LAb Manual

University of Engineering and Technology
Lahore
Lab Manual:
Fluid Mechanics
Submitted To:
Dr. Syed Nadeem Abbas Shah
Submitted By:
Awais Ahmad
Reg. No.:
2022-ME-17
Department of Mechanical Engineering

Fluid Mechanics Lab Manual
Table of Contents
Experiment No.1.......................................................................................................................................6
Title:......................................................................................................................................................6
Objectives:............................................................................................................................................6
Apparatus:.............................................................................................................................................6
Procedure:.............................................................................................................................................6
Observations and Calculations:............................................................................................................6
Theory...................................................................................................................................................7
Hydraulic Bench:..................................................................................................................................7
Parts of Hydraulic Bench:.....................................................................................................................8
1. Water Channel........................................................................................................................8
2. Main Switch...........................................................................................................................8
3. Flow Control valve.................................................................................................................8
4. Drain valve.............................................................................................................................8
5. Centrifugal pump....................................................................................................................8
6. Dump valve............................................................................................................................8
7. Volumetric tank......................................................................................................................9
8. Connecter...............................................................................................................................9
9. Stilling baffle..........................................................................................................................9
10. Sump Tank.............................................................................................................................9
11. Side Channels.........................................................................................................................9
Conclusion:...........................................................................................................................................9
References:...........................................................................................................................................9
Experiment No.2.....................................................................................................................................10
Title:....................................................................................................................................................10
Objective.............................................................................................................................................10
Apparatus............................................................................................................................................10
Apparatus Description........................................................................................................................10
Procedure............................................................................................................................................11
2|Page
Observations and Calculation.............................................................................................................11
Graph..................................................................................................................................................13
Theory.................................................................................................................................................14
Conclusion..........................................................................................................................................15
References:.........................................................................................................................................15
Experiment No. 3....................................................................................................................................16
Title.....................................................................................................................................................16
Objectives:..........................................................................................................................................16
Apparatus............................................................................................................................................16
Apparatus Descriptions.......................................................................................................................16
Procedure............................................................................................................................................17
Observations and Calculations...........................................................................................................17
Graph..................................................................................................................................................18
Graph..................................................................................................................................................19
Graph..................................................................................................................................................20
Graph..................................................................................................................................................21
Theory.................................................................................................................................................21
Determination the coefficient starting velocity..................................................................................22
Conclusion..........................................................................................................................................23
References:.........................................................................................................................................23
Experiment No. 04..................................................................................................................................24
Title:....................................................................................................................................................24
Objectives:..........................................................................................................................................24
Apparatus:...........................................................................................................................................24
Procedure:...........................................................................................................................................24
Observations and Calculations:..........................................................................................................25
Graph..................................................................................................................................................25
Theory.................................................................................................................................................26
Determination of Coefficient of Discharge........................................................................................27
3|Page
Conclusion..........................................................................................................................................27
References:.........................................................................................................................................27
Experiment No. 05..................................................................................................................................28
Title:....................................................................................................................................................28
Objectives:..........................................................................................................................................28
Apparatus:...........................................................................................................................................28
Apparatus Description........................................................................................................................28
Procedure:...........................................................................................................................................29
Graph..................................................................................................................................................30
Graph..................................................................................................................................................31
Theory.................................................................................................................................................31
Conclusion..........................................................................................................................................32
References:.........................................................................................................................................33
Experiment No.6.....................................................................................................................................34
Title:....................................................................................................................................................34
Objectives:..........................................................................................................................................34
Apparatus:...........................................................................................................................................34
Apparatus Description:.......................................................................................................................34
Procedure:...........................................................................................................................................35
Theory.................................................................................................................................................36
Reynolds Analogy:.............................................................................................................................36
Reynolds Number:..............................................................................................................................36
Reynolds Equation and Reynolds Stresses:........................................................................................36
Laminar flow......................................................................................................................................36
Turbulent flow....................................................................................................................................36
Transitional flow.................................................................................................................................36
Reynolds Number...............................................................................................................................36
4|Page
Conclusion:.........................................................................................................................................37
References:.........................................................................................................................................37
5|Page
Experiment No.1
Title:
To determine volumetric flow rate with Hydraulic Bench
Objectives:
 To determine the volumetric flow rate using Hydraulic Bench
 To illustrate the working of Hydraulic Bench
Apparatus:
 Hydraulic Bench
 Stop watch
Procedure:
 Fill the sump tank with water.
 Put the drainpipe in place for collecting water in volumetric tank.
 Turn on the pump and let the water flow to volumetric tank.
 At any instant, note the volume reading on volume scale and at the same instant turn on the
stopwatch.
 On the volume scale the water level will be increasing and after collection of certain amounts
of water, note the volume 𝑉 increased on the volume-scale and time 𝑡 on the stopwatch.
V
 Put the values of volume and time in 𝑄 = which is the flow rate.
t
 Flow rates are measured by timed collection in the measuring chamber of the hydraulics bench.
(A volume of 30 liters is suitable).
Observations and Calculations:

Vol
𝑄𝑖 = t
No. of Obs Volume 𝑉𝑜𝑙(𝑙) Time 𝑡 (𝑠) Volume Flow rate 𝑄𝑖

(𝑚3⁄𝑠)
1 5 17.75 0.000277
2 1 17.39 0.0000575
3 1 16.29 0.0000614
6|Page
Theory
Hydraulic Bench:
Hydraulic bench is a very useful apparatus in hydraulics and fluid mechanics it is involved in majority
of experiments to be conducted e.g., to find the value of co efficient of velocity ‘Cv’, coefficient of
discharge ‘Cd’ and contraction ‘C’ to study the characteristics of flow over notch-es, to find met
centric height, in finding head losses through pipes, verification of Bernoulli’s theorem etc.
Figure 1(Hydraulic Bench Front View) Figure 2 (Hydraulic Bench Top view)
The bench is constructed from lightweight corrosion resistant plastic and is mounted on wheels for
mobility. The bench top incorporates an open channel with side channels to support the accessory on
test. 13 Volumetric measurement is integral and has been chosen in preference to other methods of
flow measurement for its ease of use, accuracy and safety in use (no heavy weights for students to
handle). The volumetric measuring tank is stepped to accommodate low or high flow rates. A stilling
baffle reduces turbulence and a remote sight tube with scale gives an instantaneous indication of water
level. A measuring cylinder is included in the supply for measurement of very small flow rates. A
dump valve in the base of the volumetric tank is operated by a remote actuator. Opening the dump
valve returns the measured volume of water to the sump in the base of the bench for recycling. An
overflow in the volumetric tank avoids flooding.
Hydraulic Bench Unit Water is drawn from the sump tank by a centrifugal pump and a panel mounted
control valve regulates the flow. An easy-to-use quick release pipe connector situated in the bench top
allows for the rapid exchange of accessories without the need for hand tools. 14 Each accessory is
supplied as a complete piece of equipment needing no additional service items other than the
Hydraulics Bench. When coupled to the bench they are immediately ready for use.
7|Page
Parts of Hydraulic Bench:

1. Water Channel
2.Main Switch
3. Flow Control Valve
4. Drain Valve
5. Centrifugal Pump
6. Dump Valve
7. Volumetric Tank
8. Connector
9.Stilling Baffle
10. Sump Tank
11.Side Channel
1. Water Channel
It is used in number of experiments It provides passage for water for different experiments.
2. Main Switch
It on / off the hydraulic bench.
3. Flow Control valve
It is used to regulate the flow in the pipe i.e., to increase or decrease the inflow of water in the
hydraulic bench.
4. Drain valve
It is used for emptying sump tank.
5. Centrifugal pump
It draws water from sump tank and supplies it for performing experiments.
6. Dump valve
It is at the base of the volumetric tank. Opening the dump valve allows the entrained water to
return to the sump tank for recycling.
8|Page
7. Volumetric tank
It stores water coming from channel. This tank is stepped to accommodate low or high flow
rates. It has a capacity of 46 liters
8. Connecter
With the help of this we can attach accessories with the hydraulic bench. Special purpose
terminations may be connected to the pump supply by unscrewing connector, no hand tools are
required for doing so. It is located in the channel.
9. Stilling baffle
It decreases the turbulence of water coming from channel. It is located in the volumetric tank.
10.Sump Tank
It stores water for Hydraulic bench. It is located in the bottom portion of Hydraulic bench.
Water from here is transported to other parts by using a pump. It has a capacity of 160 liters.
11.Side Channels
They are the upper sides of the channel. They are used to attach accessories on test.
Conclusion:
Hydraulic bench is a very useful apparatus in hydraulics and fluid mechanics. It is involved in
majority of experiments to be conducted e.g. To find the value of the co-efficient of velocity ‘Cv’,
coefficient of discharge ‘Cd’, to study the characteristics of flow over notches, to find metacentric
height, to find head losses through pipes, to verify Bernoulli’s theorem etc.
References:
1. Demonstration of Various Parts of Hydraulic Bench | Fluid Mechanics Lab Experiment
(aboutcivil.org)
2. https://www.aboutcivil.org/parts-of-Hydraulic-Bench.html
9|Page
Experiment No.2
Title:
Experimental verification of Bernoulli’s Equation.
Objective
The objective of this experiment is to investigate the validity of the Bernoulli equation when it is
applied to a steady flow of water through a tapered duct.
Apparatus
The following equipment is required to complete the demonstration of the Bernoulli equation
experiment:
 F1-10 hydraulics bench,

 F1-15 Bernoulli’s apparatus test equipment, and
 A stopwatch for timing the flow measurement.
Apparatus Description
The Bernoulli test apparatus consists of a tapered duct (venturi), a series of manometers tapped into
the venturi to measure the pressure head, and a hypodermic probe that can be traversed along the
center of the test section to measure the total head. The test section is a circular duct of varying
diameter with a 14° inclined angle on one side and a 21° inclined angle on other side. Series of side
hole pressure tapings are provided to connect manometers to the test section (Figure 2.1).
Figure 2.1: Armfield F1-15 Bernoulli’s apparatus test equipment
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Manometers allow the simultaneous measurement of the pressure heads at all of the six sections along
the duct. The dimensions of the test section, the tapping positions, and the test section diameters are
shown in Figure 2.2. The test section incorporates two unions, one at either end, to facilitate reversal
for convergent or divergent testing. A probe is provided to measure the total pressure head along the
test section by positioning it at any section of the duct. This probe may be moved after slackening the
gland nut, which should be re-tightened by hand. To prevent damage, the probe should be fully
inserted during transport/storage. The pressure tapings are connected to manometers that are mounted
on a baseboard. The flow through the test section can be adjusted by the apparatus control valve or the
bench control valve [2].
Procedure
 Open the inlet valve and allow the water to flow from the supply tank to the receiving tank
through a tapered inclined pipe.
 Adjust the flow using an outlet valve to make the head constant in the supply tank. At the
constant head, head causing inflow and outflow are equal.
 After adjusting the flow, note down the readings of the water level of each manometer tube
which are nothing but pressure heads at different points of tapered tube.
 Now, take the stopwatch and measure the height of water collected for a particular time
interval.
 Also, note down the measuring tank dimensions.
 Repeat the same procedure for different discharges for at least two more times.
Observations and Calculation
Discharge Q = volume / time = V/t
Velocity of flow, v = Discharge / Area of cross section of tapered pipe
Velocities under each piezometer tube are v1 = Q/A1,
v2 = Q/A2,
v3 = Q/A3………
Velocity head = v2 / 2g
Total Head = P/w + V2 / 2g + Z
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Sr Volume Time Flow Distance Area of Static Velocity Dynamic Total
No.FluidCollecte
Mechanics to rate into duct Duct Head v LabHead
Manual Head
dV collect Qv (m) A h (m/s) h0
(m3) T (m3/sec) (m2) (m) (m) (m)
(sec)
h1 0.00 490.9×10-6 0.27 0.123 7.71×10-4 0.270
h2 0.0603 151.7×10-6 0.26 0.398 8.08×10-3 0.268
1 0.001 16.54 0.0000604 h3 0.0687 109.4×10-6 0.245 0.552 0.0155 0.260
h4 0.0732 89.9×10-6 0.233 0.6718 0.0263 0.259
-6
h5 0.0811 78.5×10 0.227 0.769 0.0301 0.257
h6 0.1415 490.9×10-6 0.241 0.123 7.71×10-4 0.241
h1 0.00 490.9×10-6 0.28 0.135 0.000928 0.280

h2 0.0603 151.7×10-6 0.270 0.436 0.000968 0.279
0.000062
2 0.001 15.103 h3 0.0687 109.4×10-6 0.255 0.605 0.0187 0.2737
h4 0.0732 89.9×10-6 0.24 0.736 0.0276 0.2676
h5 0.0811 78.5×10-6 0.225 0.843 0.0362 0.2612
h6 0.1415 490.9×10-6 0.24 0.135 0.000928 0.240
h1 0.00 490.9×10-6 0.26 0.14938 0.001137 0.261

8
3 0.001 13.65 7.32×10-5 h2 0.0603 151.7×10-6 0.248 0.48476 0.011978 0.259
8
h3 0.0687 109.4×10-6 0.235 0.67156 0.022986 0.2579
h4 0.0732 89.9×10-6 0.22 0.81423 0.033791 0.2537
8
-6
h5 0.0811 78.5×10 0.203 0.93248 0.044318 0.2473
4 1
h6 0.1415 490.9×10-6 0.216 0.14911 0.001133 0.2171
4
h1 0.00 490.9×10-6 0.287 0.184 1.72×10-3 0.2887

2
4 0.001 11.03 9.06×10-5 h2 0.0603 151.7×10-6 0.265 0.597 0.018 0.283
h3 0.0687 109.4×10-6 0.244 0.877 0.039 0.283
h4 0.0732 89.9×10-6 0.217 1.007 0.0157 0.2327
h5 0.0811 78.5×10-6 0.186 1.1 0.0674 0.2534
h6 0.1415 490.9×10-6 0.214 0.184 1.72×10-3 0.2157
12 | P a2 g e
Graph
Total Head vs Flow rate

0.27
0.265
0.26
Total Head
0.255
0.25
0.245
0.24
0.235
0.000055 0.00006 0.000065 0.00007 0.000075 0.00008 0.000085 0.00009 0.000095 0.0001 0.000105
Flow Rate
Graph 1 Total head vs Flow rate Graph
Theory
Bernoulli’s theorem assumes that the flow is frictionless, steady, and incompressible. These
assumptions are also based on the laws of conservation of mass and energy. Thus, the input mass and
energy for a given control volume are equal to the output mass and energy:
Qin = Qout (1a)
Ein = Eout (1b)
These two laws and the definition of work and pressure are the basis for Bernoulli’s theorem and can
be expressed as follows for any two points located on the same streamline in the flow:
p1 v2 p2 v 2
+ + z 1= + + z2 (2)
ρg 2 g ρg 2 g
where:
P: pressure,
g: acceleration due to gravity,
v: fluid velocity, and
13 | P a g e
z: vertical elevation of the fluid.
In this experiment, since the duct is horizontal, the difference in height can be disregarded, i.e.,
z1=z2
The hydrostatic pressure (P) along the flow is measured by manometers tapped into the duct. The
pressure head (h), thus, is calculated as:
P
h= (3)
ρg
Therefore, Bernoulli’s equation for the test section can be written as:
2 2
v v
h1 + =h2 + (4)
2g 2g
in which is called the velocity head (hd).
The total head (ht) may be measured by the traversing hypodermic probe. This probe is inserted into
the duct with its end-hole facing the flow so that the flow becomes stagnant locally at this end; thus:
2
v
ht =h+ (5)
2g
The conservation of energy or the Bernoulli’s equation can be expressed as:
ht1 = ht2 (6)
The flow velocity is measured by collecting a volume of the fluid (V) over a time period (t). The flow
rate is calculated as:
V
Q= (7)
t
The velocity of flow at any section of the duct with a cross-sectional area of is determined as:
Q
V= (8)
A
For an incompressible fluid, conservation of mass through the test section should be also satisfied
(Equation 1a), i.e.:
14 | P a g e
A1v1 = A2v2
Conclusion
Hence, Bernoulli’s theorem is proved and it can be expressed as,
p1 v2 p2 v 2
+ + z 1= + + z2
ρg 2 g ρg 2 g
References:
Experiment #2: Bernoulli’s Theorem Demonstration – Applied Fluid Mechanics Lab Manual
(pressbooks.pub)
Experimental Verification of Bernoulli’s Theorem - The Constructor
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Experiment No. 3
Title
Determination of coefficient of velocity of two small orifices.
Objectives:
The objective of this lab experiment to determine a coefficient of velocity of two smallish orifices in
the lab and compare them with values in textbooks and other reliable sources.
Apparatus
The ensuing equipment is required to perform the orifice and freely jet flow test:
 F1-10 hydraulics bench.

 F1-17 orifice and release jet flow apparatus, includes two orifices having diameters and area of
3 and 25 mm2 respectively.
 Metrology cylinder for flow measurement.
 Stopwatch for timing the flow measurement.
Apparatus Descriptions
Who outlet and free jet flow apparatus consists starting a cylindrical head tank with an orifice plate set
into its side (Figure 6.1). An adjustable overflow pipe is contiguous to and head tank to permits
changes is the water plane. ONE flexible connects attached to the spill tubular return excess water to
the hydraulics bench. A scale attached to the head tank indicates the water level. AN baffle toward the
base is the head tank promotes smooth flow conditions inside the tanks, behind who orifice plate.
Figure Error! Use the Home tab to apply 0 to the text that you want to appear here.-1 Armfield F1-17 Orifice and Ray device
16 | P a g e
Two outlet plates with 3- and 6-mm diameters are provided and may be replaced by slackening the
two thumb nuts. Who trajectory about one ray may be measurements, using the vertical pointers. For
this purpose, a sheet of paper should be appended to the backboard, and the points should be
customizing to keep who trajectory of the water jet. The needles mayor is locked, using ampere screw
on the mounted bar. The positioned are the tops of one needle can be marked to plot the trajectory. AN
drain plugs in of base of the head tank allows water to be dragged off an equipment at the end of the
experiment.
Procedure
 Locate those apparatuses beyond the canal in the top of the bench.
 Through the spirit level attached to the socket, level the apparatus by adjusting the feet.
 Connect the flexible inlet subway on the party to the head tank to the bench quick-release
fitting.
 Place the free end of the flexible tube after the adjustable overflow on a side of the head tank
into the volumetric. Make sure that this tube will not interfere with the trajectory of the jet
fluently off the orifice
 Secure each needle in and raised position according tightening the knurled screw.
Observations and Calculations

The following dimensions of the equipment are used in the appropriate calculations. If necessary,
these values may be checked as part of the experimental procedure and replaced with your
measurements [6].
–Diameter of the small orifice: 0.003 m
– Diameter of the large orifice: 0.006 m
– Pitch of needles: 0.05 m
No. of Obs Orifice Head Horizontal Vertical Coefficient of

Diameter Distance Distance Velocity
d h x y Cv
(m) (m) (m) (m)
0.0135 0 ∞
0.0635 0.0045 0.81
0.1135 0.015 0.8
1 0.003 0.340 0.1635 0.023 0.92
0.2135 0.0385 0.930
17 | P a g e
0.2635 0.058 0.94

0.3135 0.081 0.941
0.3635 0.110 0.94
Graph
Graph between x and √𝑦ℎ

0.4
0.35
0.3
0.25
0.2
X
0.15
0.1
0.05
0
0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25
(√𝑦ℎ )
yh u Linear (yh u)
No. of Obs Orifice Head Horizontal Vertical Coefficient of

Diameter Distance Distance Velocity
d h x y Cv
(m) (m) (m) (m)
0.0135 0
0.0635 0.0035 0.894
0.1135 0.0145 0.785
2 0.003 0.360 0.1635 0.0225 0.9
0.2135 0.037 0.92
0.2635 0.055 0.936
0.3135 0.071 0.98
0.3635 0.096 0.97
18 | P a g e
Graph

0.4
0.35
0.3
0.25
0.2
x
0.15
0.1
0.05
0
0 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.1 0.12 0.14 0.16 0.18 0.2
√𝑦ℎ
Series2 Linear (Series2)
No. of Obs Orifice Area Head Horizontal Vertical Coefficient of

Distance Distance Velocity
a h x y Cv
(mm2) (m) (m) (m)
0.0135 0 ∞
0.0635 0.005 0.73
0.1135 0.016 0.751936
3 25 0.356 0.1635 0.027 0.833836
0.2135 0.045 0.843406
0.2635 0.065 0.866102
0.3135 0.089 0.880618
0.3635 0.12 0.879344
19 | P a g e
Graph

0.4
0.35
0.3
0.25
0.2
x
0.15
0.1
0.05
0
0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25
√𝑦ℎ
No. of Obs Orifice Area Head Horizontal Vertical Coefficient of

Distance Distance Velocity
a h x y Cv
(mm2) (m) (m) (m)
0.0135 0 ∞
0.0635 0.0045 0.815175
0.1135 0.017 0.889547
5 25 0.369 0.1635 0.029 0.789201
0.2135 0.045 0.827296
0.2635 0.065 0.849558
0.3135 0.089 0.863797
0.3635 0.116 0.877293
20 | P a g e
Graph

0.4
0.35
0.3
0.25
0.2
x
0.15
0.1
0.05
0
0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25
√𝑦ℎ
yh u Linear (yh u)
Theory
The orifice outflow velocity can be calculated by applying Bernoulli’s equation (for a steady,
incompressible, glassy flow) toward a large replace with a release (orifice) on its side (Figure 6.2):
Vi=√ 2 gh (1)
where h is the height of flowing higher the orifice. This is the ideal velocity since that effect of flow
viscosity is not considered within deriving Equation 1. And actual flow velocity, however, is smaller
than vi and is calculated as:
v = Cv √ 2 gh (2)
Cv can to coefficient of velocity, which allows for the effects of viscosity; therefore, Cfin <1. The genuine
outflow velocity calculated by Equation (2) is the velocity at the veined contracta, where the average
of the jet is the slightest and of flow velocity is at its maximum (Figure 6.2).
The actual outflow rate may be calculated as:
21 | P a g e
Q = vAc (3)
what Ac is the flow area to the vein contracta. Ac is smaller than the orifice zone, ANo (Figure 6.2), and
is given by:
Ac = CcAo (4)
where Chundred is the coefficient are contraction; therefore, Ccentury < 1.
Substituting v and AMPEREc from Expressions 2 and 4 into Equation 3 ergebnisse in:
Q = CvCcAo √ 2 gh (5)
And product CphoebeCc is called the coefficient of offloading, Cd; That, Equation 5 pot are written as:
Q=CdAo√ 2 gh (6)
Which coefficient of velocity, Cv, real coefficient of discharge, Cd, are determined experimentally as
tracking.
Figure Error! Use the Home tab to apply 0 to the text that you want to appear here.-2 Orifice and jet run Parameter
Determination the coefficient starting velocity
If the effect of air resistance on the jet leaving the orifice is neglected, the horizontal component of the
jet velocity can be assumed to remain permanent. Therefore, the horizontal distance travelled by
smoke (x) in time (t) is equal to:
x = v.t (7)
The vertico partial of the trajectory of the jet becomes have a constant acceleration downward due to a
force of gravity. Therefore, per any time, t, the y-position is the jet may be calculated as: CHE241
Fluid Mechanics- Lab Show Flowmeter Surface Apparatus
22 | P a g e
1
y = gt2 (8)
2
Rearranging Mathematical (8) gives:
2 y 0.5
t=( ) (9)
g
Substitution of t and v from Equations 9 and 2 into Equation 7 results in:
2 y 0.5
x =Cv √ 2 gh ( ) (10)
g
Equation (10) can be rearranged to find Cfin:
x
Cv = (11)
2 √ yh
Therefore, for steady flow conditions (i.e., constant effervescence is the head tank), to value for Cv can
be determined from the x, y coordinates of the jet trajectory. A graph of x plotted against √ yh will
have adenine slope of 2Cv.
Conclusion
Experimental errors have significantly affected the values of the coefficients. The precision of the
results show that the errors are mostly systematic and hence procedure wise it is deemed to be
successful.
However, these are not reliable as evidenced by previous similar experiments. The experimental
values for the coefficients are therefore not a good approximation of the true value.
References:
1.6: Experiment #6: Orifice and Free Jet Flow - Engineering LibreTexts
23 | P a g e
24 | P a g e
Experiment No. 04
Title:
Determination of Coefficient of discharge with outflow under constant head.
Objectives:
The objective of this lab experiment is to determine the coefficients of discharge of two small orifices
in the lab and compare them with values in textbooks and other reliable sources.
Apparatus:
The following equipment is required to perform the orifice and free jet flow experiment:
 F1-10 hydraulics bench;

 F1-17 orifice and free jet flow apparatus, with orifice having diameter of 6 mm;
 Measuring cylinder for flow measurement;
Procedure:
 Locate the apparatus over the channel in the top of the bench.
 Using the spirit level attached to the base, level the apparatus by adjusting the feet.
 Connect the flexible inlet tube on the side of the head tank to the bench quick-release fitting.
 Place the free end of the flexible tube from the adjustable overflow on the side of the head tank
into the volumetric. Make sure that this tube will not interfere with the trajectory of the jet
flowing from the orifice
 Secure each needle in the raised position by tightening the knurled screw.
 Position the overflow tube to have a head of 300 mm in the tank. (You may have to adjust the
level of the overflow tube to achieve this.)
 Measure the flow rate by timed collection, using the measuring cylinder provided.
 Repeat this procedure for a head of 260 mm.
The procedure should also be repeated for the second orifice.
25 | P a g e
– Diameter of the large orifice: 0.006 m
– Pitch of needles: 0.05 m
No. of Orifice Head Volume Time Flowrate

Obs Diameter
d
H V t Qv h0.5
(m)
(m) (m3) (sec) (m3/sec) (m0.5)
1 0.006 0.280 0.00047 10 0.000047 0.529
2 0.006 0.290 0.00048 10 0.000048 0.539
3 0.006 0.3 0.00049 10 0.000049 0.547
4 0.006 0.31 0.000492 10 0.0000492 0.556
5 0.006 0.32 0.000495 10 0.0000495 0.566
Graph
Flow rate vs h0.5

0.57
0.56
0.55
0.54
h0.5
0.53
0.52
0.51
0.0000465 0.000047 0.0000475 0.000048 0.0000485 0.000049 0.0000495 0.00005
Flow rate
h Linear (h)
26 | P a g e
Theory
The orifice outflow velocity can be calculated by applying Bernoulli’s equation (for a steady,
incompressible, glassy flow) toward a large replace with a release (orifice) on its side (Figure 6.2):
Vi=√ 2 gh (1)
where h is the height of flowing higher the orifice. This is the ideal velocity since that effect of flow
viscosity is not considered within deriving Equation 1. And actual flow velocity, however, is smaller
than vi and is calculated as:
v = Cv √ 2 gh (2)
Cv can to coefficient of velocity, which allows for the effects of viscosity; therefore, Cfin <1. The genuine
outflow velocity calculated by Equation (2) is the velocity at the veined contracta, where the average
of the jet is the slightest and of flow velocity is at its maximum.
The actual outflow rate may be calculated as:
Q = vAc (3)
what Ac is the flow area to the vein contracta. Ac is smaller than the orifice zone, ANo (Figure 6.2), and
is given by:
Ac = CcAo (4)
where Chundred is the coefficient are contraction; therefore, Ccentury < 1.
Substituting v and AMPEREc from Expressions 2 and 4 into Equation 3 ergebnisse in:
Q = CvCcAo √ 2 gh (5)
And product CphoebeCc is called the coefficient of offloading, Cd; That, Equation 5 pot are written as:
Q=CdAo√ 2 gh (6)
Which coefficient of velocity, Cv, real coefficient of discharge, Cd, are determined experimentally as
tracking.
27 | P a g e
Figure Error! Use the Home tab to apply 0 to the text that you want to appear here.-3 Orifice and jet run Parameter
Determination of Coefficient of Discharge
If Cd is assumed to be constant, then a graph of Q plotted against√ h (Equation 6) will be linear, and
the slope of this graph will be:
S = CdAo√ 2 g
Conclusion
In this report, our main aim is finding out that how much error occur in finding out the discharge of
the jet from the orifice and at the venna-contracta. If we have very large value of the Cd it determines
that the discharge at the orifice is much smaller than the discharge at the venna-contracta. If we ignore
the coefficient of discharge in finding out the discharge flow rate then we will have a great large error
in our readings because in actual the correct value is at the venna-contracta.
References:
Experiment #6: Orifice and Free Jet Flow – Applied Fluid Mechanics Lab Manual (pressbooks.pub)
Microsoft Word - 1364 paper (sindh.gov.pk)
28 | P a g e
Experiment No. 05
Title:
Investigation of reaction forces produced by the change in momentum of fluid flow.
Objectives:
The objective of this experiment is to investigate the reaction forces produced by the change in
momentum of a fluid flow when a jet of water strikes a flat plate or a curved surface, and to compare
the results from this experiment with the computed forces by applying the momentum equation.
Apparatus:
The following equipment is required to perform the impact of the jet experiment:

 F1-16 impacts of a jet apparatus with three flow deflectors with deflection angles of 90, 120,
and 180 degrees, and
Apparatus Description
The jet apparatus is a clear acrylic cylinder, a nozzle, and a flow deflector (Figure 5.1). Water enters
vertically from the top of the cylinder, through a nozzle striking a target, mounted on a stem, and
leaves through the outlet holes in the base of the cylinder. An air vent at the top of the cylinder
maintains the atmospheric pressure inside the cylinder. A weight pan is mounted at the top of the stem
to allow the force of the striking water to be counterbalanced by applied masses.
Figure: Impact of Jet
29 | P a g e
Procedure:
 Remove the top plate (by releasing the knurled nuts) and the transparent cylinder from the
equipment, and check and record the exit diameter of the nozzle.
 Replace the cylinder, and screw the 90-degree deflector onto the end of the shaft.
 Connect the inlet tube to the quick-release connector on the bench.
 Replace the top plate on the transparent cylinder, but do not tighten the three knurled nuts.
 Using the spirit level attached to the top plate, level the cylinder by adjusting the feet.
 Replace the three knurled nuts, then tighten in sequence until the built-in circular spirit level
indicates that the top plate is horizontal. Do not overtighten the knurled nuts, as this will
damage the top plate. The nuts should only be tightened enough to level the plate.
 Ensure that the vertical shaft is free to move and is supported by the spring beneath the weight
pan.
 With no weights on the weight pan, adjust the height of the level gauge until it aligns with the
datum line on the weight pan. Check that the position is correct by gently oscillating the pan.
 Place a mass of 50 grams on the weight pan, and turn on the pump.
 Open the bench valve slowly, and allow water to impinge upon the target until the datum line
on the weight pan is level with the gauge. Leave the flow constant. Observe and note the flow
behavior during the test.
 Measure the flow rate, using the volumetric tank. This is achieved by closing the ball valve and
measuring the time that it takes to accumulate a known volume of fluid in the tank, as
measured from the sight glass. You should collect water for at least one minute to minimize
timing errors.
 Repeat this procedure by adding an additional 50 grams incrementally, until a maximum mass
of 500 grams has been applied.
 Repeat the entire test for each of the other two flow deflectors.
The nozzle is of the following dimensions.
 Diameter of the nozzle: d= 0.008 m

 Cross sectional area of the nozzle: A= 5.0265×10-5 m2
 The experimental value of S is obtained from a graph W of plotted against v2.
30 | P a g e
Obs Nozzle Deflection Volume Time to Mass Flow Velocity Velocity2 Force Calculated Slop from
No. Diameter Type a Collected Collect Applied Rate Slop From Theory
(Degree) V (m3) t W Qv V V2 Fy Experiment
(m) (sec) (kg) (m3/sec) (m/sec) (m/sec)2 (Newton)
1 0.008 90 0.002 15.46 100 0.000129 2.567 6.529 0.328818
0.050246 0.050265
2 0.008 90 0.002 9.35 200 0.00021 4.17 17.4 0.874611
3 0.008 90 0.002 5.80 300 0.00034 6.7 44.89 2.256396
Graph
Applied Weight vs V2
2.5
Applied Weight (newton)
1.5
0.5
0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
V2(m/sec)2
Obs Nozzle Deflection Volume Time to Mass Flow Velocity Velocity2 Force Calculated Slop from
No. Diameter Type Collected Collect Applied Rate Slop From Theory
a V (m3) t W Qv V V2 Fy Experiment
(m) (Degree) (sec) (kg) (m3/sec) (m/sec) (m/sec)2 (Newton)
1 0.008 180 0.002 19.49 0.1 0.000102 2.029 4.1178 0.41396
0.10053 0.10053
2 0.008 180 0.002 15.22 0.2 0.000131 2.606 6.7922 0.68282
3 0.008 180 0.002 12.8 0.3 0.000156 3.1035 9.63203 0.968308
4 0.008 180 0.002 9.71 0.4 0.000205 4.0977 16.79 1.6879
31 | P a g e
Graph
Applied Weight vs V2
1.8
1.6
1.4
Applied Weight (newton
1.2
1
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18
V2(m/sec)
Theory
The velocity of the water (v) leaving the nozzle with the cross-sectional area (A) can be calculated
by:
Q
v=
A
in which Q is the flow rate.
Applying the energy equation between the nozzle exit point and the surface of the deflector shows that
the magnitude of the flow velocity does not change as the water flows around the deflector; only the
direction of the flow changes.
Applying the momentum equation to a control volume encompassing the deflected flow results in:
Fy = ρQv(cos θ + 1)
where:
Fy: force exerted by the deflector on the fluid
: fluid density
32 | P a g e
: 180- , where is the flow deflection angle (Figure 5.2).
Figure: Examples of flow deflection angles for flat and hemispherical deflectors
From equilibrium of forces in a vertical direction, Fy is balanced by the applied weight on the weight
pan, W (W = mg, where m is the applied mass), i.e., Fy = W. Therefore:
W= ρQv(cos θ + 1)
Since Q = vA, this equation can be written as:

W = ρAv2(cos θ + 1)
2
Hence, the slope of the graph plotted between W and v will be
Slope = ρA (1 + cosθ)
Conclusion
To analyze fluid motion, a finite region of the fluid (control volume) is usually selected, and the gross
effects of the flow, such as its force or torque on an object, is determined by calculating the net mass
rate that flows into and out of the control volume.
These forces can be determined, as in solid mechanics, by the use of Newton’s second law, or by the
momentum equation. The force exerted by a jet of fluid on a flat or curve surface can be resolved by
applying the momentum equation linear graph tells us one thing clearly that one thing depends on
33 | P a g e
other directly that one thing increase then the other also increase and if one thing decrease the other
also decrease. We have to take everything precise so that the error will be minimize.
References:
1.5: Experiment #5: Impact of a Jet - Engineering LibreTexts
Experiment No 5 - • To investigate the reaction forces produced by the change in momentum of the -
Studocu
34 | P a g e
Experiment No.6
Title:
To observe laminar, transitional and turbulent flow.
Objectives:
The objective of this lab experiment is to illustrate laminar, transitional, and fully turbulent flows in a
pipe, and to determine under which conditions each flow regime occurs.
Apparatus:
The following equipment is required to perform the Reynolds number experiment:

 The F1-20 Reynolds demonstration apparatus,
 Cylinder for measuring flow,
 Stopwatch for timing the flow measurement, and
 Thermometer.
Apparatus Description:
The equipment includes a vertical head tank that provides a constant head of water through a bell
mouth entry to the flow visualization glass pipe. Stilling media (marbles) are placed inside the tank to
tranquilize the flow of water entering the pipe. The discharge through this pipe is regulated by a
control valve and can be measured using a measuring cylinder. The flow velocity, therefore, can be
determined to calculate Reynolds number. A dye reservoir is mounted on top of the head tank, from
which a blue dye can be injected into the water to enable observation of flow conditions.
Figure 1-4 Osborne Renold Apparatus
35 | P a g e
Procedure:
 Close the drain valve.
 Fill the reservoir with ink (purple).
 Switch on the water supply by switching on the pump.
 Carefully open the control valve.
 Adjust the valve to produce a constant water level in the reservoir.
 After a time, the test pipe section is filled completely.
 Adjust the flow control valve slightly to produce a low rate of flow into the test pipe
 section. The dye ink is directed down the drain.
 To produce a higher flow, turn the flow control valve a little more.
 Measure the volume of water flowing out from the overflow with a time limit to calculate
flow velocity.
 In this experiment, the time limit that we set is 3s, 5s and 10s.
 Measure and record all calculations for the Reynolds Number for laminar, turbulent and
transitional flow.
 Each flow must consist of 4 readings and calculations to ensure the experiment is accurate

Diameter of test pipe: d = 0.01 m
Cross-sectional area of test pipe: A =7.854×10-5 m2
No. of Obs Volume Time Flow Rate Velocity Reynold Type of

collected Number Flow
t Q=V/t v=Q/A
V ρVd
ℜ=
μ
(m3)
(sec) (m3/s) (m/s)
1 64×10-6 10 64×10-7 0.0814 812.23 Laminar
2 212×10-6 10 212×10-7 0.2699 2693.61 Transitional
3 560×10-6 10 560×10-7 0.7130 7115.77 Turbulent
36 | P a g e
Theory
Reynolds Analogy:
 In an early paper, he proposed the connection between friction at wall and the rate of heat
transfer known as Reynolds Analogy.
Reynolds Number:
 In the year 1883, Osborne Reynold published his results of the change in the structure of
pipe-flow from laminar to turbulent as the velocity or pipe diameter was increased. He showed that
this changeover occurred for a fixed value of the dimensionless grouping called the Reynolds Number.
Reynolds Equation and Reynolds Stresses:

 In attempt to explain the change of structure occurred, Osborne Reynolds produced
research in which he decomposed the velocity into a mean and fluctuating part. From that he
obtained the mean flow equations known as the Reynolds equation which contained as unknown
the time-averaged fluctuation of velocity products, so called the Reynolds Stresses.
This experiment replicates the work done by Osborne Reynolds to characterize laminar, transitional
and turbulent flow in terms of the “Reynolds Number” proposed by him. The Reynolds apparatus
allows the experimenter to visualize the flow and determined whether it is laminar, transitional or
turbulent. The data we should collected from the experiment are:
Laminar flow
The type of flow in which the particles move in a straight line in the form of a thin parallel sheets.
Laminar flow denotes a steady condition where all stream lines follow parallel paths. Under this
condition, the dye will remain identifiable as a solid core.
Turbulent flow
The type of flow in which the particles move in a zig-zag pattern. Turbulent flow denotes as unsteady
condition where the stream lines interact causing shear plan collapse and mixing occurs.
Transitional flow
The type of flow when the flow changes from laminar to turbulent or vice versa a disturbance is
created.
Reynolds Number
The Reynolds Number is important in analyzing any type of flow when there is substantial velocity
gradient. It indicates the relative significance of the viscous effect compared to the inertia effect. The
flow will be classified as according as below:
 Laminar when Re<2300
 Transient when 2300<Re<4000
37 | P a g e
 Turbulent when Re>4000
ρVd
ℜ=
μ
ρ = density of fluid
V = velocity of fluid
μ = coefficient of dynamic viscosity
d= diameter of flow visualization pipe
Conclusion:
Reynolds number indicates that the type of fluid flow can take three form of Laminar, Transitional,
and Turbulence depending upon the density of fluid, viscosity, pipe diameter and flow viscosity.
Which can be experimentally tested on Reynolds Apparatus.
References:
1. Fluid Mechanic Lab - Reynold's Number Experiment | PDF (slideshare.net)
2. Experiment 4 - OBJECTIVE: 1. To observe the laminar, transitional, turbulent flow and
velocity - Studocu
38 | P a g e

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University of Engineering and Technology

Department of Mechanical Engineering

Observations and Calculations:............................................................................................................6

Parts of Hydraulic Bench:.....................................................................................................................8

3. Flow Control valve.................................................................................................................8

10. Sump Tank.............................................................................................................................9

11. Side Channels.........................................................................................................................9

Observations and Calculation.............................................................................................................11

Experiment No. 3....................................................................................................................................16

Observations and Calculations...........................................................................................................17

Determination the coefficient starting velocity..................................................................................22

Experiment No. 04..................................................................................................................................24

Observations and Calculations:..........................................................................................................25

Determination of Coefficient of Discharge........................................................................................27

Experiment No. 05..................................................................................................................................28

Observations and Calculations:..........................................................................................................29

Observations and Calculations:..........................................................................................................35

Reynolds Equation and Reynolds Stresses:........................................................................................36

Observations and Calculations:

No. of Obs Volume 𝑉𝑜𝑙(𝑙) Time 𝑡 (𝑠) Volume Flow rate 𝑄𝑖

Parts of Hydraulic Bench:

It on / off the hydraulic bench.

3. Flow Control valve

It is used for emptying sump tank.

 F1-10 hydraulics bench,

Figure 2.1: Armfield F1-15 Bernoulli’s apparatus test equipment

 Also, note down the measuring tank dimensions.

Observations and Calculation

Discharge Q = volume / time = V/t

Velocity of flow, v = Discharge / Area of cross section of tapered pipe

Velocities under each piezometer tube are v1 = Q/A1,

h1 0.00 490.9×10-6 0.28 0.135 0.000928 0.280

h1 0.00 490.9×10-6 0.26 0.14938 0.001137 0.261

h1 0.00 490.9×10-6 0.287 0.184 1.72×10-3 0.2887

Total Head vs Flow rate

Graph 1 Total head vs Flow rate Graph

Qin = Qout (1a)

Ein = Eout (1b)

g: acceleration due to gravity,

v: fluid velocity, and

z: vertical elevation of the fluid.

in which is called the velocity head (hd).

The conservation of energy or the Bernoulli’s equation can be expressed as:

ht1 = ht2 (6)

Experimental Verification of Bernoulli’s Theorem - The Constructor

 F1-10 hydraulics bench.

Observations and Calculations

No. of Obs Orifice Head Horizontal Vertical Coefficient of

0.2635 0.058 0.94

Graph between x and √𝑦ℎ

No. of Obs Orifice Head Horizontal Vertical Coefficient of

Graph between x and √𝑦ℎ

Series2 Linear (Series2)

No. of Obs Orifice Area Head Horizontal Vertical Coefficient of

0.2135 0.045 0.843406

0.2635 0.065 0.866102

0.3135 0.089 0.880618

0.3635 0.12 0.879344

Graph between x and √𝑦ℎ

Series2 Linear (Series2)

No. of Obs Orifice Area Head Horizontal Vertical Coefficient of

Graph between x and √𝑦ℎ

The actual outflow rate may be calculated as:

where Chundred is the coefficient are contraction; therefore, Ccentury < 1.