [70], but less development time
has been invested in these approaches.
To overcome the temperature limitations of polymer substrates, ul-
trathin (WillowR ) flexible glass (alkali free borosilicate glass), with a
thickness of 100-𝜇m, has been used as a substrate with much improved
efficiency [71]. These glasses are stable at required higher temperatures.
Rance et al. [72] reported an efficiency of 14.05% made by CSS at tem-
peratures above 600 °C. The same group reported an efficiency of 16.4%,
the highest efficiency reported to date for CdTe on flexible substrate
[73]. The higher transparency is achieved by sputtering the CdS hetero-
junction layer.
Transferring CdTe stacks fabricated on a rigid substrate to flexi-
ble substrates through a lift-off method instead of directly depositing
them on flexible substrates is an alternate method for flexible CdTe cell
fabrication. Scarification layer-assisted lift-off and water-assisted lift-off
methods have gained recent interest [74,75]. The water-assisted lift-off
method is recently reported by Wen and co-workers for lifting epitax-
ial CdTe films off from a muscovite mica (K2 O·Al2 O3 ·SiO2 ) substrate
[76]. Although epitaxially growth films are known for good quality and
exhibit less stress, the reported efficiency in this work is only 9.59%. An-
other group has improved the performance of previous work and obtain
a PCE of 12.6% [77]. Because of the moisture sensitivity of mica, this
group has introduced a cadmium chloride (CdCl2 ) vapor treatment for
the cadmium sulfide (CdS) film to remove the moisture before the CdTe
deposition. Although the highest achieved PCE for the lift-off method
even on rigid superstrate device is 15.5% [78] and still less than the
highest efficiency achieved by a direct deposit method, there is much
room for improvement.
For some applications such as “space,” lightweight and high specific
power (W/kg) are important. CdTe cells with a higher bandgap have
demonstrated good stability against proton and electron irradiation. To
reduce the weight and improve the specific power output, commer-
cially available yttria-stabilized tetragonal zirconia (3YSZ), a ceramic
substrate which is compatible with high temperature processing, has re-
cently been used to fabricate CdTe cells [79]. Specific power of 6 kW/kg
and an efficiency of 11.2% has been achieved with 20-𝜇m thick 3YSZ
ceramic substrate.
Emerging applications
In a sense, we have adapted ourselves with existing PV “module”
technology and geometries for our intended applications. Rectangular
PV modules are fitted as well as possible on irregularly shaped, angled,
and oriented roofs. We make do with adjusting the separation of square,
opaque cells (losing power) to let in a fixed amount of light on a façade,
window, a greenhouse, or skylight. We design our floating PV with the
same general constraints as our land-based power plants on bulky raft-
like structures. And we settle for acquiring the technology for electric-
ity, not considering the value of aesthetics. The future requires some
paradigm shifts in many phases and formats of PV technology that may
foster novel approaches and thin-film markets.
Building-integrated PV (BIPV)
The building sector accounts for about 1/3 of the world’s energy
consumption—of which solar electric power supplies only about 1.5%
[80]. By comparison, PV currently supplies about 6% of the solar power
segment—its major contribution. To approach 100% renewable energy,
PV is positioned to make major contributions to this sector. And thin
film technology can play an important role in true BIPV [7].
Certainly, in the roofing area, this has already been experienced with
a-Si:H designed for roofing shingles in the format of metal seam roofs
[21]. This was an early introduction into the roof-integrated (not build-
ing applied PV) markets. The issues for BIPV and the needs and advan-
5
Solar Compass 7 (2023) 100053
tages over building applied PV (BAPV) have been recently reported [7].
The blending of the energy needs and the architectural aesthetics are
becoming more important—and is the area that thin film photovoltaics
can have significant impact.
Thin film PV technology would seem to be well suited to a rapid im-
plementation of BIPV. Of course, crystalline-Si has been effective in this
relatively small current, but thin film PV poses some advantages for light
control, electricity generation, weight, and architectural value. BIPV is
certainly an area that can add value to a building—but as for energy and
for aesthetics. Some examples of thin film PV integration have been re-
alized successfully using a-Si:H, CIGS, and organic PV. Advanced Solar
Power has been focused on this special BIPV market in China, with CdTe
“thin-film” glass customized in size, color, pattern, shade, and transmis-
sion for several major commercial buildings [81]—as well as for curtain
walls in Sweden and Colombia. The company claims “panel” efficiencies
in excess of 13% and warranties covering 25 years. The arguments are
clear: these thin-films can lower energy costs, provide clean electricity,
improve power generation capacities, control building temperatures and
light ingress, enhance people comfort—and add to the value of the site.
Transportation
Though transportation accounts for about 1/3 of the energy demand
this past year, renewable electricity accounted for only about 0.4% of that
sector’s energy consumption in 2021–2022. With the worldwide targets
being established for clean energy vehicles and renewable power, so-
lar PV is expected to have significant market growth in battery charg-
ing, green hydrogen production, and niche vehicle electrical demands
[80,81].
Photovoltaics is already an important player in powering charging
stations. But thin film PV has also been evaluated for direct integra-
tion into various moving vehicles, such as buses, refrigerated trucks,
boats, railways, and automobiles—and thin-films have had some suc-
cesses [82–85]. For example, PV power can be used in a vehicle roof or
sunroof of a car to power fans to cool the vehicle while it is parked to
lower the internal temperature, lessening the need for air-conditioning
when it is started. The form factor for thin films makes this technol-
ogy particularly adaptable to curved surfaces, able to blend with the
aerodynamic wind-resisting design, and provide better power output in
higher vehicle surface temperatures conditions. Such niche market ap-
plications present opportunities for small power contributions that can
lower carbon emissions and add to human comfort.
Aquatic solar power
Most solar power applications have been land based. The use of the
world’s extensive aquatic areas provides some interesting opportunities
and challenges to increase the clean power production that also add to
the environmental values of lakes, reservoirs, and oceans.
Floating solar photovoltaics (FPV)
Floating solar photovoltaics (FPV), termed “floatovoltaics,” is boom-
ing with a rapid growth rate [86]. The scarcity of land and high land
prices are the main motivations behind this growth. Thin-film solar pan-
els have some advantages over conventional rigid silicon solar panels to
be used in FPV. The main advantage is that these floating structures can
be made flexible with thin film solar modules. The flexible structures can
yield to incoming waves more effectively by dispersing the waves and
minimizing the energy absorption than rigid structures can. This pre-
vents the usage of large and high-cost strong structures to sustain wind
damages. Also, the direct contact with the water surface will cool down
the panels, thus improving the cell efficiency. Also, since the PV system
is lightweight and floating, the entire array can move and rotate with
less energy. The basic concept of flexible thin film PV is demonstrated in
Fig. 4 [87]. There are few suggested innovations to realize this concept.
Norwegian Ocean Sun has fabricated a floating thin-film photovoltaic
S. Wijewardane and L.L. Kazmerski
Fig. 4. Basic concept of floating flexible thin film PV [86].
system that uses a thin polymer membrane placed on a circular floater
to carry the customized PV modules [88]. However, the mechanical tests
performed at offshore (North Sea) showed that the flexible CIGS mod-
ules deteriorate significantly under the wave induced strains [89]. The
flexible floaters made of double wall fabric couldn’t block the strains
been transferred to the PV modules. Therefore, more innovative design
is required to use this technology in harsh environments such as North
Sea. Also, more innovations such as a method for sun tracking are re-
quired for better adaptability.
Underwater applications: submerged PV
Conventional crystalline silicon solar cells with a band gap of 1.1 eV
convert near IR radiation more effectively than visible or ultravio-
let. However, water molecules absorb IR radiation within very shal-
low depths and thus limit the efficiency of conventional crystalline
silicon solar cells under water. High bandgap PV materials would be
more appropriate for submerged PV as these materials convert higher-
frequency visible and ultraviolet more effectively than conventional
silicon solar cells. Amorphous silicon-based thin film solar cells with
a band gap of 1.8 eV outperform conventional traditional monocrys-
talline silicon PV by more than 20–25% under water [90]. Although
there are few higher band-gap solar cells available such as organic so-
lar cells, the maturity of technology, stability and reliability of amor-
phous silicon solar cells make it more appropriate for underwater
applications.
Agrivoltaics
PV had been criticized for taking valuable land that was crucially
needed for feeding our populations. In many situations, the proper inte-
gration of PV into the agricultural sector has been shown to be effective
in augmenting crop production in addition to co-providing electricity
for irrigation, water pumping, water treatment, powering and control-
ling sunlight for greenhouses, and augmenting the electricity demands
of the farmhouse or neighboring communities [80]. This “agrivoltaics”
which is sharing land for both solar PV and crop production simulta-
neously is not a new concept, having been proposed by Zastrow and
Goetzberger and in 1981, showing crops and solar PV had mutual ad-
vantages [91]. In conventional agrivoltaics, the crops are grown un-
der the shade of solar panels. Plants that are vulnerable to high heat
and UV damage yield higher crop production under the PV panels. The
6
Solar Compass 7 (2023) 100053
soil is more prone to maintaining moisture. However, with the develop-
ment of transparent/semitransparent or particularly thin-film PV mod-
ules with frequency-dependent transparency, the concept of agrivoltaics
has reached new dimensions. Not all the plants are equally sensitive to
different visible frequencies for photosynthesis process. Different types
of plants use different forms of chlorophyll for photosynthesis [92].
Therefore, with thin film PV modules with frequency-dependent trans-
parency it is possible to let the highest sensitive frequency range pass
through the cells for photosynthesis process while the rest of the visible
frequencies with UV and infrared produce power.
Space applications
Space, PV’s first major application, continues to be a significant mar-
ket for solar power and one that as it expands into new dimensions may
provide opportunities for thin films. In 2021, thin-film cadmium tel-
luride solar cells on ultra-thin glass (100 μm) have tested for the first
time for space applications [93]. Three-yearlong orbital test results eval-
uated the durability of the technology. The results showed an excellent
performance, other than the decrease in shunt resistance due to the gold
diffusion to absorber layer and front interface from the rear contacts.
Currently GaAs cells are used in space applications because of the very
high efficiency and high-power density. However lightweight ultra-thin
CdTe PV, with higher specific power (W/kg) and lower cost, has the
potential for replacing high-cost GaAs cells.
Recent commercialization
One of the main challenges in commercializing solar PV application
is the difficulty of integration with existing architecture/structures with-
out degrading its functionality and aesthetics. However, recently there
are many successful instances that overcame the above challenge. Solar
Cloth UK has integrated CIGS flexible modules in sailing fabrics with
the same encapsulation technique used for the production of polyester
webs, the fabric of the sail itself [94]. Stainless steel-based CIGS flexible
PV modules are incorporated in Renault trucks to meet the growing de-
mand for electricity on board and increase battery life [95]. The project,
“Rolling Solar” in the Netherlands is demonstrating the innovative in-
tegration of flexible thin solar PV in road infrastructure such as road
surfaces, guardrails and noise barriers [96].
S. Wijewardane and L.L. Kazmerski
Manufacturing prospects
The manufacturing and processing advantages for thin films have
already been discussed. However, the current trends in PV commercial
operations present some significant opportunities for thin films. Analysts
have recently reported that the current almost “single country sourcing”
of the major components of PV modules has important disadvantages
and burdens [10]. It is forecast that the prices for PV panels could not
only discontinue the downward trends but increase significantly. This
can be due to disruptions of the PV value chain components and the
products themselves because of political interruptions and forced and
oppressed labor practices [10,97]. It has always been noted that the cost
of PV is lowest if produced near its point of use. So recently there has
been a significant shift toward country production of PV and diversifying
supply chains, certainly highlighted by the activities in the U.S., India,
Europe, and Brazil [98–101].
Thin-film PV has advantages in this scenario. Thin film PV manu-
facturing could be initiated rapidly, even in the developing world and
emerging PV markets. In most cases, there is not competing crystalline-
Si manufacturing. The feedstocks and supply chains for these technolo-
gies can be easier to supply in many regions. The critical component
for current thin-films is the glass—which is mitigated in the case of thin
films with use of flexible substrates. As world manufacturing expands
with the country specific targets, thin-film PV has opportunities to com-
pete.
Summary and conclusions
This survey highlights the evolution and recent innovations in flex-
ible CIGS, CdTe and a-Si:H technologies. The recent 50th IEEE Photo-
voltaic Specialists Conference, June 2023 in San Juan, Puerto Rico, held
a surprising number of papers pointing toward the advantages of thin
film PV (especially flexible) for both terrestrial and space applications.
This included some highlights on the building and transportation sec-
tors. These highlighted not only the 3 technologies in this paper, but also
hybrid perovskites and tandems with Si, CIGS, and CdTe alloys, as well
as perovskite/perovskite tandems [102]. Current progress in improving
the electrical power performances of these solar devices have been dis-
cussed. Silicon technology certainly remains the dominant leader for
the PV power sector, however with the rapid advancements and ex-
pansion of needs and applications for clean power, new markets (niche
and large) are being introduced. And thin film PV has opportunities
to serve these better with special form factor, weight, temperature, so-
lar response, and manufacturing advantages. In Section 7 we present a
selected thin film PV patents since 2020 and reference [103] reviews
patent trends for thin-film PV.
Selection of recent thin-film PV patents and inventions (since
2020)
CN111403558B: High-efficiency flexible laminated thin-film so-
lar cell and preparation method thereof https://patents.google.com/
patent/CN111403558B/en?q=(CIGS)&after=priority:20200101
CN115411143A: Large-area flexible CIGS solar cell and man-
ufacturing method thereof https://patents.google.com/patent/
CN115411143A/en?q=(CIGS)&after=priority:20200101
US11374144B2: Method for recovering resource from CIGS thin-
film solar cell https://patents.google.com/patent/US11374144B2/en?
q=(CIGS)&after=priority:20, 200, 101&page=1
CN218730995U: Flexible solar energy component of hot spot pre-
vention CIGS https://patents.google.com/patent/CN218730995U/en?
q=(CIGS)&after=priority:20, 200, 101&page=2
KR20230032213A: Flexible thin film solar cell and method
for manufacturing the same https://patents.google.com/patent/
KR20230032213A/en?q=(CIGS)&after=priority:20,200,
101&page=5
7
Solar Compass 7 (2023) 100053
CN112663019B: Synchronous control structure for roll-to-roll
conveying of CIGS co-evaporation method https://patents.google.
com/patent/CN112663019B/en?q=(CIGS)&after=priority:20,200,
101&page=2
US20220173262A1: See-through thin film solar cell module and
method of manufacturing the same https://patents.google.com/patent/
US20220173262A1/en?q=(CIGS)&country=US&after=priority:
20, 200, 101
CN114005904A: Flexible copper indium gallium selenide solar cell
and preparation method thereof https://patents.google.com/patent/
CN114005904A/en?q=(CIGS)&after=priority:20, 200, 101&page=3
KR102021571B1: Flexible thin film solar cell comprising pretreated
flexible substrate for removing oxygen https://patents.google.com/
patent/KR102021571B1/en?q=(CIGS)&country=US&after=priority:
2, 020, 010
CN114512559A: Flexible large-area laminated solar cell and
preparation method thereof https://patents.google.com/patent/
CN114512559A/en?q=(CIGS)&after=priority:20, 200, 101&page=4
CN112786713A: Efficient ultrathin copper indium gallium selenide
thin-film solar cell and preparation method thereof https://patents.
google.com/patent/CN112786713A/en?q=(CIGS)&after=priority:
20, 200, 101&page=4
WO2022175276A1: Foil for use with a double curved so-
lar panel https://patents.google.com/patent/WO2022175276A1/en?
q=(CIGS)&country=WO&after=priority:20, 200, 101&page=1
CN112626455A: Vacuum system for controlling reactive sput-
tering plume of flexible CIGS (copper indium gallium selenide)
film https://patents.google.com/patent/CN112626455A/en?q=(CIGS)
&after=priority:20, 200, 101&page=5
WO2022114330A1: Method for planarizing cis-based thin film,
cis-based thin film manufactured by using same, and solar cell com-
prising the cis-based thin film https://patents.google.com/patent/
WO2022114330A1/en?q=(CIGS)&country=WO&after=priority:
20, 200, 101&page=1
CN114672784A: Flexible reel-to-reel CIGS evaporation plume con-
trol structure https://patents.google.com/patent/CN114672784A/en?
q=(CIGS)&after=priority:20, 200, 101&page=7
WO2022087543A1: Three dimensional concave hemisphere so-
lar cells https://patents.google.com/patent/WO2022087543A1/en?q=
(CIGS)&country=WO&after=priority:20, 200, 101&page=1
CN112599612A: Laser scribing method of metal electrode and thin-
film solar cell https://patents.google.com/patent/CN112599612A/en?
q=(CIGS)&after=priority:20, 200, 101&page=8
WO2022061295A1: Transparent conducting layers and photo-
voltaic devices including the same https://patents.google.com/patent/
WO2022061295A1/en?q=(CIGS)& country=US,WO&after=priority:
20, 200, 101
US20220060142A1: Three-Dimensional Photovoltaic Charging
System https://patents.google.com/patent/US20220060142A1/en?q=
(Flexible+CdTe)&country=US&after=priority:20, 200, 101&page=1
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