IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON COMPONENTS, PACKAGING AND MANUFACTURING TECHNOLOGY, VOL. 11, NO.

10, OCTOBER 2021 1565

A Review of Recent Developments in Pumped

Two-Phase Cooling Technologies
for Electronic Devices
Cong Hiep Hoang , Srikanth Rangarajan , Yaman Manaserh , Mohammad Tradat , Ghazal Mohsenian,
Leila Choobineh , Alfonso Ortega, Scott Schiffres, and Bahgat Sammakia, Fellow, IEEE

Abstract— In this review, the heat transfer characteristics of HTC Heat transfer coefficient (kW/m2 K).
several pumped two-phase electronic cooling technologies are MCHS Microchannel heat sink.
quantitatively examined and compared on the basis of heat flux, Co Confinement number.
coolant temperatures, heat source area, base temperature, and Re Reynolds number.
coolant type. Cooling by parallel flow in mini/microchannels, Bo Bond number.
pin fins, spray cooling, and jet impingement are discussed in
detail. Chip powers up to 2.9 kW and heat fluxes 910 W/cm2 μ Viscosity (Pa·s).
were demonstrated. The different surface modification techniques g Gravity (m2 /s).
used to enhance heat transfer in all four technologies are also ρ Density (kg/m3).
presented. Various coolants used in two-phase cooling applica- σ Surface tension (N/m).
tions are also quantitatively compared in terms of heat transfer G Mass flux (kg/m2 s).
coefficient (HTC), wall temperature, and heat source area. The
current issues and potential research in two-phase cooling were Dch Channel diameter (m).
also discussed. Water cooling has really high performance in CHF Critical heat flux (W/m2 ).
terms of HTC. However, it is challenging for scientists and SEM Scanning electron microscopy.
engineers to implement two-phase cooling with water at wall RTDs Resistance temperature detectors.
temperature lower than 100 ◦ C due to high boiling point of ONB Onset of nucleate boiling.
water at atmospheric pressure. Therefore, two-phase cooling with
water can be implemented in types of electronics that can tolerate HEM Homogeneous equilibrium model.
higher junction temperature. Although having lower HTC, due EDM Electric discharge manufacturing.
to lower boiling point at atmospheric pressure, dielectric coolant P Jet-to-jet pitch (mm).
can be a promising solution in two-phase cooling when lower chip H Jet height (mm).
temperatures are required. Geometry optimization of heat sinks Re D Reynolds number of jet impinging
is a promising research topic and has not been studied extensively
considering the geometry parameters and solid–liquid interaction q  Heat flux (W/cm2 ).
that affect thermal and hydraulic performance. Ahs Heat source area (cm2 ).
Tw Wall temperature (◦ C).
Index Terms— Boiling, electronics cooling, evaporator, heat
sink, two-phase cooling. Tin Inlet temperature (◦ C).
tf Fin thickness (μm).
Dh Hydraulic diameter of the channel (μm).
N OMENCLATURE x Vapor quality.
HI Heterogeneous integration. G Mass flux (kg/m2 s).
DRAM Dynamic random access memory. H Jet-to-target distance (mm).
MEMS Microelectromechanical systems. Nu Nusselt number.
D Jet diameter (mm).
Manuscript received September 5, 2021; revised September 29, 2021;
accepted September 30, 2021. Date of publication October 4, 2021; date L/min Liter per minute.
of current version October 28, 2021. This work was supported in part Ra Surface roughness (μm).
by the NSF Industry/University Cooperative Research Center (IUCRC) GWP Global warming potential.
under Grant IIP-1738793. Recommended for publication by Associate Editor
K. Ramakrishna upon evaluation of reviewers’ comments. (Corresponding
author: Cong Hiep Hoang.)
Cong Hiep Hoang, Srikanth Rangarajan, Yaman Manaserh, Mohammad
Tradat, Ghazal Mohsenian, Scott Schiffres, and Bahgat Sammakia are with the A. Subscripts
Department of Mechanical Engineering, State University of New York at Bing-
hamton, Binghamton, NY 13902 USA (e-mail: hhoang2@binghamton.edu). in Channel inlet.
Leila Choobineh is with the Department of Engineering, SUNY Polytechnic l Liquid.
Institute, Utica, NY 13502 USA.
Alfonso Ortega is with the Department of Mechanical Engineering, g Gas.
Villanova University, Villanova, PA 19085 USA. out Channel outlet.
Color versions of one or more figures in this article are available at sat Saturated temperature.
https://doi.org/10.1109/TCPMT.2021.3117572.
Digital Object Identifier 10.1109/TCPMT.2021.3117572 b base.
2156-3950 © 2021 IEEE. Personal use is permitted, but republication/redistribution requires IEEE permission.
See https://www.ieee.org/publications/rights/index.html for more information.

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1566 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON COMPONENTS, PACKAGING AND MANUFACTURING TECHNOLOGY, VOL. 11, NO. 10, OCTOBER 2021
I. I NTRODUCTION
I NCREASINGLY high heat fluxes are a serious issue
for many electronics applications. Exciting electronics
advances continue to emerge, seemingly nonstop, enabled
both by those at the cutting edge of high tech and by
those who are adapting those developments to make them
useful in our everyday world. In order to implement the
emerging technologies for improving the lives of individuals
across the globe such as artificial intelligence (AI), 5G, edge,
cloud, and data center, autonomous vehicles, and wearable
technology, heterogeneously integrated electronics packages
are considered [1]. The idea of heterogeneous integration is
to combine separately manufactured components in the same
package. The integrated components can vary in functionality,
such as specialized processors, DRAM, flash memory, filters,
connectors, and MEMS device. Heterogeneous integration
poses several significant challenges for thermal management
at multiple length scales ranging from heat extraction from hot
spots, heat transfer through multiple layers of materials, and
different target temperatures for specific devices/materials [2].
The three most common electronics cooling techniques are
air, single-phase liquid, and two-phase cooling [3]–[6]. As heat
flux from electronic and power devices exceeds the capabilities
of air cooling, thermal scientists and engineers shifted their
attention to liquid-cooled heat sinks, which can utilize both
sensible and latent heat to remove heat flux. Due to the evap-
oration of coolant at saturation temperature and high cooling
capacity, pumped two-phase cooling is one of the promising
solutions to thermal management in heterogeneous integration
(HI) electronics packages. Pumped two-phase cooling can
reduce the effects of hot spot, different target temperatures,
and multiple layers of materials. Xu et al. [7] numerically
predicted the heat transfer limitation of air cooling to be 340 W
at a die temperature of 90 ◦ C and with a heat sink base area
of 100 cm2 , while a two-phase cooling heat sink can remove
the power of up to 2450 W at a base area of as small as
9.61 cm2 [6]. Single-phase cooling is also a promising cooling
technology [4], [9]–[12]. However, single-phase cooling gener-
ally can lead to a high-temperature gradient along the channel
at a given maximum allowable pumping power and pressure
drop compared to two-phase cooling [13]–[15]. Kheirabadi
and Groulx [16] reviewed designs of existing technologies
in server electronics. They found that an effective HTC of
two-phase cooling can be as high as 86 kW/m2 K, compared
to 39 kW/m2 K for single-phase water cooling. Fig. 1 shows a
comparison of the HTC of two-phase cooling technology with
other cooling solutions. Fig. 1 also shows the effective HTCs
from individual studies within each bar. The examined cooling
technologies were compared directly by plotting the effective
HTCs obtained from each study as a function of their corre-
sponding inlet temperatures and pumping power requirements.
In recent years, several reviews have been published about
the thermal-hydraulic mechanisms and challenges of two-
phase cooling methods. Kandlikar [17] reviewed the funda-
mental technological developments in liquid cooling, as well
as flow boiling and presented possible solutions for integrating
the cooling system with a building’s heating, ventilation, and
air conditioning (HVAC) unit in a large server-type application.
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Kandlikar [17] claimed that the requirement of low operat-
ing surface temperatures cannot be easily accomplished with
water as the phase change fluid unless the cooling system is
operated at subatmospheric pressures. Kim and Mudawar [18]
conducted a study on the thermal design and operational
limits of two-phase MCHSs. The trends of maximum heat
flux and corresponding trends of pressure drop and maximum
base temperature provide an effective means for achieving
the best compromise when selecting optimum ranges of heat
sink geometrical parameters and operating conditions, in terms
of safely dissipating the heat, maintaining acceptable device
temperature, and minimizing pumping power. Mudawar [19]
discussed the implementation of mini/microchannel, jet, spray
cooling configurations, and hybrid cooling schemes into practi-
cal cooling packages. It was found that the hybrid schemes that
combine two or three configurations not only surpassed the
basic cooling configurations in heat dissipation rate, but they
also provided better surface temperature uniformity. For future
studies, it will be necessary to develop reliable universal corre-
lations for predicting the HTC and pressure drop of two-phase
heat sinks with various coolants. In order to develop these
universal correlations, scientists would benefit from a database
of the performance for different coolants under a broad range
of operating conditions. Unlike in single-phase flows, where
people can use computing tools to predict the results with
enhanced speed and high accuracy, computing tools are still far
from their ability to predict two-phase flow in the large scale
level, especially in the presence of phase change. The comput-
ing tools rely on empirical correlations and costly experimental
work for the improvement of their two-phase model. More
measurements in local HTC and pressure drop are required
to support the computational models and empirical models.
Karayiannis and Mahmoud [22] discussed some fundamental
issues of flow boiling in microchannels. They suggested that
channel surface characteristics, surface wettability, and the size
of the inlet and outlet manifolds were important parameters
that might affect flow instability and reversal. The design
of future miniature cooling systems should take the issue of
energy recovery into consideration, i.e., the removal and reuse
of system heat. Li and Kandlikar [24] reviewed current and
potential future trends in data center cooling technologies. The
paper mentioned that the vapor generated from evaporation
in a two-phase cold plate required a larger return pipe to
transport vapor to the condenser than in a single-phase cold
plate. In addition, district heating using the warm coolant
can be accomplished if there is a residential or commercial
establishment in the vicinity of the data center. In case there
is a power plant nearby, the available heat can be used to
heat the feed water to the steam boiler, thereby improving
the power generation cycle efficiency. Switching to two-phase
on-chip cooling can provide an opportunity to reduce power
consumption considerably. Riofrio et al. [25] summarized the
recent contributions to microchannels, plate-fin heat exchang-
ers, spray cooling, and surface modification techniques of
two-phase cooling heat sinks. Surface modification techniques
were classified as macroscopic, microscopic–nanoscopic, and
hybrids. The authors found that there were very few studies
about hybrid solutions; therefore, future research is needed.
HOANG et al.: REVIEW OF RECENT DEVELOPMENTS IN PUMPED TWO-PHASE COOLING TECHNOLOGIES 1567

Fig. 1. Comparison of effective HTC of different cooling solutions [16].

While these reviews provided a comprehensive picture

of the various technologies available for pumped two-phase
heat sinks, there is a lack of a direct quantitative compari-
son between the numerous cooling solutions. In this article,
an assessment based on a fixed set of quantitative evaluation
criteria is provided. In addition, the heat transfer mecha-
nisms of cooling methods are reviewed. Different surface
modification techniques for two-phase cooling are presented,
emphasizing their effectiveness on heat transfer enhancement.
Various coolants commonly used for two-phase heat sinks are
compared with each other in terms of HTC and heat source
area. This review provides a useful guideline for thermal
engineers who are designing two-phase cooling applications.

II. PARALLEL F LOW IN M INI /MCHS

Significantly improved thermal performance of MCHS is
attributed to high surface contact area between the solid and
fluid combined with more efficient process of flow boiling.
MCHSs have been implemented in many industries, such as
vehicle electronics, lasers, radar and optics, aerospace, and
data centers due to their manufacturability and high perfor-
mance. Because the coolant undergoes phase change inside
the heat sink and heat is removed primarily by the latent heat
of vaporization, rather than sensible heat, coolant flow rate is
greatly reduced for the same amount of heat disposal compared
to a single-phase heat sink. In addition, a more uniform chip
surface temperature is obtained due to coolant evaporation at
a temperature that is close to saturation temperature, which Fig. 2. Visualization images for flow boiling patterns in horizontal
is set by the operating pressure of the system. The thermal microchannel. Reprint with permission from [21].
performance of a two-phase cooling heat sink can be increased
further by employing geometry optimization. While two-phase
cooling with a mini/microchannel has many positive aspects, thin-film evaporation). In nucleate boiling, the HTC is weakly
it is more complicated than single-phase cooling and there is dependent on flow rate and highly dependent on heat flux and
a limited understanding of its heat transfer characteristics and the number of nucleate sites. Nucleate boiling dominates up to
instabilities. intermediate vapor qualities where the flow pattern is bubbly,
Many studies on the heat transfer characteristics of slug, or churn. Convective boiling happens when heat flux is
two-phase cooling pointed out flow patterns in microchannels increased, further exceeding the heat flux for nucleate boiling.
(dispersed bubble, bubbly, slug, churn, annular, and mist flow) In a convective boiling dominant regime, the HTC varies
and heat transfer mechanisms (single-phase dominance, nucle- with flow rate and vapor quality rather than heat flux. The
ate boiling dominance, convective boiling dominance, and thin-film evaporation mechanism happens specifically in the

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1568 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON COMPONENTS, PACKAGING AND MANUFACTURING TECHNOLOGY, VOL. 11, NO. 10, OCTOBER 2021

Fig. 3. Flow boiling patterns in small to mini vertical channel. Reprint with permission from [22]. (a) 4.26 mm. (b) 1.1 mm.

annular flow region. The thin liquid film separates the vapor
core and the channel wall and evaporates when the heat flux
keeps increasing. It can be seen in Fig. 2 that in the horizontal
microchannel, the flow patterns changed from confined bubbly
to elongated bubble, slug, and finally to annular flow where
thin liquid film exists between the vapor core the channel
wall [20], [21]. The mist flow was suppressed due to the
small diameter of the channel. In the horizontal channel, due to
the higher density of liquid compared to vapor, the buoyancy
force can play a role and the vapor core moves upward. As a
result, the liquid film on top of vapor core can be thinner than
the liquid film at the bottom of the vapor core. On the other
hand, Karayiannis and Mahmoud [22] made a review of flow
boiling in vertical a mini/microchannel. The paper noted that
the changes in flow patterns, which were due to the diameter
and operating conditions (pressure, mass flux, and heat flux),
were expected to affect the local heat transfer mechanism
and, consequently, the HTC. Fig. 3 shows a schematic for the
different mechanisms and patterns of flow boiling in small
(below 1 mm) to micrometer diameter channels. The flow
patterns found in the 4.3-mm-diameter tube included dispersed
bubble, bubbly, slug, churn, annular, and mist flow. On the
other hand, the flow patterns observed in the 1.1-mm-diameter
tube demonstrated the following features: 1) absence of mist
flow; 2) appearance of the confined bubble; 3) thinning of the
liquid film surrounding the vapor slug; and 4) less chaos of
churn flow, i.e., there is a tendency for churn flow diminishes
as the diameter decreases. Harirchian and Garimella [23]
have proposed a transitional criterion to microchannel based
on the convective confinement number defined by them as
the product of Bond number and Reynolds dimensionless.
If the confinement number Co < 160, the vapor bubbles are
confined, and the channel should be considered microchannel.
The equation for this confinement number (Co) is given by
 
1 ρl −ρ g 0.5 2
Co = Bo0.5 × Re = g GDch < 160. (1)
μf σ
Hoang et al. [26], [27] experimentally characterized a
hybrid microchannel/multijet two-phase heat sink. It can be
seen in Fig. 4 that there existed three mechanisms when heat
flux was varied from 0 to 80 W/cm2 : single-phase convection,
nucleate boiling, and convective boiling. In a single-phase and
convective boiling region, HTC increases with flow rate, while
for a nucleate boiling region, HTC is weakly dependent on
flow rate and mainly dependent on heat flux.
Flow instability is a challenging issue in two-phase MCHSs
and can lead to pressure drop, flow rate, and wall temperature
fluctuations. Moreover, instability can result in an increased
likelihood of two-phase choking, which is followed by a
reduced CHF and an abrupt increase of wall temperature

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HOANG et al.: REVIEW OF RECENT DEVELOPMENTS IN PUMPED TWO-PHASE COOLING TECHNOLOGIES
Fig. 4. Effects of flow rate on HTC and different mechanisms of flow boiling
in a microchannel/multijet heat sink. Reuse with permission from [26].
(burnout). The flow reversal upstream of the microchannels
is caused by the dry out at the wall near the exit of the
microchannel. The bubbles flowed back into the inlet plenum
agglomerate; this leads to flow blockage and finally the occur-
rence of CHF that is marked by a sharp increase in wall tem-
perature near the exit and a sudden decrease in pressure drop
across the microchannels [28]. CHF increased with increasing
mass velocity, system pressure, and/or subcooling for a given
total mass flow rate [29], [41]. It is also important to study the
main prediction methods for determining CHF for two-phase
cooling in microchannel evaporators. These design methods
are normally used to determine the maximum heat removal
capability of the system being cooled and the maximum vapor
quality for proper operation. Although two-phase cooling in
the microchannel is complicated due to instability, this issue
seems to have been solved. In a study by Wang et al. [30],
fluid flow was restricted from entering each microchannel
but was not restricted from exiting the microchannels. The
inlet restriction on each of the microchannels prevented vapor
bubbles from expanding upstream. No reversed flow of vapor
was observed in the microchannels with this design. All
temperatures and pressures were constant with time. The
inlet restriction not only reduced instability but also increased
CHF due to the suppression of reversed vapor flow [31].
Zong et al. [32] investigated flow boiling instability charac-
teristics in a microchannel with a porous wall. It was found
that with the porous wall interconnect effect, a premature ONB
can occur and the boiling flow instability can be suppressed.
The long-timescale oscillations of wall temperatures were
eliminated by using the wall regions etched with micropin
fin. Despite the instability mitigation and wide applications of
flow boiling in microchannels, there are still more rooms for
improvement. One of the challenges is the limited number of
universal models that can predict HTC and pressure drop of
MCHSs. Traditional ways of predicting pressure drop utilize
either HEM or semiempirical correlation, and however, these
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1569
models can be used only for certain conditions. Recently,
there are studies that use machine learning algorithm such
as artificial neural network to predict the performance of the
microchannels. These are promising studies; however, these
models should be validated using future experimental data.
Geometry optimization for two-phase MCHS focuses on
the surface structure and the effects of the channel aspect
ratio. A structured surface can lead to increase in the number
of nucleate boiling sites and results in an improvement in
the HTC. Potential surface modification techniques use EDM,
soldering, coating, and roughening with sandpaper. They show
promising results with an HTC enhancement of up to 90%
in nucleate boiling regimes [101]. The effects of aspect ratio
in two-phase cooling heat sinks have drawn the attention
of researchers since the dimensions or configurations of a
microchannel can affect both the thermal and hydraulic per-
formances. Harirchian and Garimella [33] studied flow boiling
heat transfer in a microchannel of dielectric fluid FC-77 with
channel widths ranging from 100 to 5850 μm. It was observed
that for given heat dissipation, the HTC increased when the
channel width increased. Markal et al. [34] studied saturated
flow boiling in microchannels with a channel aspect ratio
ranging from 0.37 to 5.0 at the same hydraulic diameter
(100 μm). It was found that HTC increased with an increase
in the aspect ratio up to AR = 3.54 and then HTC decreased.
There was no regular relationship between the aspect ratio and
pressure drop in their study.
Table I summarizes the recent two-phase cooling research
with MCHSs based on the operating parameters and heat sink
thermal performance. The highest heat removal of 2450 W
was obtained by Agostini et al. [8]. This author’s study
investigated the performance of two-phase cooling a chip at
very high heat flux up to 255 W/cm2 with refrigerant R236fa in
a silicon multi-MCHS. Compared to liquid cooling, two-phase
cooling yielded a more uniform and lower base temperature
for the same pumping power. The HTC during flow boiling
of R236fa was observed to increase with the heat flux. The
HTC will automatically increase with the heat flux, which is
an advantage that can help in the cooling of hot spots. The
highest heated surface heat flux of 910 W/cm2 was obtained
from the study by Drummond et al. [56], where a test rig
was designed with a hierarchical manifold MCHS array for
high heat flux two-phase cooling of electronics. To eliminate
thermal resistance due to contact and conduction resistance,
the microchannels were etched directly onto the surface of
the heated substrate. The heat sink with 15 μm × 300 μm
channels was shown to be capable of dissipating maximum
base heat fluxes up to 910 W/cm2 while maintaining an
acceptable pressure drop and chip temperature.
III. J ET I MPINGEMENT
Jet impingement is the high-velocity impingement of a
fluid through a nozzle onto a heated surface. Employing
jet impingement creates bubbles at the surface, which for
two-phase cooling has the advantage of a higher thermal
performance coupled with a reasonable pressure drop. Using
a single jet can result in a nonuniform chip temperature. One
solution that has been studied is the use of multiple jets
1570 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON COMPONENTS, PACKAGING AND MANUFACTURING TECHNOLOGY, VOL. 11, NO. 10, OCTOBER 2021

TABLE I
R ECENT R ESEARCH T HAT E XAMINED T WO -P HASE C OOLING W ITH MCHS S

and boiling at the surface. Multiple jets not only enhance
temperature uniformity but also increase the average HTC.
In addition to high thermal performance and operable
pressure drop, impinging jets allow for distinct impingement
geometries, which are created using different sizes, shapes,
and patterns of jet nozzles [49]–[52]. Browne et al. [49]
studied microjet array flow boiling with R134a. The jet-to-
heater area ratio was found to increase the HTC but did not
affect the ONB. Zhang et al. [54] studied jet impingement
boiling over staggered micropin fin surfaces with coolant

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HOANG et al.: REVIEW OF RECENT DEVELOPMENTS IN PUMPED TWO-PHASE COOLING TECHNOLOGIES 1571

FC-72. The effects of micropin fin, jet-to-target distance

(H = 3, 6, and 9 mm), and jet Reynolds number
(Re = 2853, 5707, and 8560) on the jet impingement boiling
found that micropin fin surfaces showed a better heat transfer
performance than a smooth surface. The Nusselt number (Nu)
was influenced by several dimensionless numbers, including
the Reynolds number (Re), boiling number (Bo), the ratio
of jet-to-target distance to jet diameter (H /d), the ratio of
micropin fin surface area to smooth surface area A/A S , and a
dimensionless number corresponding to flow resistance Dh /L h .
Table II summarizes the recent jet impingement research
based on the operating parameters and heat sink thermal
performance. The highest heat removal of 855 W was obtained
in a study by Jenkins et al. [55], where the heat transfer per-
formance of boiling jet array impingement on a microgrooved
surfaced was investigated. Water was pumped at an inlet
temperature of 93 ◦ C and the wall temperature was main-
tained below 130 ◦ C. The wall temperature was high due
to the high water saturation temperature. Therefore, water
may only be useful for specific electronic devices that do not
require a low wall temperature, such as automotive industry,
aircraft, and oil and gas industry. Another research study by
Browne et al. [49] obtained a heat transfer rate of 600 W with
a wall temperature below 50 ◦ C and an inlet temperature of
20 ◦ C. Dielectric coolant R-134a was used to remove the heat
flux of 600 W/cm2 at a heated surface of 1 cm2 . The wall
temperature of 50 ◦ C is well below the maximum operating
temperature of many electronic devices (e.g., computer chip
and automobiles). Buchanan and Shedd [51] used refrigerant
R245fa to remove 400 W from a heated area of 3.63 cm2 .

IV. P IN F IN H EAT S INK

Micropin fin represents a possible alternative solution to
parallel microchannels. Along with high thermal performance
due to latent heat utilization, pin fins can enhance mixing and
promote uniform flow distribution across the flow region [61].
Although they have a very good thermal and hydraulic perfor-
mance, micropin fin evaporators are less commonly studied
than parallel microchannels, which is possibly due to more
complexity in manufacturing pin fins.
It was found in several studies that flow instability can
be mitigated with the incorporation of micropin fins. The
pin fins promote a heterogeneous interspersing of phases
by fragmenting vapor bubbles and trapping small amounts
of liquid between bubbles at intersections. A more uniform
flow distribution can mitigate flow instability, compared to
long microchannel where vapor slug grows along channel
and increases the pressure inside channel and then activate
premature CHF. Prajapati and Bhandari [62] studied flow boil-
ing in a uniform channel, diverging channel, and segmented
channel (the latter most similar to pin fins). It was found
that in a pin fin heat sink, bubbles can grow in multiple
directions, which reduces the possibility of explosive bubble
growth in the reverse direction [Fig. 5(a)]. A comparison of the
thermal performance of heat sinks with three different pin fin
configurations was performed considering a uniform channel,
diverging channel, and pin fins [63]. The pin fin heat sink
showed the highest HTC, following by diverging channel heat
Fig. 5. (a) Sketch of rapid bubble growth in a uniform channel, diverging
channel, and with pin fins. Bubbles may grow in multiple directions in a pin
fin heat sink and reduce the possibility of explosive bubble growth [62], [63].
Reprint with permission from [62]. The signs > show the preferred geometry
over other geometries. (b) Geometry dimensions of micro pin fins [64]. The
signs > show the preferred geometry over other geometries. The square fins
have the highest thermal performance following by other geometries.
sink and uniform channel heat sink [Fig. 5(a)]. The highest
thermal performance of the pin fins happened at both single-
and two-phase regimes. In addition, it should also be noticed
that the staggered pin fin can have better thermal performance
than the in-line pin fin due to more turbulent flow.
Geometry optimization of a two-phase pin fin heat sink
is an attractive research topic that considers the dimension
and shape of the pin fins. Wan et al. [64] studied four
types of staggered micropin fins with different cross-sectional
shapes, i.e., square, circular, diamond, and streamline. It was
observed that the square micropin fins presented the best
boiling heat transfer, followed by circular and streamline ones.

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1572 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON COMPONENTS, PACKAGING AND MANUFACTURING TECHNOLOGY, VOL. 11, NO. 10, OCTOBER 2021

TABLE II
R ECENT R ESEARCH T HAT E XAMINED T WO -P HASE C OOLING W ITH J ET I MPINGING

The diamond fin had the worst heat transfer performance
but lowest pressure drop. The square and circular micropin
fins were the best choices for the mitigation of two-phase
flow instabilities. Kong et al. [65] investigated the ONB
phenomenon of deionized water in circular, diamond, and oval
micropin fin heat sinks. Visual observations showed that ONB
was always initiated at the region surrounding the micropin
fins. The heat flux required for the ONB in the diamond and
oval micropin fin heat sinks was higher than that in the circular
one. Rau and Garimella [66] studied four distinct copper target
surfaces: a baseline smooth flat surface, a flat surface coated
with a microporous layer, a surface with square pin fins, and
a hybrid surface on which the pin fins were coated with
the microporous layer. The coated pin fin surface showed a
200% increase in the HTC and a 240% increase in CHF when
compared to the smooth flat surface.
Table III summarizes recent two-phase cooling with pin
fin research based on the operating parameters and thermal
performance of heat sinks. The highest heat removal of 963 W
was obtained in a study by Deng et al. [67], where the heat
transfer performance of circular, diamond, and oval micropin
fin heat sinks was investigated. It was observed that the heat
flux and wall superheat needed for the ONB increased as
the mass flux and inlet subcooling increased. The heat flux
required for the ONB in the diamond and oval micropin fin
heat sinks was higher than that in the circular one without a
difference in pressure drop. The highest heated surface heat
flux of 225 W/cm2 was obtained from a study by Joshi and
Dede [68]. Different porous-coated structures were evaluated
using R-245fa as the coolant at subcooling of 5 K. It was
found that the heat transfer performance of a pin fin heat
spreader was the highest, followed by that of an open tunnel,
closed tunnel, and flat heat spreader. A very high HTC of
97.8 kW/m2 K was obtained for the pin fin heat spreader heat
sink.
V. S PRAY C OOLING
Spray cooling has recently gained the attention of many
researchers in electronics cooling. Two of its main advan-
tages are that it is viable in high heat flux applications (up
to 810 W/cm2 ) [75] and can maintain a uniform surface tem-
perature. In spray cooling, when liquid droplets impinge onto
a heated surface, a thin liquid film forms and then evaporates,
which removes a large amount of heat from the surface. When
heat flux is applied to a heated surface, there are two kinds
of evaporation: those formed from wall nucleation and those
formed from secondary nucleation in the interface between
liquid film and droplet surface. The evaporation of liquid at
the heated surface and the droplet surface reduces the wall
temperature and removes higher heat flux. Droplets contact
with the wall and their turbulence inside the spray chamber
is dominant in heat transfer by the spray [85]. Fig. 6 shows
heat transfer of spray cooling. Although spray cooling is a
promising cooling solution, it has its own disadvantages, such
as problems with cooling large surfaces and limited knowledge
about its heat transfer mechanisms.
Table IV summarizes the recent two-phase spray cooling
research based on the operating parameters and thermal per-
formance of heat sinks. The highest heat removal of 2934 W
was obtained in a study by Li et al. [76], where the maximum
surface heat flux of 325.99 W/cm2 was achieved using R134a
spray cooling with a test surface temperature of about 42.4 ◦ C

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HOANG et al.: REVIEW OF RECENT DEVELOPMENTS IN PUMPED TWO-PHASE COOLING TECHNOLOGIES 1573

TABLE III
R ECENT R ESEARCH T HAT E XAMINED T WO -P HASE C OOLING W ITH P IN F INS

Fig. 6. Spray cooling mechanism.

and a flow rate of 2.15 L/min. The highest heated surface heat The working fluid was a water and two-propanol binary
flux of 810 W/cm2 was obtained by Obuladinne et al. [75]. mixture that was used instead of refrigerants or dielectric

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1574 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON COMPONENTS, PACKAGING AND MANUFACTURING TECHNOLOGY, VOL. 11, NO. 10, OCTOBER 2021

TABLE IV
R ECENT R ESEARCH T HAT E XAMINED T WO -P HASE C OOLING W ITH S PRAY C OOLING

Fig. 8. Effective HTCs versus heat source area of MCHS and pin fin heat
Fig. 7. Effective HTCs versus heat source area of jet impingement and spray sink.
cooling.

to cool a large surface are more complicated to design and

liquids for its better thermal properties and heat transfer
performance.
VI. C OMPARATIVE D ESIGN R EVIEW
Fig. 7 shows the variation of HTC with the heat source
area of spray cooling and jet impingement. It can be observed
that there is no significant difference in the HTC for jet
impingement and spray cooling. However, heat sources in the
studies of spray cooling were smaller than those in the studies
jet impingement cooling. Spray cooling is problematic when
it comes to large surfaces, seeing as one spray has a limited
impact surface, typically 1 cm2 . The multiple sprays needed
would have a worse performance since sprays interact with
each other and make vapor evaporation more difficult. Fig. 8
shows the variation of HTC with the heat source area of pin
fin heat sink and MCHS. There is no significant difference in
the HTC and heat source area for pin fin heat sink and MCHS.
Although it is mentioned in a study by Prajapati et al. [63] that
pin fin heat sinks can have a higher thermal performance than
MCHS, current review of many two-phase heat sinks showed
no significant difference in HTC for pin fin and microchannel.
Fig. 9 shows the maximum heat flux of various studies of
four cooling solutions. The heat flux generally reduces when
the chip area increases, which may be attributed to the limit of

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HOANG et al.: REVIEW OF RECENT DEVELOPMENTS IN PUMPED TWO-PHASE COOLING TECHNOLOGIES
Fig. 9. Maximum heat flux versus heat source area of four cooling solutions:
jet impingement, spray cooling, microchannel, and pin fin.
cooling capacity of the coolants. When the thermal engineers
and researchers look at Fig. 9, they know that what should be
the heat flux range, they can have at a given area. At a given
heat flux and area range, there are several cooling methods that
can solve one problem, which means that the thermal engineers
and scientists can choose the method they prefer considering
other perspectives such as coolant costs, manufacturing cost,
thermal stress, and design complexity. The highest heat flux
of 910 W/cm2 and the small heat source area of 0.25 cm2
were performed by Drummond et al. [56] with a two-phase
microchannel cooling approach. The biggest heat source area
of 9.61 cm2 and the heat flux of 255 W/cm2 were performed by
Agostini et al. [8] with microchannel approach. Spray cooling
can be applied to very high heat flux applications with most of
the studies having heat flux higher than 200 W/cm2 . However,
most of the spray cooling studies have heat source area below
3 cm2 . Pin fin cooling studies have heat source area varying
from 1 to 9 cm2 . None of pin fin studies in current article
has heat flux higher than 400 W/cm2 problem. It means that
they can choose the method they prefer considering other
perspectives such as coolant costs, manufacturing cost, and
design complexity.
VII. S URFACE M ODIFICATION E NHANCEMENT
Surface characteristics play an important role in two-phase
heat transfer. Surface modification can result in higher nucleate
density and higher surface contact between the fluid and
solid surface. Therefore, the thermal performance of a single-
and two-phase heat sink can be improved. When surface
modification is applied, it can affect the surface roughness and
wettability, which are the two major factors that greatly affect
the performance of boiling [88]. Surface modification not only
can enhance HTC but also affects the ONB and CHF.
There are many techniques for modifying the surface
roughness of heat sinks, such as EDM cutting, roughening
with sandpaper, coating, soldering, and etching, reentrant
cavities. Most of the studies reported an increase of HTC
with surface roughness. Gupta and Misra [90] studied flow
boiling heat transfer performances of deionized water on
Cu-TiO2 nanocomposite coated copper surfaces. The surface
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1575
roughness was varied from 0.08 to 0.98 μm by changing
the manufacturing current density from 150 to 300 mA/cm2 .
The HTC increased with surface roughness. At the highest
surface roughness of 0.98 μm, the Cu-TiO2 -coated copper
surfaces were found to augment heat transfer performance in
the two-phase region up to 94% depending on the mass flow
rate of coolant and heater surface temperature. In addition,
CHF was enhanced by 92% compared to the bare copper
surface. The HTC was increased by 195% in a copper
microchannel using sandpapers [93], [94]. This is a promising
result because using sandpapers is far less expensive than
other techniques, such as coating, EDM cutting, and etching.
Reentrant cavity is one of the surface modification approaches
developed for overcoming aging effect, enhancing thermal
performance, and mitigating instability of two-phase cooling.
Reentrant cavities can be etched into silicon or metal using
standard microelectronic fabrication techniques. The boiling
heat transfer characteristics of surfaces with reentrant cavities
are enhanced significantly compared to a plain surface [91].
This surface structure can lead to a considerable decrease
in both the temperature overshoot and the incipient boiling
heat flux. Small cavities on the heater surface trap vapor or
gases and serve as nucleation sites. The contact area between
the cavity and vapor bubble is greater than plain surface and
vapor. Therefore, heat transfer is improved for surfaces with
reentrant cavities. As the heater surface temperature exceeds
the saturation temperature, a bubble may grow inside the cavity
and appear at its mouth [91].
The wettability of a surface is a research topic because
it can have effects on the HTC, pressure drop, and CHF.
Patankar [89] reported that hydrophobicity provided the benefit
of earlier boiling incipience, while hydrophilicity can enhance
nucleate pool boiling heat transfer. He proposed a hybrid
solution having hydrophobic pores atop a hydrophilic surface.
Studies of TiO2 - and ZnO-coated surfaces showed that at
low wall superheat, these coated surfaces promoted hydropho-
bicity [96]. This caused an early ONB with an increase in
nucleation sites, followed by an increase in bubble generation
and an improved HTC. However, the results showed that at
high wall superheat, these surfaces promoted hydrophilicity.
Therefore, at high wall superheat, HTC improved without
an early ONB or decrease of the CHF. Phan et al. [96]
experimentally studied the effects of surface wettability on
two-phase pressure drops in a minichannel. The contact angle
was varied from 26◦ to 104◦ . The wettability had no impact on
the single-phase pressure drop. However, in boiling conditions,
pressure drop increased up to 170% with increasing contact
angle. The increase of pressure drop with increasing contact
angle was attributed to the surface tension force, which tended
to maintain the bubbles at the solid wall and increased the
frictional pressure drop of the moving fluid. At a higher contact
angle, which corresponded to a lower wettability, there was
more surface contact area between vapor bubbles and the
surface. As a result, the frictional pressure drop increased
with contact angle. Zhu et al. [102] designed and fabricated
microchannels with well-defined silicon micropillar arrays on
the bottom heated microchannel wall to promote capillary
flow for thin-film evaporation while facilitating nucleation only
1576 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON COMPONENTS, PACKAGING AND MANUFACTURING TECHNOLOGY, VOL. 11, NO. 10, OCTOBER 2021

Fig. 10. Images of a representative fabricated microchannel with micropillar arrays. Optical images of (a) front side and (b) backside of a device. (c) Optical
microscope image of the heater and RTD4 on the backside of the microchannel. (d) SEM image of the cross section [A– A plane in (a)] of a microchannel
with magnified view of the micropillars (left inset) and a sidewall at the bottom corner (right inset). Reprint with permission from [102].

Fig. 11. Wall temperature versus heat flux for various coolant studies.
Fig. 12. Performance of the state-of-art two-phase cooling devices degrades
for large area chips due to incomplete phase-separation.
from the sidewalls; 57% enhancement of thermal performance
compared to a smooth surface was obtained. Fig. 10 shows
if high heat flux is required, for instance, with a very high CHF
the images of a representative fabricated microchannel with
of up to 2000 W/cm2 in flow boiling [105] and high specific
micropillar arrays.
heat. However, using water as coolant has some disadvantages.
Table V summarizes recent research into surface enhance-
Water, being a nondielectric coolant, can leak from a cooling
ment techniques for two-phase cooling. The best enhancement
loop or spill during maintenance and come into contact with
was a 195% increase in thermal performance using mechanical
electrical circuits. In addition, the saturation temperature of
sanding, which was found in a study by Sisman et al. [94].
water is pretty high (100 ◦ C at 1 atm), which can lead to
Another interesting approach was the use of 3-D printing
a higher wall temperature required for boiling. It can be
to improve surface roughness, which increased the thermal
observed in Fig. 11 that wall temperature exceeds 100 ◦ C in
performance by 45% [97]. This technique was tested in
all the studies with water coolant. A high wall temperature and
single-phase cooling and has not been tested in two phases.
chip temperature can affect the lifetime and performance of
Therefore, this may be another interesting topic for scientists.
electronic devices. Table VI shows the saturation temperature
and other properties of various coolants used in two-phase
VIII. C OOLANTS FOR T WO -P HASE C OOLING cooling heat sinks. Although it has a lower specific heat
In electronics cooling, choosing the optimal coolant is cru- and latent heat than water, dielectric coolant is a promising
cial since coolants affect cooling capacity, maximum heat flux, option for electronics cooling due to its lower saturation
and reliability of devices. Water is the most attractive coolant temperature and good chemical stability. By using dielectric

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HOANG et al.: REVIEW OF RECENT DEVELOPMENTS IN PUMPED TWO-PHASE COOLING TECHNOLOGIES 1577

TABLE V
R ECENT R ESEARCH T HAT E XAMINED T WO -P HASE C OOLING W ITH S URFACE M ODIFICATION T ECHNIQUES

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1578 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON COMPONENTS, PACKAGING AND MANUFACTURING TECHNOLOGY, VOL. 11, NO. 10, OCTOBER 2021
TABLE VI
S ATURATION T EMPERATURE AND T HERMODYNAMIC P ROPERTIES OF VARIOUS C OOLANTS U SED IN T WO -P HASE C OOLING H EAT S INKS
coolant, the perceived risk of a fluid leak can be eliminated.
Some popular dielectric coolants commonly being used in
industry and academia include: HFE-7000 [112], HFE-7100,
FC72, FC77, R134a, R245fa, R1234ZE(e), and R1233ZD(e).
Recently, there are environmentally friendly replacements of
R134a, such as R1234ze(E) and R1233zd(E). These new
coolants with good thermal performance and very low GWP
(GWP < 1) should be considered more in the pumped two-
phase cooling studies. Fig. 12 shows the HTC and heat
source area of two-phase heat sinks with various coolants
[105]–[127]. Water had the highest HTC of 230 kW/m2 K at
a heat source area of 2 cm2 , followed by an HTC of 150
and 130 kW/m2 K at heat source areas of 4.4 and 6.25 cm2 ,
respectively. HFE-7100, which is a dielectric coolant, also
showed a relatively high HTC of 119 kW/m2 K at heat source
areas varying from 0.25 to 6.45 cm2 . FC-72 had the lowest
thermal performance. The HTC of heat sinks with FC-72
varied from 12 to 29 kW/m2 K at heat source areas varying
from 1 to 6.25 cm2 .
IX. I SSUES AND P OTENTIAL F UTURE R ESEARCH
With very high maximum cooling capacity varying
from 855 to 2934 W for different cooling techniques according
to data from publications mentioned in this work, pumped two-
phase cooling continues to attract attention from the research
community. Improving cooling capacity may not be the focal
point of future research due to the existing high heat removal;
however, there are still many rooms for improvements. Opti-
mizing the thermal performance and energy consumption of
two-phase cooling heat sinks requires a high HTC over a
large chip surface area, low pumping power, and stability in
chip temperature and pumping power. Geometry optimiza-
tion of two-phase cooling heat sinks has not been studied
extensively. Design parameters include fin height, thickness
of fins, channel width, direction of flow, manifold design,
and dimensions. The optimal design will vary depending on
the coolant due to the interactions between a coolant and
solid surface, such as surface tension and wettability. Another
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challenge in two-phase cooling is the degradation of thermal
performance for large area chips at high heat fluxes, which
can be due to incomplete phase separation, approaching the
dry-out limit. For example, many studies showed that water
was a high performing coolant, but also showed that the HTC
can decrease with vapor quality and high heat flux, which
was due to issues related to separating the vapor phase from
the liquid phase. Therefore, a technique for separating liquid
and vapor during flow boiling at a high heat flux would be
a good research topic for future studies. Another issue that
must be resolved is the low operating surface temperature
requirement that cannot easily be accomplished with water as
the phase change fluid unless the cooling system is operated
at subatmospheric pressures.
X. C ONCLUSION
A review of recent developments for jet impingement,
pin fin, spray, and microchannel cooling options is pre-
sented in this article, with a special emphasis on quantitative
comparisons.
MCHSs not only have high thermal performance but are
also simple to manufacture and low cost. Therefore, it has
been widely implemented in many industries. Although there
are some disadvantages to this technology in terms of pressure
losses and flow instabilities, it seems that scientists and engi-
neers have already understood and found solutions to these
challenges. However, there are areas where more research is
needed regarding flow boiling in microchannels. For example,
one of the challenges is the limited number of universal
models or computational models that can predict local HTC
and pressure drop of MCHSs.
Compared to an MCHS, a pin fin heat sink can enhance
mixing and promote a uniform flow distribution across the
flow region, which leads to a mitigation of flow instability.
Jet impingement is a very promising technology for cooling
because of its extraordinary capacity for heat dissipation (up
to 910 W/cm2 ) and applicability to large heat source areas.
Multiple jets can be utilized to enhance temperature uniformity
and increase the average HTC.
HOANG et al.: REVIEW OF RECENT DEVELOPMENTS IN PUMPED TWO-PHASE COOLING TECHNOLOGIES
Spray cooling has gained the attention of scientists and
engineers for its high heat flux application and uniform surface
temperature at a low flow rate. However, it is limited by a small
heated surface area and its heat transfer mechanisms are not
well understood.
This literature review also summarizes recent contribu-
tions to surface modification techniques that enhance liquid-
surface contact and increase nucleate site density. Most of the
techniques are effective and simple approaches to improving
thermal performance. Additive manufacturing is a new method
to machine and create surface roughness, which can improve
the thermal performance of two-phase cooling via surface
roughness.
A brief review of coolants used in two-phase heat sinks
is also presented, with emphasis on HTC, heat source area,
and wall temperature. Water has the highest performance in
terms of HTC and heat source area. However, using two-phase
heat sinks with water requires a high base temperature for
boiling. Therefore, it can be a challenge for scientists and
engineers to implement two-phase cooling with water coolant
in applications that require low chip temperature. Although
it has a lower performance with regard to HTC, dielectric
coolant is a promising solution for two-phase cooling because
it has a lower boiling point, eliminates the consequences of
fluid leakages, and has an operable junction temperature and
acceptable pumping power.
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