Next Energy 1 (2023) 100004

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Next Energy
journal homepage: www.sciencedirect.com/journal/next-energy

Comment

Perovskite solar cell developments, whatʼs next?

Qiang Fua,b,c, Alex K.Y. Jena,b,c,
⁎ ]]
]]]]]]
]]

a
Department of Materials Science and Engineering, City University of Hong Kong, Kowloon 999077, Hong Kong
b
Department of Chemistry, City University of Hong Kong, Kowloon 999077, Hong Kong
c
Hong Kong Institute for Clean Energy, City University of Hong Kong, Kowloon 999077, Hong Kong

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: In this comment, we analyze the challenges we are facing for the further development of perovskite solar cells for
Perovskite solar cells their commercialization and offer our recommendations. It includes the following aspects: upscaling of lab-sized
Perovskite solar modules devices to different sized modules, further improving their efficiencies and stability, establishing proper char-
Stability acterization tools to help understand the underlying mechanisms of defect formation and develop needed
Tandem solar cells
methods to reduce them, riding on the rapid development of several perovskite-based tandem cells to facilitate
the commercialization of perovskite PV, establishing suitable accelerated testing protocols and standards to
evaluate perovskite-based modules and panels.

The need to decarbonize current energy utilization has driven a
vigorous search for novel photovoltaic (PV) technologies to deliver high
power conversion efficiencies (PCEs) at low manufacturing costs.
Perovskite solar cells (PSCs) are a promising laboratory-scale PV tech-
nology with PCE reaching 25.7% for single-junction cells and 32.5% for
tandem solar cells (TSCs) with crystalline silicon [1]. PSCs also offer
several advantages over other established PV technologies, such as
higher power output, enhanced weak-light performance, and mechan-
ical flexibility, allowing them to be integrated into various applications,
including transportation, building-integrated PV, aerospace, and the
Internet of Things [2]. Although perovskite PV has entered the pre-
liminary commercialization stage, there are still several significant
technical challenges that need to be met before it can be ready for
commercialization. A schematic of these challenges and the possible
focus of next-stage research is shown in Fig. 1. (1) One of the most
critical challenges is upscaling of the efficiency of perovskite solar
modules (PSMs) from lab-sized devices. The commercialization of
perovskite PV technology is dependent on the development of highly
efficient, stable, large-area PSMs. However, the efficiency of PSMs
(> 200 cm2) is significantly lower than that of the small-area PSCs
(< 1 cm2) and much lower than those of commercial cells with similar
sizes, such as crystalline silicon (c-Si), cadmium telluride (CdTe), and
copper indium gallium selenide (CIGS) solar cells. (2) The second
challenge is related to the stability and durability of these modules.
While significant progress has been made in academic research on the
stability of small-area PSCs, the operational stability of PSMs has
lagged, which needs considerable attention. (3) The third challenge
concerns the perovskite-based tandem solar cells (TSCs). Although the
performance of perovskite/c-Si and all-perovskite TSCs stands out
among perovskite-based TSCs, there is a strong need to further optimize
their efficiencies, stability, and processing of large-area both wide-
bandgap and narrow-bandgap perovskite subcells and interconnection
layers (ICLs) for sustaining their vibrant development for commercia-
lization.
Large-area perovskite solar modules
Currently, the PSC with a record-high 25.7% PCE is based on spin-
coated small-area devices (≈0.1 cm2). There is still a significant gap
between the efficiencies of small-area PSCs to large-area perovskite
solar modules (PSMs). In 2020, Panasonic demonstrated a certified PCE
of 17.9% on a PSM with an area of 804 cm2. However, the PSMs made
in laboratories are usually less than 100 cm2, and the highest PCE is
only around 21% [3]. There are several categories in photovoltaic
modules, such as modules (> 800 cm2), sub-modules (200–800 cm2),
and mini-modules (< 200 cm2). The traditional spin-coating methods
are unsuitable for fabricating large-area PSMs (> 200 cm2). Therefore,
several scalable solution-coating techniques have been developed due
to their high utilization rate of raw materials, low cost, and fast pro-
duction rate, including slot-die coating (the current mainstream
choice), spray coating, inkjet printing, and blade coating [4]. In addi-
tion, vacuum coating is also adopted due to the large-area uniformity

⁎
Corresponding author at: Department of Materials Science and Engineering, City University of Hong Kong, Kowloon 999077, Hong Kong.
E-mail address: alexjen@cityu.edu.hk (A.K.Y. Jen).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.nxener.2023.100004
Received 30 January 2023; Accepted 30 January 2023
2949-821X/© 2023 The Authors. Published by Elsevier Ltd. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-
nc-nd/4.0/).
Q. Fu and A.K.Y. Jen
Fig. 1. Schematic of the technical challenges facing perovskite PV commer-
cialization and the focus of next-stage research.
and low requirements for substrate flatness [5].
As a potentially competing technology to c-Si PV, the levelized cost
of electricity (LCOE) of perovskite PV is a critical factor in determining
its future for commercialization [6]. To further reduce LCOE, it requires
the simultaneous optimization of cost, efficiency, and lifetime. It is
crucial to establish high-throughput production without bottlenecks for
lowering manufacturing costs. Vacuum coating usually has higher
equipment cost, slower production rate, and lower compatibility with
adjustment of perovskite formulations. Therefore, the slot-die coating
method may be a good option for upscaling perovskite PV due to its fast
production rate and higher equipment compatibility, including the roll-
to-roll process [7].
To achieve full coverage, large-area perovskite films with smooth
surface, high crystallinity, and low defects, it needs to maintain both
physical and chemical consistency of crystallization. Due to limited
research in preparing perovskite films through the slot-die coating, it is
challenging to achieve high-quality perovskite films that can duplicate
the success achieved through spin-coating for smaller-sized devices.
Therefore, more comprehensive studies on perovskite crystallization
kinetics under the influence of additives and solvent engineering are
needed to achieve optimal perovskite films.
Based on the advances made so far in fabricating large-area per-
ovskite PVs, the following tasks for narrowing the efficiency gap of
large-area PSMs are recommended. The first task is to ensure re-
producibility can be achieved in preparing high-quality perovskite
layers using the employed upscaling methods. The second task is to
ensure cost-effective and scalable ways can be selected for depositing
low-cost charge extraction/transport layers, as well as bottom and top
electrodes. The third task is to ensure optimal structural designs of
PSMs can be used to achieve high PV performance.
To accomplish these tasks, optimal perovskite precursor inks should
be developed first to enable the fabrication of high-quality, large-area
perovskite films. This includes the development of proper compositions
and multifunctional additives that can stabilize precursor solutions,
modulate the crystallization of perovskites, passivate bulk phase de-
fects, and inhibit ion migration and phase transition. Fast nucleation
and slow crystallization are critical for fabricating high-quality, uni-
form films with full coverage through the solution-based deposition.
Solvent properties, including vapor pressure, boiling point, interactions
with perovskite precursors (or complex formation), annealing condi-
tions, and additives, are essential parameters for controlling large-area
2
Next Energy 1 (2023) 100004
crystallization of perovskite films.
Understanding the crystallization kinetics in complex environments
and establishing guiding rules for controlling the thin film crystal-
lization process is essential for developing high-quality large-area per-
ovskite films. In addition, it is vital to develop appropriate quenching
methods for rapid and controllable solvent removal from the large-area
film, such as combined gas quenching and high-temperature deposition,
anti-solvent immersion, and vacuum quenching.
Then, low-cost, highly stable charge-transporting and interfacial
layers should also be developed for large-area coating. Currently, the
guiding rules for the development of optimal charge-transporting layers
and interfacial materials are still lacking since most of the research
community employs a trial-and-error strategy. The development of
multifunctional interfacial materials that can simultaneously suppress
defect states, enhance carrier extraction, and prevent device degrada-
tion is urgently needed. Moreover, developing materials containing
various functional groups or Lewis acids/bases that can help passivate
defects and ion fixation will be a big plus. Using a two-dimensional
perovskite layer or a hydrophobic polymer should also be able to help
suppress moisture permeation. In addition, interfacial materials must
also have inherent chemical and thermal stability and low cost to fa-
cilitate long-term operation and reduce overall cost.
It is also imperative to design optimal device structure and laser
scribing process with improved consistency of PSM manufacturing
process to facilitate industrialization. The device structure of PSC is
mainly divided into normal and inverted structures. The normal-
structure PSC shows a slightly higher PCE (25.7%). However, the PCE
of inverted PSCs has caught up rapidly in recent years, reaching close to
25%. Inverted PSCs also offer better operational stability and compat-
ibility for fabricating tandem solar cells. The industry should commu-
nicate with academia the preferred structure (normal or inverted) for
industrialization in order to accelerate research progress.
Finally, it is essential to also develop novel characterization tools for
studying perovskite crystallization during large-area coating, estab-
lishing accurate macroscopic and microscopic defect detection and
evaluation methods, forming empirical guidelines for achieving uni-
form large-area film formation, and shortening the time cycle for
technology development [8].
Stability
Although an excellent lifetime of small-area cells has been reported,
the lifetime of PSMs remains questionable for technology commercia-
lization. Compared with the small-sized PSCs, large-area PSMs have
more degradation pathways due to increased active area and more
complicated module structure, which tends to significantly affect their
long-term stability. It is critical to understand the device degradation
mechanisms under different aging tests and to develop accelerated
stress test (AST) standards for PSMs. The commonly accepted standard
for large-scale commercial cells is to pass the International
Electrochemical Committee (IEC) tests, which include thermal cycling,
damp heat, damp freezing, mechanical load, hail test, ultraviolet light,
and outdoor testing. In addition, the International Summit on Organic
Photovoltaic Stability (ISOS) standards (e.g., ISOS-L-2 light immersion
test) have also been applied for perovskite PV.
The instability of perovskite PV often originates from two sources:
the inherent instability of perovskite material itself under stresses, such
as temperature, light, and bias voltage; and the external factors, such as
humidity and oxygen in ambient air. The degradation of perovskite
caused by ion migration and phase separation cannot be prevented by
encapsulation. In addition, the instability of the transport layer and
electrodes in perovskite PV can also limit the stability of the whole
device. Although the current encapsulation technology for c-Si cells has
been adapted to encapsulate PSMs, moisture and oxygen can still de-
grade them if the encapsulation fails after long-term operation. The
commonly used 85%RH/85 °C damp heat test and maximum power
Q. Fu and A.K.Y. Jen
point tracking (MPPT) test for small-area devices can also be applied for
large-area PSMs. However, additional issues for large-scale PSMs are
interconnection and the effect of hot spots. For the former, the per-
ovskite at the interconnect may degrade under heat, light, and hu-
midity. For the latter, once a small dot in the PSMs fails to function
correctly, it will cause excess electrons to accumulate at the small dot,
leading to severe heating of PSMs to degrade them.
Strategies to further improve 85% RH/85 °C damp-heat stability
and MPPT stability can be summarized in the following aspects: (1)
Develop a high-quality perovskite layer having less microscopic de-
fects to improve PSM’s stability to water, oxygen, light and heat,
considering the combined effects of elevated temperature, humidity,
and light. Some CsFAMA-based mixed-cation systems have been re-
ported as promising candidates recently. Also, some passivation
strategies to improve the homogeneity and crystallinity of perovskite
films play a crucial role (including 2D/3D perovskite, multifunctional
additives, etc.). (2) Develop stable CTLs with fast charge extraction to
avoid degradation caused by charge accumulation at the interface.
The utilization of multifunctional interfacial layers that can prevent
UV irradiation, moisture erosion, etc., is another promising strategy
to improve stability and device performance simultaneously. (3)
Develop robust encapsulation technology based on specific proces-
sing and applications. The development of suitable encapsulation
materials and methods will reduce perovskite decomposition during
operation. In addition, the encapsulation process should also be
compatible with the roll-to-roll process, using either ultraviolet-cur-
able adhesives to laminate barrier films or by printing methods. With
these developments, better PSM stability can be achieved to facilitate
perovskite PV commercialization.
Tandem solar cells
Although the PCE of formamidinium lead iodide (FAPbI3) based
single-junction PSCs has reached 25% [9], most of the light in the near-
infrared region still cannot be effectively used, which prohibited further
PCE advancement in recent two years. The tandem solar cells composed
of multiple active layers with different bandgaps (Eg) that can absorb a
broader range of light are promising to break through the bottleneck of
Shockley-Queisser (S-Q) limit efficiency of single-junction PSCs.
The current mainstream two-terminal (2 T) tandem solar cells
(TSCs) are composed of a wide bandgap (WBG) subcell at the top and a
narrow bandgap (NBG) subcell at the bottom. The top subcell is re-
sponsible for absorbing high-energy photons while the bottom subcell
absorbs low-energy photons. Therefore, 2 T-TSCs can expand the utili-
zation range of the solar spectrum, making more rational use of photons
in the full spectral range and reducing thermal energy loss [10]. Ac-
cording to the active layer materials used in NBG subcells, 2 T-TSCs are
mainly divided into the following four types: 2 T perovskite/crystalline
silicon (perovskite/c-Si) (certified PCEmax = 32.5%), perovskite/per-
ovskite (all-perovskite) (certified PCEmax = 29.0%), perovskite/copper
indium gallium selenide (perovskite/CIGS) (certified PCEmax = 24.2%),
and perovskite/organic (certified PCEmax = 23.1%) monolithic TSC.
The development of high-performance WBG subcell and inter-
connection layer (ICL) are the keys for achieving efficient and stable
2 T-TSCs. To achieve these, the following development should be em-
phasized: (1) WBG subcells with high open-circuit voltage through
component regulation and interface passivation, solving the critical
problem of their high energy loss in 2 T-TSCs. (2) Multifunctional defect
passivation materials and optimized thin-film deposition process to
suppress phase separation of mixed halogen perovskites during opera-
tion, solving the prevalent instability problem in WBG subcells. (3)
Robust and low-cost ICLs with high light transmission, high con-
ductivity, and low series resistance to reduce optical parasitic absorp-
tion and VOC/FF losses of 2 T-TSCs.
Based on the current progress of 2 T-TSCs with different NBG sub-
cells, several respective challenges are analyzed below: (1) For 2 T
3
Next Energy 1 (2023) 100004
perovskite/c-Si TSCs, the conformal growth and uniform deposition of
large-area WBG perovskite film and functional layers on the silicon
surface are critical that must be solved before commercialization. (2)
For all-perovskite TSCs, developing suitable and effective deoxidizers
such as Lewis base/acid additives or novel reducing agents to obtain
high-quality, low-defect-density Pb-Sn hybrid NBG perovskite films is
most critical. In addition, cation doping, additive engineering, or hybrid
low-dimensional materials can also be used to maximize the perfor-
mance of NBG subcells. (3) For perovskite/CIGS TSCs, like perovskite/
c-Si TSCs, the biggest challenge is to deposit uniform and dense WBG
perovskite films on the surface of the rough CIGS film. (4) For per-
ovskite/organic TSCs, developing near-infrared active layer materials
with high performance and a broad spectral response range over
1000 nm is critical. In addition, it is critical to developing effective
strategies to inhibit the severe phase segregation of I/Br ions in WBG
perovskites during device operation.
What is next
Although the research on developing high-efficiency and stable PSCs
is quite vibrant, the progress on developing PSMs with similar effi-
ciencies and stability as commercial solar panels is relatively slow.
Fortunately, more and more companies are trying to commercialize
perovskite PV. It is time for the PSC research community to pay attention
to improving the efficiency and long-term stability of perovskite PV,
especially at larger-sized cells (module scale), to achieve cost-effective
commercialization. It is essential to (1) Develop efficient and stable
perovskite materials, functional additives, interfacial materials, and op-
timal device structures to improve the PCE of single-junction cells to
∼28%. It is also critical to develop optimal perovskite ink formulations
and device processing protocols to support the development of large-area
PSMs to facilitate industrialization; (2) Invest significant efforts in de-
veloping suitable tools and protocols for making mini-modules
(< 200 cm2). Compared with the commonly used spin-coating process,
mini-modules should adopt the same film deposition processes that can
be generally used for making sub-modules (200–800 cm2) and modules
(> 800 cm2). The experience gained in optimizing perovskite materials,
ETL, HTL, and encapsulation for fabricating mini-modules should also be
applicable to developing PSMs to facilitate faster material and module
process optimization; (3) Develop robust testing procedures to accurately
assess the long-term stability of perovskite PV, especially PSMs. Although
MPPT is the leading test technique for perovskite PV, the research
community should continuously improve testing procedures to establish
proper standards for accelerated aging tests. Outdoor stability testing
with varying humidity, temperature, and airflow should also be added,
including day/night cycles, etc., to accurately assess the degradation of
perovskite PV over time in real-world applications; (4) Establish close
collaborations between companies and academia to address the pressing
issues in developing large-sized PSMs (> 800 cm2). This will also provide
proper tools, facilities, and processes to validate and adapt the results
and ideas from developing mini-modules in the lab to speed up com-
mercialization; (5) Pick the low-hanging fruits since 2 T perovskite/c-Si
TSCs stand out as the closest perovskite-based tandem PV technology for
commercialization with PCE > 32% in the lab scale. It is critical to also
achieve PCE > 30% based on a commercial c-Si panel with the stability
of more than 20 years. All-perovskite TSCs have recently made rapid
advancements in PCE, which also have the potential to be lower cost and
be the ultimate perovskite-based TSCs after solving the stability and
upscaling problems.
Declaration of Competing Interest
Alex K. Y. Jen thanks the sponsorship of the Lee Shau-Kee Chair
Professor (Materials Science), and the support from the APRC Grant of
the City University of Hong Kong (9380086), the TCFS Grant (GHP/
018/20SZ) and MRP Grant (MRP/040/21X) from the Innovation and
Q. Fu and A.K.Y. Jen
Technology Commission of Hong Kong, the Green Tech Fund
(202020164) from the Environment and Ecology Bureau of Hong Kong,
the GRF grants (11307621, 11316422) from the Research Grants
Council of Hong Kong, Guangdong Major Project of Basic and Applied
Basic Research (2019B030302007), Guangdong-Hong Kong-Macao
Joint Laboratory of Optoelectronic and Magnetic Functional Materials
(2019B121205002).
References
[1] 〈https://www.nrel.gov/pv/cell-efficiency.html〉.
[2] X. Wu, B. Li, Z. Zhu, C.-C. Chueh, A.K.Y. Jen, Designs from single junctions, het-
erojunctions to multijunctions for high-performance perovskite solar cells, Chem.
Soc. Rev. 50 (23) (2021) 13090–13128.
[3] M.A. Green, E.D. Dunlop, G. Siefer, M. Yoshita, N. Kopidakis, K. Bothe, X. Hao, Solar
cell efficiency tables (Version 61), Prog. Photovolt. 31 (1) (2023) 3–16.
[4] Y. Cheng, Y. Peng, A.K.Y. Jen, H.-L. Yip, Development and challenges of metal
halide perovskite solar modules, Sol. RRL 6 (3) (2022) 2100545.
[5] H. Li, J. Zhou, L. Tan, M. Li, C. Jiang, S. Wang, X. Zhao, Y. Liu, Y. Zhang, Y. Ye,
W. Tress, C. Yi, Sequential vacuum-evaporated perovskite solar cells with more than
24% efficiency, Sci. Adv. 8 (28) (2022) eabo7422.
[6] M. De Bastiani, V. Larini, R. Montecucco, G. Grancini, The levelized cost of elec-
tricity from perovskite photovoltaics, Energy Environ. Sci. (2023), https://doi.org/
10.1039/D2EE03136A
[7] T.D. Siegler, A. Dawson, P. Lobaccaro, D. Ung, M.E. Beck, G. Nilsen, L.L. Tinker, The
path to perovskite commercialization: a perspective from the united states solar
energy technologies office, ACS Energy Lett. 7 (5) (2022) 1728–1734.
[8] Y. Zhou, L.M. Herz, A.K.Y. Jen, M. Saliba, Advances and challenges in
Next Energy 1 (2023) 100004
understanding the microscopic structure–property–performance relationship in
perovskite solar cells, Nat. Energy 7 (9) (2022) 794–807.
[9] Y. Zhao, F. Ma, Z. Qu, S. Yu, T. Shen, H.-X. Deng, X. Chu, X. Peng, Y. Yuan,
X. Zhang, J. You, Inactive (PbI2)2RbCl stabilizes perovskite films for efficient solar
cells, Science 377 (6605) (2022) 531–534.
[10] X. Luo, X. Lin, F. Gao, Y. Zhao, X. Li, L. Zhan, Z. Qiu, J. Wang, C. Chen, L. Meng,
X. Gao, Y. Zhang, Z. Huang, R. Fan, H. Liu, Y. Chen, X. Ren, J. Tang, C.-H. Chen,
D. Yang, Y. Tu, X. Liu, D. Liu, Q. Zhao, J. You, J. Fang, Y. Wu, H. Han, X. Zhang,
D. Zhao, F. Huang, H. Zhou, Y. Yuan, Q. Chen, Z. Wang, S.F. Liu, R. Zhu,
J. Nakazaki, Y. Li, L. Han, Recent progress in perovskite solar cells: from device to
commercialization, Sci. China Chem. 65 (12) (2022) 2369–2416.
Qiang Fu received his B.S. in 2016 from Lanzhou University and his Ph.D. in 2021 from
Nankai University. He worked as a research scientist/postdoc in Prof Yongsheng Liu and
Yongsheng Chen’s groups at the Nankai University from 2021 to 2022. He started his
second postdoctor in Prof Alex Jen’s group at the City University of Hong Kong in 2022.
His research is mainly focused on solar-energy conversion, including perovskite solar
cells, modules, and advanced energy materials.
Alex K.Y. Jen is the Lee Shau Kee Chair Professor and Director of Hong Kong Institute for
Clean Energy of the City University of Hong Kong. He also served as the Provost of CityU
during 2016–2020. Prior to CityU, he served as the Boeing-Johnson Chair Professor and
Chair of the Department of Materials Science & Engineering at the University of
Washington, Seattle. He has published more than 1000 papers, with ∼82, 000 citations,
and an h-index of 148. He is also a co-inventor of 65 patents and invention disclosures.
Due to his significant contributions in organic/hybrid functional materials and devices, he
was elected as a Fellow of European Academy of Sciences and Washington State Academy
of Sciences. He is also a Fellow of several professional societies, including AAAS, MRS,
ACS, PMSE, OSA, and SPIE.