teens Cory 8 : i son Steam Cycles it is shown that atures of source e for a wet vapour le is discussed in Chapt s the Carnot eycle for to both gases and vapours, and the cy in Fig. 8.1, A brief summary of the essential 4 (o 1: heat is supplied at constant temperature and pressure | to 2: the vapour expands ‘sentropically from the he low pressure. In doing 0 it does work lemperatur which is the purpose of the eyel the vapour, which is wet at 2, has goled to state point hat isentropic compression from 3 will ret our to its original st From 4 the cycle is repeated le described shows the different type con le and the chan, he thermody a he cycle. The four proce: h hus 4-1, can be made in quire la8.1 Fig. 82 Rankine cycle using Wet steam on a T-s diagra 81 The Rankine cya, further, the deficiencies of the Carnot eyele as the ideal cycle for a vapour must be considered. The Rankine cycle It is stated in section $.3 that, although the Carnot eycle is the most efficient cycle, its work ratio is low. Further, there are practical difficulties in following it. Consider the Carnot cycle for steam as shown in Fig. 8.1: at state 3 the steam is wet at T; but itis difficult 1 stop condensation at the point 3 and then compress it just to state 4. It is more convenient to allow the condensation process to procced to completion, as in Fig. 82. The working fluid is water at the new state point 3 in Fig. 82, and this can be conveniently pumped to boiler pressure as shown at state point 4. The pump has much smaller dimensions than it would have if it had to pump a wet vapour, the compression process is carried ‘out more efficiently, and the equipment required is simpler and less expensive. One of the features of the Carnot cycle has thus been departed from by the modification to the condensation process. At state 4 the water is not at the saturation (emperature corresponding to the boiler pressure. Thus heat must be supplicd to change the state from water at 4 to saturated water at 5; this is 4 constant pressure process, but is not at constant temperature. Hence the efficiency of this modified cycle is not as high as that of the Carnot cycle. This le, which is more suitable as criterion for actual steam cycles than The plant required for the Rankine cycle is shown in Fig. 83, and the numbers refer fo the state points of Fig. 82 The steam at inlet to the turbine may be wet. dry saturated, or superheated, but only the dry saturated condition is shown in Fig. 8.2. The steam flows round the eycle and each process may be analysed using the steady-flow energy equation: changes in kinetic energy and potential energy may be neglected, then for unit mass Now rate Q+Wadh ch process in the cycle can be considered in turn as follows, Boiler: Gs ee 255Stoam Cycles ig A3 Basi ar Boundary plant te: erases oe Cooling Therefore, since W = 0, Qass = hi — he (an) Turbine: the expansion is adiabatic (i.e. Q = 0), and isentropic (ie. 5, = 52), and hy can be calculated using this latter fact. Then Qua t M2 chy— hy therefore Washo hy or Work outpu -Wi=h,—h (82) Condenser Qiy + Why hy Therefore, since W = 0 Q:5= hh Heat rejected in condense hyo hy (83) fone Gus ieee The compression is isentropic (ie. sy = 54} and adiabatic (ie. Q = 0), Therefore Wya = thy = Ny) Work input to pump, hy (84) This is the feed-pump term, pad as it is a small quantity in comparison with turbine work output, —W,2, it is uswally neglected, especially when boiler essures are low. Net work input for the eyele BWV = Wy, + W 256,en iquid, included iFig. 84 Rankine cycle showing real processes ona T-s diagram The efficiency ratio of a cycle isthe ratio of the actual efficiency to the ideal cffcieney. In vapour cycles the efficiency ratio compares the actual cyele efficiency to the Rankine cycle efficiency, cycle efficiency ue Rankine efficiency ides ‘The actual expansion process is irreversible, as shown by line 1-2 in Fig. 84. Similarly the actual compression of the water is irreversible, as indicated by line 3-4, The isentropic efficiency of a process is defined by ie. Efficiency ratio = actual work isentropicwork Isentropic efficiency = for an expansion process and Isentropic efficienc; process Hence ae (8.12) Mia i Se is the maximum tated that the efficiency of the Carnot oye ts ee the cycle has a low work ratio. Both efficiency and ee ratio poe eriteria of performance. By the definition of work ratio in section $3, net work output (813) Work rato = arose work output lant is the specific steam riterion of performance in steam pl mumpron (8) Tt eats the power obi fhe team ow essa) 1 simduee i. The steam flow indicates the size of plant and its soiyensa parts prt the ssc is a means whereby the relative sizes of diferent plants a oo is the steam 2 required to develop unit power output. The poweroutput is —mi 1, therefore DU Ia esa pw -Pw Neglecting the feed pump work we have -EWeh, hy therefore ssc = i) Note that when hy and hy are expressed in kilojoules per kilogram then the units of ssc are kg/KJ or kg/kW h. Example 8.1 A steam power plant operates between a boiler pressure of 42 bar and a condenser pressure of 0.035 bar. Calculate for these limits the cycle efficiency, the work ratio, and the specific steam consumption: (i) for a Carnot cycle using wet steam; (ii) for a Rankine cycle with dry saturated steam at entry to the turbine; (iii) for the Rankine cycle of (ii), when the expansion process has an isentropic efficiency of 80%. Solution (i) A Carnot cycle is shown in Fig. 8.5. Fig. 85 Carnot oycle for Example 8.1(a) 5262 “Temperatore/() 299 T, = saturation temperature at 42 bar = 253.2 + 273 = 526.2K T saturation temperature at 0.035 bar 26.7 + 273 = 299.1K ‘Then from equation (5.1) Toh _ 5262-2991 Ty 3262 Next = 0432 or 432% 259Also Heat supplied = hy — iy = My, at 42 bur = 1698 kl ke ‘hes _ Network output, ~F Ww New 0. Gross heat supplied ae Therefore —F W = 0.432 x 1698, ic, Net work output, - EW’ = 734 kJ/kg To find the gross work of the ex; h,, using the fact that s, = sy From tables ‘pansion process it is necessary to caleulate hy = 2800 kJ/kg and 5, = 5; = 6049 kJ/kg K Using equation (4.10) 51 = 6.049 = 5, + 954, = 0.391 + xp8.13 therefore 6.049 — 0,391 m= 813 Then using equation (2.2) = 0.696 hy = hy, + Xahy, = 112 + (0.696 x 2438) = 1808 ki/kg Hence, from equation (8.2) = Wy = hy — hy = 2800 ~ 1808 = 992 kd/kg Therefore we have, using equation (8.13), Werk ratio oo Le Sa ae Bross work output 992 Using equation (8.14) sso = Ta ie. ssc = 0.001 36 ke/kW s = 4.91 ke/kWh (ii) The Rankine cycle is shown in Fig. 8.6. As in part (i) hy = 2800 kJ/kg and hy = 1808 kJ/kg Also, hy = hyp at 0,035 bar = 112 kJ/kg Using equation (8.10), with v = ry at 0.035 bar ilPa — Py) = 0.001 x (42 — 0.035) x s Pump work = 42k ke.— Fig. 86 T-s diagram for Example 8.1(b) Fig. 87 Ts dingram for Example 8.1(c) 8.1 The Ranki Using equation (8.2) Wig hy — hy = 2800 — 1808 equation (8.8) = = 0.368 ie ny = 368% Using equation (8.13) Work ratio = Detworkoutput _ 992 = 42 grossworkoutput 992 996 Using equation (8.14) ; = 0.001 01 kg/kW s = 3.64 ke/kW (ih) The cycle with an irreversible expansion process is shown in Fig. 8.7. Using equation (8.12) We Ma Tsentropic efficien ityFig. 88 Steam cycle ficiency and specific steam consumption against boiler pressure therefore Obe = 992 Le. —W,, = 08 x 992 = 793.6 kJ/kg Then the cycle efficiency is given by Cycle efficiency = Mit = ha) = (he = hs) ross heat supplied 793.6 — 4.2 Wee an (2800 = 112) — 4.2 as ie Cycle efficiency = 29.4% Ws — pump work Work ratio Also 1 ssc = <= 0.001 267 kg/KW s = 4.56 kg/kW h Wo= 43 ery ‘The feed-pump term has been included in the above calculations, but an inspection of the comparative values shows that it could have been neglected without having a noticeable effect on the results It is instructive to carry out these calculations for different boiler pressures and to represent the results graphically against boiler pressure, as in Fig. 88 As the boiler pressure increases the specific enthalpy of vaporization decreases, thus less heat is transferred at the maximum cycle temperature. Although the efficiency increases with boiler pressure over the fist part of the range, due to the maximum cycle temperature being raised, it is affected by the lowering of the mean temperature at which heat is transferred. Therefore the graph for this efficiency rises, reaches a maximum, and then falls. 2 Cycle eficieneyi Specific scam consumption /(ke/kW b) o 7 10 210 Boiler prssuce/(bar)8.2 Renkine cycle with 8.2 Rankine cycle with superheat The average temperature at which heat is supplied in th bolle an be nese q by superheating the steam, Usually the dry saturated steam from the boller drum is passed through a second bank of smaller bore tubes within the boiler. This bank is situated such that it is heated by the hot gases from the furnace until the steam reaches the required temperature, The Rankine cycle with supetheat is shown in Fig. 89(a) and 8.9(b). Figure 89(a) includes a steam receiver which can receive steam from other boilers. In modern plant a receiver is used with one boiler and is placed between the boiler and the turbine. Since the quantity of feedwater varies with the Fig. 89 Steam plant different demands on the boiler, it is necessary to provide a storage of condensate with a superheater (3) between the condensate and boiler feed pumps. This storage may be either a and the cycle on a T= diagram (b) surge tank or hot well. A hot well is shown dotted in Fig. 8.9(a). Drum [g Receiver Soperbeater Turbine 7 w) Example 8.2 Compare the Rankine cycle performance of Example 8.1 with that obtained when the steam is superheated to 00°C. Neglect the feed-pump work. Solution From tables, by interpolation, at 42 bar: hy = 34426Ki/kg ands, = 5; = 7.066KI/kg K Using equation (4,10) 55, + x54, therefore 0.391 + x38.13 = 7066 ic, x, = 0821 Using equation (2.2) thy = hy, + ah, = ANZ + (0821 x 2438) = 2113 Kd /keg. From tables hy = UDKI/kg Then, using equation (8.2) = Wyy = hy ~ hy = 34426 — 2113 = 1329.6 KI/kg 2637 ym Cycles: Fig, 810 Steam eycle efficiency and specific steam consumption against steam temperature at turbine entry Neglecting the feed-pump term, we have Heat supplied 1 hy = 3442.6 — 112 = 3330.6 Ike ‘Using equation (8.9) hyo hy 1329.6 hy _, BOE 0.399 or 39.9% Cycle efficiency = + —* hy—hy 33306 Also, using equation (8.14) 1 = —! 0000752 kg/kW s = 2.71 kg/kW h 1329.6 hy “The cycle efficiency has increased due to superheating and the improvernent in specific steam consumption is even more cnarked. This indicates that for a fiven power output the plant using superheated steam will be of smaller proportions than that using dry saturated steam, The condenser heat loads for different plants can be compared by ‘calculating the rate of heat removal in the condenser, per unit power output. This 's.60°% by the product, sse x (ty — hy), where (Ita — hy) is the Beat removed in the By ‘denser by the cooling water, per unit mass of steam. Comparing the condenser eat loads for the Rankine cycles of Examples 8.1 and 82, we have with dry peptrated steam at entry to turbine, using the results from Example 810i): Condenser heat load = 0.001 01(1808 ~ 112) = 1.713 KW per KW power output With superheated steam at entry to the curbine, using the results from Example 8.2: Condenser heat load ~ 0,000 752(2113 ~ 112) = 1,505 KW per KW power output For piven boiler and condenser pressures, as the superheat temperature incensee, the Rankine cycle efficiency increases, and the specific. steam consumption decreases, as shown ia Fig. 8.10. ae ‘ a