FM Lab Manual

ME-301L Fluid Mechanics Lab
List of Figures
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II
List of Tables
No table of figures entries found.
III
List of Experiments
Lab Guidelines......................................................................................................... 9
0.1 Course Learning Outcomes (CLOs) ......................................................................................... 9
0.2 Guidelines for Lab Report ...................................................................................................... 10
0.2.1 Content ......................................................................................................................................... 10
0.2.1.1 Cover Page ............................................................................................................................. 10
0.2.1.2 Abstract .................................................................................................................................. 10
0.2.1.3 Introduction ............................................................................................................................ 11
0.2.1.4 Theory .................................................................................................................................... 11
0.2.1.5 Procedure................................................................................................................................ 11
0.2.1.6 Observations & calculations .................................................................................................. 11
0.2.1.7 Conclusions ............................................................................................................................ 11
0.2.1.8 Discussion .............................................................................................................................. 12
0.2.1.9 References .............................................................................................................................. 12
0.2.2 Format .......................................................................................................................................... 12
0.2.3 Caption ......................................................................................................................................... 12
0.2.4 References.................................................................................................................................... 13
0.3 General Guidelines in a Lab for safety ................................................................................... 13
Practical Investigation of Bernoulli’s Theorem and Conservation of Energy.14
1.1 Learning Objectives ............................................................................................................... 14
1.2 List of Equipment ................................................................................................................... 14
1.3 Theoretical Background ......................................................................................................... 14
1.3.1 Bernoulli’s Theorem .................................................................................................................... 14
1.3.2 Venturi Tube ................................................................................................................................ 15
1.4 Description of Equipment ...................................................................................................... 16
1.4.1 Pitot tube ...................................................................................................................................... 17
1.5 Procedure ................................................................................................................................ 17
1.6 Precautions ............................................................................................................................. 17
1.7 Observations ........................................................................................................................... 18
1.7.1 Calculations ................................................................................................................................. 20
1.8 Graphs .................................................................................................................................... 20
1.9 Results and Discussion ........................................................................................................... 21
Study of Drag, Lift & Pitching moment Coefficients, Boundary Layer
Estimation & Flow Visualization of Various Objects ..................................................................... 22
IV
2.1 Purpose ................................................................................................................................... 22
2.2 Introduction ............................................................................................................................ 22
2.3 Theory .................................................................................................................................... 22
2.3.1 Wind Tunnel ................................................................................................................................ 23
2.3.2 Smoke Generator ......................................................................................................................... 24
2.3.3 Aerofoil ........................................................................................................................................ 24
2.3.3.1 Airfoil Terminology ............................................................................................................... 25
2.3.4 Slats.............................................................................................................................................. 25
2.3.5 Flaps ............................................................................................................................................. 25
2.3.6 Types of Airfoils .......................................................................................................................... 26
2.3.7 Working of airfoils....................................................................................................................... 26
2.3.8 Aerodynamic Center .................................................................................................................... 26
2.3.9 Lift & Drag Forces:...................................................................................................................... 26
2.3.10 Lift at an airfoil surface ............................................................................................................. 27
2.3.11 Drag at an airfoil surface ........................................................................................................... 27
2.3.12 Types of Drag ............................................................................................................................ 28
2.3.12.1 Form Drag ............................................................................................................................ 28
2.3.12.2 Lift Induced Drag ................................................................................................................. 28
2.3.12.3 Interference Drag.................................................................................................................. 28
2.3.12.4 Skin Friction Drag ................................................................................................................ 28
2.3.13 Pitching Moment........................................................................................................................ 29
2.3.14 Moment Correction .................................................................................................................... 29
2.3.15 Boundary Layer ......................................................................................................................... 29
2.3.16 Wake region ............................................................................................................................... 29
2.3.17 Separation region ....................................................................................................................... 30
2.3.18 Stall condition ............................................................................................................................ 30
2.4 Procedure for measurement of coefficients ............................................................................ 31
2.5 Observation and calculation ................................................................................................... 31
2.6 Procedure for boundary layer Estimation ............................................................................... 33
2.7 Observation and calculation ................................................................................................... 33
2.8 Procedure for observing boundary layer ................................................................................ 35
2.9 Precautions ............................................................................................................................. 38
2.10 Results & Discussions .......................................................................................................... 39
Frictional losses in Pipes ....................................................................................... 40
3.1 Purpose ................................................................................................................................... 40
V
3.2 Introduction ............................................................................................................................ 40
3.3 Theory .................................................................................................................................... 41
3.3.1 Major Losses ................................................................................................................................ 41
3.3.2 Minor Losses................................................................................................................................ 42
3.3.3 Valves .......................................................................................................................................... 43
3.3.3.1 Gate Valve .............................................................................................................................. 43
3.3.3.2 Globe Valves .......................................................................................................................... 43
3.3.3.3 Check Valve or Non Return Valve (NRV ) ........................................................................... 44
1.1.1 Ball Valve.................................................................................................................................. 44
3.3.4 Pipe Elbows ................................................................................................................................. 45
3.3.4.1 90º Elbow ............................................................................................................................... 45
3.3.4.2 45º Elbow ............................................................................................................................... 46
3.3.4.3 Returns – 180 Degree Elbow ................................................................................................. 46
3.3.5 Pipe Entrance or Exit ................................................................................................................... 46
3.3.6 Sudden Expansion and Contraction ............................................................................................. 47
3.3.7 Gradual Expansion and Contraction ............................................................................................ 48
3.3.8 Flow measuring devices............................................................................................................... 48
3.3.8.1 Orifice Plate ........................................................................................................................... 48
3.3.8.2 Nozzle .................................................................................................................................... 49
3.3.8.3 Venturi Meter ......................................................................................................................... 50
3.4 Procedure ................................................................................................................................ 51
3.5 Observations and Calculations ............................................................................................... 52
3.6 Sample Calculations ............................................................................................................... 56
3.7 Results & Discussion.............................................................................................................. 57
3.7.1 Points to be discussed .................................................................................................................. 57
Study of Pelton and Cross Flow Turbines .......................................................... 59
4.1 Purpose ................................................................................................................................... 59
4.2 Theory .................................................................................................................................... 59
4.2.1 Dynamometer............................................................................................................................... 59
4.2.2 A Comprehensive Overview of Hydraulic Dynamometer .......................................................... 60
4.2.3 General Description: .................................................................................................................... 61
4.2.3.1 Control Valves: ...................................................................................................................... 61
4.2.3.2 Water Absorber Operation: .................................................................................................... 62
4.3 Procedure ................................................................................................................................ 63
4.5 Precautions ............................................................................................................................. 66
VI
4.6 Results & Discussion.............................................................................................................. 67
4.6.1 Points to be discussed .................................................................................................................. 67
Study of Francis and Kaplan Turbines ............................................................... 70
5.1 Purpose ................................................................................................................................... 70
5.2 Theory .................................................................................................................................... 70
5.3 Reaction Turbines ................................................................................................................... 70
5.3.1 Francis Turbine ............................................................................................................................ 71
5.3.2 Working Principle ........................................................................................................................ 71
5.3.3 Components ................................................................................................................................. 71
5.3.3.1 Spiral casing ........................................................................................................................... 72
5.3.3.2 Stay vanes............................................................................................................................... 72
5.3.3.3 Guide vanes ............................................................................................................................ 73
5.3.3.4 Runner blades ......................................................................................................................... 73
5.3.3.5 Draft tube ............................................................................................................................... 73
5.3.4 Kaplan Turbine ............................................................................................................................ 73
5.3.5 Components ................................................................................................................................. 74
5.3.5.1 Scroll Casing .......................................................................................................................... 74
5.3.6 Guide Vane Mechanism............................................................................................................... 74
5.3.6.1 Draft Tube .............................................................................................................................. 75
5.3.6.2 Runner Blades ........................................................................................................................ 75
5.4 Performance Curves ............................................................................................................... 76
5.5 Hydraulic Dynamometer ........................................................................................................ 78
5.5.1 General Description ..................................................................................................................... 78
5.5.2 Control Valves ............................................................................................................................. 78
5.5.3 Water Absorber Operation ........................................................................................................... 79
5.5.4 Torque Reading by Spring Balance ............................................................................................. 80
5.6 Procedure ................................................................................................................................ 80
5.8 Results and Discussions ......................................................................................................... 83
5.9 Conclusions ............................................................................................................................ 85
Impact of Jet .......................................................................................................... 86
6.2 Apparatus................................................................................................................................ 86
6.3 Theoretical Background ......................................................................................................... 87
6.4 Procedure ................................................................................................................................ 88
VII
6.5 Precautions ............................................................................................................................. 89
6.7 Sample Calculation ................................................................................................................. 91
6.8 Conclusion .............................................................................................................................. 92
To Determine the Metacentric Height of a Floating Body and the Height
Variations with the Tilt Angle .......................................................................................................... 93
7.2 Apparatus................................................................................................................................ 93
7.3 Theoretical background .......................................................................................................... 93
7.3.1 Determination of Metacentric Height by experiment .................................................................. 94
7.3.2 Determination of Metacentric Height Theoretically .................................................................... 95
7.4 Procedure ................................................................................................................................ 96
7.5 Observations ........................................................................................................................... 97
7.6 Calculations ............................................................................................................................ 98
7.7 Results and Discussion ......................................................................................................... 100
Appendix ........................................................................................................................................... 101
VIII
Lab Guidelines
0.1 Course Learning Outcomes (CLOs)

The learning outcomes that are expected to be attained by the student at the end of the course are given
in Table 1. The CLO #3 is applicable only if lab is Open Ended Lab (OEL). The List of Program
Learning Outcomes (PLOs) of BS program of Mechanical Engineering Department are given in
Appendix A.
Table 0.1-1: Course learning outcomes of ME-301L Fluid Mechanics Lab
Sr.
CLOs Domain Level PLO
No.
1. Explain Engineering knowledge related to lab experiments. Cognitive 2 1
Perform the experiment following the demonstration and/or
2. Psychomotor 3 4
instruction
Plan / Formulate / Compose an experiment for the problem
3. Psychomotor 4 4
related to Fluid Mechanics.
Communicate the activity and its main points through
4. Affective 2 10
different media such a written, verbal etc.
5. Comply with the safety instructions, rules and regulations. Affective 2 8
6. Perform the experiment as an individual or in a team or group. Affective 2 9
The Detail of Domains and their Levels mentioned against each course learning outcome, is
mentioned in Appendix B. The mapping of course learning outcomes with the program learning
outcomes is given as in Table 2. The performance of you in course will be measured based on above
learning outcomes using Rubrics mentioned in Appendix C.
Table 0.1-2: Relation of CLOs of Fluid Mechanics Lab with PLOs
PLO # PLO Statement CLO1 CLO2 CLO3 CLO4 CLO5 CLO6
PLO-1 Engineering Knowledge ✓
PLO-2 Problem Analysis
PLO-3 Design/Development of Solution
PLO-4 Investigation ✓ ✓
PLO-5 Modern Tool Usage
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PLO-6 The Engineer and Society
PLO-7 Environment and Stability
PLO-8 Ethics ✓
PLO-9 Individual and Team Work ✓
PLO-10 Communication ✓
PLO-11 Project Management
PLO-12 Life Long Learning
0.2 Guidelines for Lab Report

Lab report must be submitted/checked within 7 days effectively after the experiment is conducted.
Lab report may not be accepted/checked after due date and lab report marks may be deducted.
0.2.1 Content
The content contain guidelines about the report structure, the constituent headings and content to be
written under the headings.
0.2.1.1 Cover Page

The cover page should contain the followings
• Lab Name
• Experiment Name
• Students’ Name
• Group #
• Lab Instructor Name
• Date on which lab Experiment was conducted (See the Lab schedule for it)
• Submission date of Lab Report
The format and Alignment and arrangement of above mentioned is student’s own choice.
0.2.1.2 Abstract
The abstract contains summary lab activity done and contains the following main points.
1. Purpose/ objective(s) of the experiment
2. Main results in the experiment
3. Main results of experiment
4. Main conclusion
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The abstract should be of one paragraph with words not more than 200 words.
0.2.1.3 Introduction
This section is meant for describing the worth/importance/significance of your work. As a part of
arguments for proving your work a useful one it is logical to briefly point out the similar work already
done by others but a detailed literature review is not a part of introduction.
As a part of description of the importance of work you may also justify your choice of problem solution
methodology. When there are potentially more than one approaches available for the solution of the
same problem; it is logical to opt for the best available choice giving due regard to the resource
constraints.
Through introduction of the report you try to convince the reader that your work is really useful.
According to a researcher “Introduction is setting up the scene”.
Wherever necessary there may be a separate section of theory but it must not be dragged into
introduction.
0.2.1.4 Theory
It is an optional section and is included to appraise the reader the theory of your work. In the lab
reports we normally do not recommend to include this section.
0.2.1.5 Procedure
In this section it is recommended to enlist the sequential steps for taking proper data. Wherever
applicable a block diagram of the experimental set up is to be included. The diagrams should be
properly labeled.
While writing a lab experiment procedure do not adopt the style of instructor. It is generally
recommended to use past tense and passive voice. In technical writings the use of “I” and “We” is
generally not appreciated.
0.2.1.6 Observations & calculations

It includes tabulation of observed data and calculations are required to be made for the meaningful
analysis of results. Formulae involved in calculations need to be mentioned along with a sample of
calculations. Graphical representation is a more effective way (than tabulation) of the presentation of
results.
0.2.1.7 Conclusions
The conclusion expresses the main points (one or two) of the final results the lab.
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0.2.1.8 Discussion
In this section you are supposed to justify your results. The expected results need to be justified
with the help of some standard references. Reasons should be mentioned for the unexpected results. In
this case all possible sources of error need to be looked at while giving consideration to the individual
contribution of each source of error towards the overall error in the final results. Comparison of results
with similar investigations (already made using same or different technique) is an essential component
of the discussion section of a report.
0.2.1.9 References
Whatever information (other than own work of present report) has been used in writing of report
needs to be properly referred (using a standard format of referring a book, a paper of a journal, a paper
of a conference and information on a website). It is not sufficient to put a list of references at the end
of a report. These references should also appear as numbers in square brackets in the main body of
report.
0.2.2 Format
From Semester 1 to semester 4, the report to be submitted containing the content as mentioned above,
should be hand written. For Semester 5 to Semester 8, report to be submitted should be written on
computer.
The following format should be followed for writing report on computer
Title page should always be documented on computer.
• Font should be Times New Roman (Whole Report)
• Line Spacing = 1.15 (whole report)
• Title should be of font size = 16, Bold,
• Heading 1 should be of font size = 14, Bold
• Heading 2 should be of font size = 13, Bold
• Heading 3 should be of font size = 12, Italic, Bold
• Page # should be added.
• List of figure, List of table and Table of content.
0.2.3 Caption
For table: Above the Table aligned in center with table. Font size: 10
For Figure: Below the Figure aligned in center with figure. Font size: 10
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0.2.4 References
Should be added in IEEE format using Endnote/word.
0.3 General Guidelines in a Lab for safety

The following guidelines are to be followed in a lab.
• No Laboratory work should be carried out without supervision of the Instructor or Lab technician.
• Do only experiment assigned to you and do not perform unauthorized experiment by yourself.
• Do not play with the equipment that are not part of experimental setup.
• Never leave an in progress experiment unattended.
• Don not exceed voltage limits of devices when plugging them into electrical outlets.
• Don not try to repair or modify any lab equipment.
• Always wear a protective lab coat/overall and safety shoes. Long hair should be tied back.
• Be alert to unsafe conditions and actions and call them to the attention of the instructor
immediately.
• Be careful not to touch any heated surfaces as they might cause a burn.
• Don’t touch live conductor or wire with the bare hand.
• Don’t work in lab all alone.
• Report all damages to lab instructor immediately.
• Leave equipment in proper places at the end of your experiments and cleanup.
• After completion of the experiments, return the items borrowed, if any.
• Don’t run or paly in the lab.
• Eating drinking, smoking or chewing of gum is not permitted in the laboratory.
• Don’t use cell phones inside the laboratory.
• Everyone is responsible for housekeeping and cleaning up after themselves. Aisles and doorways,
including access to the service hallway and electrical boxes, are to be kept clear for purposes of
safe passage.
• Report any cases of vandalism or theft to your instructor or staff member.
• Students should not perform any type of maintenance on equipment in the lab without prior
authorization and direct supervision of the lab manager.
• Use appropriate safety equipment for the task at hand (i.e. safety glasses, ear protection, gloves).
See your instructor or a staff member for guidance.
• In case of fire or hazardous chemical spill evacuate the premises immediately.
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Practical Investigation of Bernoulli’s Theorem
and Conservation of Energy.
1.1 Learning Objectives

1. To develop the ability to interpret the relation between velocity and pressure w.r.t. cross section
of flow
2. To understand the concept of various types of energies of fluids
3. To draw hydraulic grade line and energy grade line
1.2 List of Equipment

Bernoulli’s theorem apparatus, scale ruler
1.3 Theoretical Background
1.3.1 Bernoulli’s Theorem

In simplest language, Bernoulli’s Theorem states that the sum of Pressure Head, Velocity head, and
Potential Head of a fluid remains constant as long as the fluid is inviscid and there is not net energy or
work going into or out of the working fluid system.
1
𝑃 + 2 𝜌𝜈 2 + 𝜌𝑔ℎ = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑡.
All the three terms in the above equation have the dimensions of Energy per Unit Volume which shows
that Bernoulli’s Principle is just a statement of conservation of energy. The equation can also be
expressed in terms of “heads” having dimensions of Length by dividing the whole equation with the
term "𝜌𝑔" .
𝑃 1 𝑣2
+ + 2𝑔 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
𝜌𝑔 2 2𝑔
The first term on the right in equation 1.3.2 is called Pressure Head and it has dimensions of Length.
The second term is called the Velocity Head having the units of Length and the third term is called
Potential Head which is essentially the height of the point at which the calculation is considered from
a reference level. This representation of Bernoulli’s Theorem is more convenient as each term can be
imagined as length and be compared easily. The second reason is that in experiments, it is more
convenient to measure these quantities as head and same is the case in this experiment. So, we will
continue with this form from now own.
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Figure 1.3-1: Hydraulic and Energy Grade Lines for frictionless flow - Fluid Mechanics F.M. White.
Another advantage is that we can Introduce the concept of Grade Lines which is clear from the
figure above.
Actually, the Bernoulli’s Principle is valid only along a single streamline, with each streamline having
its own Bernoulli’s Constant. Other assumptions are
i. Flow is Frictionless
ii. No shaft work or Heat transfer
iii. Incompressible Flow
iv. Steady Flow
1.3.2 Venturi Tube

Venturi tube is basically a tube with a converging section at first and then followed by a diverging
section. So the middle part has the lowest cross-sectional area. The velocity of the fluid is highest at
the middle section of lowest cross-sectional area due to conservation of mass flow. Thus, according to
the Bernoulli’s Principle, the pressure at the narrow part lower. This is evident from the picture of
experiment shown below.
15
Figure 1.3-2: Venturi tube
Applying Bernoulli’s equation at point of section-1 and Section-2,

𝑝1 1 𝜈12 𝑝2 1 𝜈22
+ + 𝑧1 = + + 𝑧2
𝜌𝑔 2 𝑔 𝜌𝑔 2 𝑔
Since z1= z2,
𝑝1 1 𝜈12 𝑝2 1 𝜈22
+ = +
𝜌𝑔 2 𝑔 𝜌𝑔 2 𝑔
𝑝1 𝑝2 1 𝜈22 1 𝜈12
Δℎ = − = −
𝜌𝑔 𝜌𝑔 2 𝑔 2 𝑔
By eliminating v1 by using A1v1 = A2v2 and expressing in form of v2 we get:
2𝑔𝑝𝑤 Δℎ
𝑣2 =
√ 𝐴 2
𝑝𝑎 [(𝐴1 ) − 1]
2
2 𝐴
For flow rate using Q = Av and incorporating 𝛼 = 𝐴2 −𝐴 2 and discharge co-efficient Cd:
1 2
2𝑔𝑝𝑤 Δℎ
𝑄 = 𝛼 𝐶𝑑 𝐴2 √
𝑝𝑎
1.4 Description of Equipment

The Bernoulli’s theorem equipment consists of a centrifugal pump to provide require value of flow
rate. The maximum value of flow rate provided by the 5 m3/min. the transparent duct connects the
pump with the venture nozzle at one end. The venture nozzle has dimeter of D = 50 mm at the inlet
and outlet and throat diameter of d= 30mm. The slot to insert the Pitot tube is available at the end
16
opposite to pump side. There are three U-tube manometers each of 0-400mm to display heads. The
static head and total head obtained from Pitot tube is displayed on static head and total head
manometers. These two manometers has second limb open to atmosphere. While for the velocity head
manometer, the velocity head is displayed by connecting the one end of manometer to static head outlet
and other end to the total head outlet from Pitot tube. So the height difference in water levels displayed
at velocity head manometer is difference in total and static head.
Diameter at inlet/outlet of venture = D = 50 mm
Diameter at throat of venture = d = 30 mm
1.4.1 Pitot tube

Total length of Pitot tube = Lp =382 mm
Overhang length from the end of venture tube = Lo
Pitot tube location in venture tube or duct = Ls = Lp - Lo
1.5 Procedure
1. Set the blower to Flow Rate 1(fully open). Use the switches to attach the manometer to the
Pitot tube. Insert the Pitot tube into the Venturi tube through the designated entrance.
2. Note the length of Pitot tube Lo outside the tube in table 1.6-1. Also calculate the length inside
by Ls= Lp +Lo.
3. Turn on the blower and let the readings of manometer stabilize.
4. Now note hv, hs and ht from the manometers and record them is the Table 1.6-1 for Flow Rate 1.
5. Repeat the procedure for reading hv, hs and ht moving the Pitot tube out by 15mm at a time.
6. Now, use the switches to connect the Venturi-meter and note the value of Δh for Flow Rate 1
in Table 1.6-2.
7. Again, connect Pitot tube and note hv at Middle Section and Inlet Section in Table 1.6-3.
8. Repeat the entire procedure for Flow Rate 2 (Half open) and Flow Rate 3 (Negligibly open)
and note the values.
1.6 Precautions
1. The outlet of the tube should not be blocked otherwise the reading will be inaccurate.
2. The inlet of the blower should not be fully closed.
3. Enough time should be given to let the readings stabilize before noting values.
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1.7 Observations
Table 1.7-1: Observations from Experiment
18
Table 1.7-2
Table 1.7-3
19
1.7.1 Calculations
Venturi tube inlet Dia = 0.05 mm
Venturi tube Outlet diameter = 0.03mm
Coefficent for Venturi tube = 𝛼 = 1.0728
Discharge Coefficient = Cd = 0.987
For Venturi Meter with Δℎ = 47 𝑚𝑚 H2O
𝟐𝒈𝒑𝒘 𝚫𝒉
𝑸 = 𝜶 𝑪𝒅 𝑨𝟐 √( )
𝒑𝒂
𝟐 × 𝟗. 𝟖𝟏 × 𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎 × 𝟎. 𝟎𝟒𝟕
= 𝟎. 𝟗𝟖𝟕 × 𝟏. 𝟎𝟕𝟐𝟖 × 𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟕𝟎𝟔 √
𝟏. 𝟐𝟕
𝒎𝟑
= 𝟎. 𝟐𝟎𝟏
𝒔
For velocity:
𝑄 0.201
𝑉= = = 28.47 𝑚/𝑠
𝐴 0.00706
For Reynolds number,
𝑣𝐷 28.47 × 0.03
𝑅𝑒 = = = 57709.45
𝜈 1.48 × 10−5
For Pitot tube hv=60 mm of H2O
2𝑔ℎ𝑃𝑤 2 × 9.81 × 0.06 × 1000

𝑣 = √( )=√ = 30.44 𝑚/𝑠
𝑃𝑎 1.27
1.8 Graphs
Draw Hydraulic Grade Line and Energy Grade Line and check for its behavior along the Venturi Tube.
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1.9 Results and Discussion
21
Study of Drag, Lift & Pitching moment
Coefficients, Boundary Layer Estimation & Flow Visualization
of Various Objects
2.1 Purpose
The purpose of this experiment is to acquaint the student with the wind tunnel as a useful tool to
determine the aerodynamic characteristics of various wing and/or flight vehicle configurations. A
subsonic wind tunnel with a downstream fan is used to test the models. Experiment is performed to
study the drag, lift and pitching moment coefficients of various surfaces. The fluid forces i.e. lift, drag
and moment i.e. pitching moment are calculated and their coefficients. Moreover, boundary layer is
estimated using Pitot tube and flow patterns of stream lines and blunt body are visualized using smoke
generator. Blunt body and a flat plate are also tested. Graphs are plotted for coefficient of lift, drag and
pitching moment versus angle of attack. Moreover, boundary layer is estimated from graph of distance
versus velocity.
2.2 Introduction
In this experiment, wind tunnel is used to explore the effect of lift and drag and pitching moment on
an airfoil. A fluid flowing past a body, in this case an airfoil as shown in Figure 2.3-1, has a force
exerted on it. This experiment will show how the angle of attack changes the amount of lift the airfoil
experiences. The effects of velocity on lift, if the angle of attack is kept constant and velocity increased
will be discussed. The shapes play a huge role on the amount of lift and drag generated and will be
seen in this experiment. The main focus is the comparison of lift coefficients at various angles of attack,
location of stall angle, and the rate of change in lift coefficient for the angles of attack following the
stall angle. Secondly in this experiment boundary layer will be discussed. Air velocity near surface
from sharp edge will be discussed in this experiment. Finally the boundary layer will be visualized for
different bodies. Boundary layer can be visualized by generating smoke in the test section.
2.3 Theory
The wind tunnel is used to study type of flow over an immersed body. A wind tunnel has a varying
cross-section where the model is placed in the test section of the tunnel. Angle of attack is set from the
degree scale available in the section. In order to visualize the flow across the body, smoke is let into
the chamber. When the smoke flows across the body the disturbances are seen by the turbulent
22
behavior of the smoke and the boundary layer thickness, wake region and pressure differences can be
visualized by this smoke.
Figure 2.3-1: Lift & Drag Force
2.3.1 Wind Tunnel

A wind tunnel is a testing machine used in aerodynamic research to study the effects of air moving
past solid objects. It consists of a tube-like passage with the specimen under test placed in the central
test section. Air flows past the object by a powerful fan which is placed on the exit side of the tunel.
The tests are conducted in a MP330D subsonic wind-tunnel with downstream fan as shown in Figure
2.3-2. The flow is generated by an axial fan (Woods), with a diameter of 500 mm and fixed blades
driven by a three-phase, 3.7 kW, 380/660V, 50Hz and variable speed electric motor. The flow rate is
adjusted by a digital motor speed controller. The test section is 300mm * 300mm * 600mm long
transparent section. It is equipped with a rectangular window and a circular port for the insertion of
the tested objects and measuring probes, respectively. For a smooth, low-turbulence entrance to the
test section, the room air first passes through a fiberglass screen and then through a specially designed,
7:1 contraction. The test section is connected to the fan inlet through a square-to-circular diffuser
section. There are following parts of the wind tunnel:
i. Flow straightener
ii. Converging section
iii. Testing area
iv. Diverging section
v. Motor and fan
23
Figure 2.3-2: Subsonic wind tunnel
2.3.2 Smoke Generator

A smoke generator is a device for demonstration of air flow streamlines around a model in a wind
tunnel as shown in figure 2.3-3. The smoke generator consists of a small boiler to generate the smoke.
The liquid for the boiler is a special smoke generator liquid. The generated smoke is collected in a
smoke chamber which is connected to a smoke tube. Smoke is generated in a delayed pulse using a
remote control switch
Figure 2.3-3: Installation of flow visualizing components
2.3.3 Aerofoil
An airfoil (or airfoil) describes the cross section of a wing, rotor, rudder, propeller or other
lifting surfaces. It comes in many shapes and sizes and is usually designed for a specific purpose or
application such as maximum lift or minimum drag etc.
24
Figure 2.3-4: Airfoil Nomenclature
2.3.3.1 Airfoil Terminology

Several terms are used to describe airfoils
• Leading Edge: Forward edge of the airfoil
• Trailing Edge: Aft edge of the airfoil
• Chord: Line connecting the leading and trailing edge. Denotes the length of the
airfoil
• Mean Camber Line: Line drawn half way between the upper and lower surface of the airfoil.
Denotes the amount of curvature of the wing
• Point of Maximum Thickness: Thickest part of the wing expressed as a percentage of the
chord
2.3.4 Slats
Slats are aerodynamic surfaces on the leading edge of the wings of fixed-wing aircraft
which, when deployed, allow the wing to operate at a higher angle of attack. They are used to delay
stall condition. The stall condition is delayed due to mixing of above and below flow. For Example, if
the stall condition occurs at 4 degrees then due to slats the stall will occur at the 6 degree.
2.3.5 Flaps
Flaps are a type of high-lift device used to increase the lift of an airfoil or aircraft wing at a
given airspeed. Flaps are usually mounted on the trailing edges of a airfoil or fixed-wing aircraft. Flaps
are used for extra lift on takeoff. Flaps also cause an increase in drag in mid-flight, so they are retracted
when not needed.
By altering each of the above features of an airfoil, the designer is able to adjust the performance of
the wing so that it is suitable for its particular task.
25
2.3.6 Types of Airfoils
There are two types of airfoil:
• NACA airfoil: The NACA airfoils are airfoil shapes for aircraft wings developed by the
National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics (NACA). The shape of the NACA airfoils is
described using a series of digits following the word "NACA"
• NREL airfoil: The NREL shaped airfoils are developed by National Renewable Energy
Laboratory (NREL).
2.3.7 Working of airfoils
Above the airfoil streamlines are straight and parallel and therefore there is no pressure gradient.
However, closer to the airfoil streamlines become increasingly curved and there must now be a
pressure gradient across the streamlines. From the direction of curvature, we note that the pressure
drops as we move downwards. By the time we reach the airfoil surface the pressure is noticeably lower
than atmospheric pressure. In the same way, below the airfoil surface pressure is greater than
atmospheric pressure. This generates a resultant force in the upward direction i.e. lift.
2.3.8 Aerodynamic Center

The aerodynamic center is the point at which the pitching moment coefficient for the airfoil does not
vary with lift coefficient (i.e. angle of attack), making analysis simpler. Aerodynamic center for the
low speed subsonic airfoil is one fourth of a chord length i.e. (C/4). For a symmetrical body it is at
center i.e. (C/2).
2.3.9 Lift & Drag Forces:

• Lift is defined to be the component of this force that is perpendicular to the oncoming flow
direction.
• Drag force is defined to be the component of the fluid-dynamic force parallel to the flow
direction.
Drag and lift forces are essential when it comes to study of external flow. An airplane relies for its
maneovours on momnets such as pitching and rolling, but for most time of its flight it needs lift forces.
Drag forces are those which are constantly overcome by the engine thrust. Differences in air pressures
on either side of the body lead to lift force while drag force is due to air resistance. In addition to these
two forces, pitching and rolling movements tend to change orientation of the body. Pitching moment
(or torque) is produced on an airfoil if the aerodynamic forces are applied, not at the center of pressure,
26
but at the aerodynamic center of the airfoil. Rolling moment creates a tendency in the body to rotate
along its longitudinal axis. Missiles are given rolling moment to create better stabilty and precision.
Figure 2.3-5: Pitching angle
2.3.10 Lift at an airfoil surface
The airfoil shape and angle of attack work together so that the airfoil exerts a downward force on the
air as it flows past. According to Newton's third law, the air must then exert an equal and opposite
(upward) force on the airfoil, which is the lift. The net force exerted by the air occurs as a pressure
difference over the airfoil's surfaces. Pressure in a fluid is always positive in an absolute sense, so that
pressure must always be thought of as pushing, and never as pulling. The pressure thus pushes inward
on the airfoil everywhere on both the upper and lower surfaces. The flowing air reacts to the presence
of the wing by reducing the pressure on the wing's upper surface and increasing the pressure on the
lower surface. The pressure on the lower surface pushes up harder than the reduced pressure on the
upper surface pushes down, and the net result is upward lift. The coefficient of lift is given as:
𝐿
𝐶𝐿 =
1 2
2 𝜌𝑣 𝐴
2.3.11 Drag at an airfoil surface
Drag, in the context of fluid mechanics, refers to forces that act on a solid object in the direction of the
relative flow velocity. The aerodynamic forces on a body come primarily from differences in pressure
and viscous shearing stresses. Thereby, the drag force on a body could be divided into two components,
namely frictional drag (viscous drag) and pressure drag (form drag) as shown in Figure 2.3-6. The net
drag force coefficient is:
𝐷
𝐶𝐷 =
1 2
𝜌𝑣 𝐴
2
27
ρ; density of the medium
v; velocity of the fluid
A; area (planform area)
Figure 2.3-6: Lift & Drag in airfoil
2.3.12 Types of Drag
Following are the types of the Drag:
2.3.12.1 Form Drag

That part of the drag on an airfoil which arises from its shape. It varies according to the angle of attack
and can be decreased by streamlining.
2.3.12.2 Lift Induced Drag

In aerodynamics, lift-induced drag is an aerodynamic drag force that occurs whenever a moving object
redirects the airflow coming at it.
2.3.12.3 Interference Drag

Interference Drag is drag that is generated by the mixing of airflow streamlines between airframe
components such as the wing and the fuselage, the engine pylon and the wing
2.3.12.4 Skin Friction Drag

Friction Drag, also known as Skin Friction Drag, is drag caused by the friction of a fluid against the
surface of an object that is moving through it. It is directly proportional to the area of the surface in
contact with the fluid and increases with the square of the velocity.
28
2.3.13 Pitching Moment
The pitching moment is part of the total moment that must be balanced using the lift on the horizontal
stabilizer. More generally, a pitching moment is any moment acting on the pitch axis of a moving
body. The Coefficient of moment is given as:
𝑀
𝐶𝑀 =
1 2
2 𝜌𝑣 𝐴𝐶
2.3.14 Moment Correction

If the pivot point is not on the aerodynamic center, then apply the moment correction for the actual
moment generated. It has two cases:
Seeing from the leading edge if the aerodynamic center is before the pivot point then:
Mcorrected = Mmeasured + Lmeasured x cos + Dmeasured x sin
And;
Seeing from the leading edge if the aerodynamic center is after the pivot point then:
Mcorrected = Mmeasured - Lmeasured x cos - Dmeasured x sin
Where;
x is the distance between aerodynamic center and pivot point
L is the lift
D is the drag
 is the angle of attack
2.3.15 Boundary Layer

If the Reynolds number is large enough, viscous effects are important only in the boundary layer
regions near the object and in the wake region behind the object. The boundary layer is needed to allow
for the no-slip boundary condition that requires the fluid to cling to any solid surface that it flows past.
Outside of the boundary layer the velocity gradients normal to the flow are relatively small, and the
fluid acts as if it were inviscid, even though the viscosity is not zero. A necessary condition for this
structure of the flow is that the Reynolds number be large.
2.3.16 Wake region

The wake is the region of disturbed flow (often turbulent) downstream of a solid body moving
through a fluid, caused by the flow of the fluid around the body.
29
2.3.17 Separation region
Separation occurs due to an adverse pressure gradient encountered as the
flow expands, causing an extended region of separated flow as shown in figure 2.3-7. The part of the
flow that separates the recirculating flow and the flow through the central region of the duct is called
the dividing streamline.
Figure 2.3-7: Boundary layer characteristic
2.3.18 Stall condition

A stall is a condition in aerodynamics and aviation wherein the angle of attack
increases beyond a certain point such that lift begins to decrease. The angle at which this occurs is
called the critical angle of attack. The immediate cause of a stall is the detachment of the airflow from
the wing because of wake region generated due to adverse pressure gradient.
30
(Part – I)
(Measurement of Coefficients)
2.4 Procedure for measurement of coefficients

i. Set the object in the test section of the wind tunnel at the pivot point at a specific angle of attack
ii. Put the Pitot tube at the specific height in the test section.
iii. Turn on the motor and set the desired value of frequency.
iv. Then note the difference in the water level of the inclined manometer. Using the value of the
height from manometer calculate velocity from the given chart showing the relation (that has
been driven from Bernoulli theorem) between velocity and pressure head at 1:2 ratio.
v. Using the software, calculate the value of Lift, drag and Moment.
vi. Now the angle of body was changed by rotating the knob and its effect on lift, drag and moment
was observed.
vii. Using the formula given above we can calculate the corrected moment. Now using relations
calculate the coefficient of Lift, Drag and moment.
viii. Draw the graph between the angle of attack and coefficient of lift.
ix. Draw the graph between the angle of attack and coefficient of drag.
x. Draw the graph between the angle of attack and coefficient of pitching moment.
xi. Observe the trends of graph as the angle of attack changes
2.5 Observation and calculation

For Inclined Manometer Slope; 1:2,
Air Velocity =
Room Temperature = 17.0oC
2𝑔ℎ⁄
Velocity at pitot = √  ; where  is 0.99
31
Table 2.5-1: Determination of Coefficients
Angle Actual Force Pitching Coefficients
of Attack Lift Drag CM CL
(Degree) (N) (N) Nm
32
(Part – II)
(Boundary layer Estimation)
2.6 Procedure for boundary layer Estimation

i. Install the model in the test section to have the leading edge of the plate located near to the
Pitot tube.
ii. Insert the pitot tube in the porthole for installing the instrument in the middle section of the test
section
iii. Install the micrometer with the standing base under the port hole and fasten the pitot tube with
the micrometer.
iv. Piot tube point should point against the direction of the wind.
v. Connect pitot tube to the inclined water manometer.
vi. Connect the static pressure at the bed of the inclined water manometer.
vii. Ensure that the manometer is level by adjusting the footing screws and set the slope of
manometer to 1:2
viii. Now record the distance from the pitot tube to the sharp edge tip of the plate.
ix. Set the air velocity of the wind tunnel as required. Then record the air velocity and pressure of
the pitot tube while the probe is at the distance of the 0.5mm.
x. Move the pitot tube further away from the surface of the body by adjusting the micrometer in
steps of 5mm. For each step record the indicated pressure until the pressure of the pitot tube is
constant.
xi. Stop the wind tunnel fan by pressing the STOP button at the inverter and move the pitot tube
to vary the distance. Then press the START button and wind tunnel will reach its original
speed.
xii. Repeat the above steps at different distance and also at the different speed
xiii. Use the values of pressure from the pitot tube to calculate the velocities along the boundary
layer.
xiv. Then plot the graph velocities and distance from pitot tube to the surface of the object.
2.7 Observation and calculation

Air Velocity = Room Temperature = 17 oC
2𝑔ℎ⁄
Velocity at pitot = √  ; where  is 0.99
33
Table 2.7-1: Boundary layer Estimation
Distance
Velocity
from
Indicated Actual Actual at Pitot
surface
mm. mm H20 (Pa) m/s
34
(Part – III)
(Observing the boundary layer)
2.8 Procedure for observing boundary layer

i. To observe the effect of surface on boundary layer generate boundary layer using smoke in test
section
ii. Air flow will be demonstrated by generating streamlines around a model in a wind tunnel.
iii. To be able to observe the smoke streamlines, it is necessary to reduce the air speed in the test
section to be very low. This is done by placing the wind tunnel cover (thin cloth) in front of the
wind tunnel inlet.
iv. Open the test section front cover by opening the cover. Install the model within the flow
visualization chamber, adjust the angle of attack as required and fastening the model with
screw.
v. Then install the flow visualization chamber inside the test section. Open the top left blind cover
to install the smoke supply tube between the flow visualization chamber walls.
vi. Install lamp set on the top of test section and fasten with lock nut and connect the lamp set
power cable to the supply.
vii. Connect the smoke tube with condensate collector to the smoke generator and the smoke supply
tube with the provided flexible hose.
viii. With the help of smoke, we will be able to observe the streamlines generated and the effect of
surface on the streamlines. Note that smoke streamlines often move or sway.
ix. It is recommended that a video of the smoke streamlines be taken. Then select only proper
frame of the video for record.
x. Once the smoke is generated it should be allowed for the smoke to die down before releasing
more smoke.
35
xi. Start the smoke generator boiler and wait until it is ready (the red LED at line remote control
lids).
xii. Disconnect the hose from the smoke tube temporarily and release the smoke using the remote
switch until smoke is observed to come off the tube then connect the hose to the tube.
xiii. Start the wind tunnel fan and adjust the inverter frequency to 2.1Hz. Adjust the frequency until
the smoke tube generates a relatively stable streamlines.
xiv. Smoke stream lines around a model can now be observed as shown in figures in section.
xv. Some of the reference pictures for the effect of surface on the flow are given below:
Figure 2.8-1: Streamlines for low attack angle
Figure 2.8-2: Streamlines for high attack angle
36
Figure 2.8-3: Streamlines around cylinder
Figure 2.8-4: Flat plate at 0 degree of attack angle
Figure 2.8-5: Flat plate at 30 degree attack angle
37
Figure 2.8-6: Flat plate at 90 degree attack angle
Figure 2.8-7 Flat plate at 90 degree attack angle
Figure 2.8-8: Streamlines around the car model
2.9 Precautions
i. The main disconnect button for wind tunnel is located on the wall of lab near apparatus. The
disconnect is to be locked off when not in use to prevent accidental startup, unintended
energization and/or unauthorized operation of the tunnel.
ii. See the lab technician for assistance if the tunnel is locked out.
iii. Emergency stop (off) buttons are located near each exit of the lab.
iv. The tunnel motor changes speed slowly. On shutoff, be aware that it may take a minute or more
to fully stop, and flow to cease in the tunnel.
v. The tunnel should only be operated with the test section fully closed (both access doors, both
window panels, both floor panels in place). Please contact the technician/instructor before
proceeding.
38
vi. Use the buddy system and watch out for other people. If you are aware of an unsafe situation,
please report it to your instructor or staff member.
2.10 Results & Discussions

i. Discuss the trend of graphs angle of attack with different coefficients i.e. C L, CD and Cm
ii. Discuss the trends of the graph of Velocity vs Distance
iii. Discuss the deviation from the ideal results.
iv. Discuss about the boundary layer generated by smoke.
v. Discuss the difference in the boundary layer in each different case.
vi. Discuss the effect of angle of attack on boundary layer.
vii. Discuss the difference of wake region in flat plate, sphere, cylinder, airfoil and car shell.
39
Frictional losses in Pipes
3.1 Purpose
When a gas or a liquid flows through a pipe, there is a loss of pressure in the fluid, because energy is
required to overcome the viscous or frictional forces exerted by the walls of the pipe on the moving
fluid. In addition to the energy lost due to frictional forces, the flow also loses energy (or pressure) as
it goes through fittings, such as valves, elbows, contractions and expansions. This loss in pressure is
mainly due to the fact that flow separates locally as it moves through such fittings. The pressure loss
in pipe flows is commonly referred to as head loss. The frictional losses are referred to as major losses
(hl) while losses through fittings, etc, are called minor losses (h m). Together they make up the total
head losses (hT) for pipe flows. Hence:
The purpose of this experiment is to let the students calculate the major losses in pipes, minor losses
in fittings and valves, coefficient of discharge measurement in flow meters and developing length
calculation in pipes by incorporating the quantitative behavior of Reynolds number and the flow rate
on losses.
The goal of this laboratory is to study pressure losses due to viscous (frictional) effects in fluid flows
through pipes. These pressure losses are a function of various geometric and flow parameters including
pipe diameter, length, internal surface roughness and type of fitting. In this experiment, the influence
of some these parameters on pressure losses in pipe flows will be evaluated by measuring flow rates
through different pipes.
3.2 Introduction
These principles are used at every level – from domestic to industrial. In our homes, the pipes that
transfer water from one place to another have a lot of components which create hindrance in the flow
of fluid. For example, valves, joints, elbows, bends, the contraction and the expansion of the pipe – all
create some sort of friction in the way of flow. At domestic level, we can neglect these losses but at
industrial level, it is obligatory for an engineer to study the functional dependence of these major and
minor losses and apply some technique to minimize these types of losses. Thus, an engineer should
have a complete background knowledge about this principle like why these components create
hindrance? How they create friction? And which component would be best to use? For an illustration,
Gradual and sudden expansion or contraction of the pipe create different amount of friction, sudden
change has greater friction than the gradual one. Thus, in order to minimize the frictional effect, we
would use the gradual contraction or expansion. Another purpose of this experiment is the quantitative
40
analysis of head loss due to frictional effects. Since flow in main piping systems is viscous, the effects
this has on frictional losses is determined by varying the Reynolds number and the flow rate.
Functional dependence of frictional coefficient (f), on Reynolds Number and major and minor head
loss is identified. This helps to develop insight and understanding of the behavior of an incompressible
fluid in piping systems.
In this experiment, we have a piping system that contains gate valve, globe valve, Ball valve, 90º band,
sudden and gradual contraction and expansion and 90º elbow. Across every component, a U-tube
mercury manometer is attached in the way that across every component, there are valves. By opening
certain valves, we can attach that component to the manometer.
3.3 Theory
Our intension here is generalized the one-dimensional Bernoulli equation for viscous flow. When the
viscosity of the fluid is taken into account total energy head H = v2/2g + p/ρg +z is no longer constant
v2 p1
along the pipe. In direction of flow, due to friction cause by viscosity of the fluid we have 2g1 + +
ρg
v22 p2
z1 > + + z2. So to restore the equality we must add some scalar quantity to the right side of
2g ρg
this inequality
v21 p1 v2 p2
+ + z1 = 2g2 + + z2 + ∆hls
2g ρg ρg
This scalar quantity ∆hls is called as hydraulic loss. The hydraulic loss between two different cross
section along the pipe is equal to the difference of total energy for this cross section:
∆hls = H1−H2
We must remember that always H1 > H2. In horizontal pipe when z1 = z2 and diameter of pipe is
constant v1 = v2 hydraulic loss is equal to the head of pressure drop or head loss
p1 − p2
∆hls =
ρg
3.3.1 Major Losses

Major head loss occurs due to friction in pipes. Friction develops due to the shear stress acting along
the wall, which ultimately contributes to head loss.
Head loss is express by Darcy -Weisbach equation:
L v2
hf = f
D 2g
Where f is the friction factor which can be calculated either by using Moody’s chart or by using the
Colebrook’s formula given as
41
1 𝜀 2.51
= −2log10 ( + )
√f 3.7D Re√f
We must remember this equation is valid only for horizontal pipes. In general, with v1 = v2 but z1 ≠
z2, the head loss is given
p1 − p2 L v2
= (z2 − z1 ) + f
ρg D 2g
Part of the pressure change is due to elevation change and part is due to head loss associated with
frictional effects.
Pressure loss is proportional to L/D ratio and velocity head. For low velocities, where the flow is
laminar, friction loss is caused by viscous shearing between streamlines near the wall of the pipe and
the friction factor (f) is well defined.
For high velocities where the flow is fully turbulent, friction loss is caused by water particles coming
into contact with irregularities in the surface of the pipe and friction factor itself is a function of surface
roughness.
In most engineering applications, the velocity is less than that required for fully turbulent flow and f
is a function of both the viscosity of a boundary layer and the roughness of the pipe surface. Values of
f can be determined experimentally and plotted in dimensionless form against Reynolds Number Re
to from a Moody Diagram
3.3.2 Minor Losses

For any pipe system, in addition to the Moody-type friction loss computed for the length of pipe. Most
pipe systems consist of considerably more than straight pipes. These additional components add to the
overall head loss of the system. Such losses are generally termed minor losses, with the apparent
implication being that the majority of the system loss is associated with the friction in the straight
portions of the pipes, the major losses or local losses. In many cases this is true. In other cases the
minor losses are greater than the major losses. The minor losses may raise by
i. Pipe entrance or exit
ii. Sudden expansion or contraction
iii. Bends, elbows, tees, and other fittings
iv. Valves, open or partially closed
v. Gradual expansions or contractions
The major losses may not be so minor; e.g., a partially closed valve can cause a greater pressure drop
than a long pipe. The losses are commonly measured experimentally. The data, especially for valves,
42
are somewhat dependent upon the particular manufacturers design. The most common method used to
determine these head losses or pressure drops.
∆p v2
hL = = KL
ρg 2g
Where KL means (local) loss coefficient. Although K L is dimensionless, it is not correlated in the
literature with the Reynolds number and roughness ratio but rather simply with the raw size of the
pipe. Almost all data are reported for turbulent-flow conditions.
3.3.3 Valves
There are various types of valves in use for different purposes. The ones used in the experiment are:
3.3.3.1 Gate Valve

Gate valves act as good valves for turning flow on and off. Here a gate slides across a fixed ruler and
obstructs the fluid pathway in order to control fluid flow. It cannot efficiently control fluid flow without
producing noise. One of the most significant characteristics of this type of valves is its free path when
in open position.
Figure 3.3-1: Gate valve
3.3.3.2 Globe Valves

They utilize the port closure idea of valves. Meaning fluid passes through a specific opening and is
controlled through a round globe like structure that blocks the pathway. Although the fluid has to travel
around the bend to travel across the valve, globe valves are superior in two aspects - throttling and
serviceability under frequent use. They are better at the throttling function because they allow fluid to
egress unvaryingly around the circular opening, rather than “slicing” down to limit passage through a
small area as is the case in gate valve.
43
Figure 3.3-2: Globe Valve
3.3.3.3 Check Valve or Non Return Valve (NRV )

Although it is not like a regular valve, check valves serve to prevent flow in one direction while
allowing it in the other. It is designed to prevent fluid from flowing back into the inlet direction. Real-
life applications include preventing backflow into an injection line or into a pump. The fluid flow
opens the valve by forcing a disk or ball in one direction. When the flow stops, the disk or ball sits and
closes the valve. They can be installed in horizontal or vertical flow piping.
Figure 3.3-3: Check Valve
1.1.1 Ball Valve

A ball valve is a form of quarter-turn valve which uses a hollow, perforated and pivoting ball to control
flow through it. It is open when the ball's hole is in line with the flow and closed when it is pivoted 90-
degrees by the valve handle. The handle lies flat in alignment with the flow when open, and is
perpendicular to it when closed, making for easy visual confirmation of the valve's status.
44
Figure 3.3-4: Ball Valve
3.3.4 Pipe Elbows

The Elbow is used more than any other pipe fittings. It Provides flexibility to change the pipe direction.
Elbow mainly available in two standard types 90° and 45°. However, it Can be cut to any other degree.
Elbows are available in two radius types, Short radius (1D) and Long radius (1.5D).
Figure 3.3-5: Pipe Elbows
3.3.4.1 90º Elbow

90º elbow is installed between the pipe to change the direction of the pipe by 90 Degree. Available in
long and short radius form.
Figure 3.3-6: 90º Elbow
45
3.3.4.2 45º Elbow
45º elbow is installed between the pipe to change the direction of the pipe by 45 Degree.
Figure 3.3-7: 45º Elbow
3.3.4.3 Returns – 180 Degree Elbow

Returning elbows are used to make a 180º change in direction. Available in short & long
pattern. Returns are used in the heating coil, heat exchanger, tank vent etc.
Figure 3.3-8: 180 Degree Elbow
3.3.5 Pipe Entrance or Exit

Entrance losses come from when liquid enters a pipe from a much larger pipe or tank of some sort.
Exit losses are opposite and come from liquid leaving a pipe and entering a much larger pipe or tank.
When entering a pipe the losses depend on the shape of the entrance. The k-value for entrance losses
these shapes and how the liquid flows into the pipe from the larger area. As shown in Figure 3.3-9,
the k-values for entrance losses range from 0.04-0.8. Upon exiting a pipe the velocity is assumed to
go down to zero which makes the loss equal to the velocity head. This total loss makes the k-value
equal to 1 in all cases and is also displayed in figure 3.3-10.
46
Figure 3.3-9: Head losses at the entrance of a pipe
Figure 3.3-10: Head losses at the exit of a pipe
3.3.6 Sudden Expansion and Contraction

Expansions are defined as when the flow in a pipe goes from a small area to a larger area and the
velocity slows down. It is the exact opposite for contractions, the flow goes from a larger pipe to a
smaller one and the velocity increases. Sudden expansions and contractions are when the angle
between the two pipe sizes is equal to 90 degrees. The loss or energy is due to turbulence, or eddies,
formed at the point where the pipe sizes change. Figure 3.3-11 below shows sudden contractions and
expansions.
Figure 3.3-11: Sudden expansion and contraction
47
3.3.7 Gradual Expansion and Contraction
Gradual expansions or contractions are when the angle between the two pipe sizes is between 0
and 90 degrees. This type of depression is preferable to use because it involves less amount of losses
as compared to sudden expansion and contraction. Venturi tube is a good example as shown in Figure
3.3-12.
Figure 3.3-12: Gradual expansion and contraction
3.3.8 Flow measuring devices
3.3.8.1 Orifice Plate

When an orifice plate is placed in a pipe carrying the fluid whose rate of flow is to be measured, the
orifice plate causes a pressure drop which varies with the flow rate. This pressure drop is measured
using a differential pressure sensor and when calibrated this pressure drop becomes a measure flow
rate. The flow rate is given by
𝜋 2
𝑄𝑜 = 𝑑 √2𝑔ℎ𝑜
4 𝑜
While the coefficient of discharge in case of orifice is given as
𝑄1
𝐶𝑜 =
𝑄𝑜
Figure 3.3-13: Orifice plate
48
The detail of the fluid movement inside the pipe and orifice plate has to be understood.
• The fluid having uniform cross section of flow converges into the orifice plate’s opening in its
upstream. When the fluid comes out of the orifice plate’s opening, its cross section is minimum
and uniform for a particular distance and then the cross section of the fluid starts diverging in
the downstream.
• At the upstream of the orifice, before the converging of the fluid takes place, the pressure of
the fluid (P1) is maximum. As the fluid starts converging, to enter the orifice opening its
pressure drops. When the fluid comes out of the orifice opening, its pressure is minimum (P2)
and this minimum pressure remains constant in the minimum cross section area of fluid flow
at the downstream.
• This minimum cross sectional area of the fluid obtained at downstream from the orifice edge
is called “Vena-Contracta”.
• The U-tube manometer attached between points 1 and 2 records the pressure difference (P1 –
P2) between these two points in the form of pressure head which becomes an indication of the
flow rate of the fluid through the pipe when calibrated.
3.3.8.2 Nozzle
This is suitable for determining the flow rate of fluid flowing and is better than the orifice plate. The
principle is same as that of orifice plate irrespective of the geometry as shown in Figure 3.3-14 . The
flow rate can be calculated by the formula given as
𝜋
𝑄𝑛 = 𝑑𝑛2 √2𝑔ℎ𝑛
4
While the coefficient of discharge in case of nozzle is given as
𝑄1
𝐶𝑛 =
𝑄𝑛
Figure 3.3-14: Flow nozzle
• The principle of the method of measurement is based on the installation of a nozzle into a
pipeline which is completely filled with a fluid.
49
• The installation of the primary device causes a static pressure difference between the upstream
side and the throat.
• The flow rate can be determined from the measured value of this pressure difference in the
form of pressure head. The flow nozzles, more costly than other orifice due to their
construction. Under the same measuring conditions, a flow nozzle can permit the flow of more
than 60 % greater volume of a fluid, and can measure flow rates of fluids containing solid
particles less disturbed than an orifice having the same bore.
3.3.8.3 Venturi Meter

The venturi meter is used to measure the rate of flow of a fluid flowing through the pipes. It is better
than the nozzle and the orifice plate because it has a gradual contraction and gradual expansion. There
is no blockage of fluid as that happens in orifice plate and nozzle. In venturi meter, fluid smoothly
enters and leaves, thus, decreasing the possibility of other losses. The flow rate can be calculated as
𝜋
𝑄𝑣 = 𝑑𝑣2 √2𝑔ℎ𝑣
4
While the coefficient of discharge in case of orifice is given as
𝑄1
𝐶𝑣 =
𝑄𝑣
Figure 3.3-15: Venturi meter
• Here we have considered two cross section, first at the inlet and the second one is at the throat.
The difference in the pressure heads of these two sections is used to calculate the rate of flow
through venturi meter.
• As the water enters at the inlet section i.e. in the converging part it converges and reaches to
the throat.
• The throat has the uniform cross section area and least cross section area in the venturi meter.
As the water enters in the throat its velocity gets increases and due to increase in the velocity
the pressure drops to the minimum.
50
• Now there is a pressure difference of the fluid at the two sections. At the section 1(i.e. at the
inlet) the pressure of the fluid is maximum and the velocity is minimum. And at the section 2
(at the throat) the velocity of the fluid is maximum and the pressure is minimum.
• The pressure difference at the two section can be seen in the manometer, in the form of pressure
head, attached at both the section.
• This pressure difference is used to calculate the rate flow of a fluid flowing through a pipe
3.4 Procedure
1. Open the globe valve and close all the other valves leading to manometer. Turn the pump on
and set the volume flow rate using the globe valve.
2. Note the value of volume flow rate from rotameter.
3. Open the valves connected to the points across which the pressure is to be measured
simultaneously (both at the same time).
4. Open the valves of the manometer simultaneously and note the difference in the height of
mercury in the two arms of the U-tube manometer. Use upper meniscus as mercury is non-
wetting fluid.
5. Close the valves of the monometer simultaneously.
6. Close the valves connected to the points of interest simultaneously.
7. Now open the valve of another point across which pressure is to be measured. Repeat this for
all the pipes, values, fitting and flow meters.
8. Repeat the experiment for five different values of volumetric flow rate.
51
3.5 Observations and Calculations
Table 3.5-1: Table for calculating Major losses in pipes
1 𝜀 2.51
= −2log10 ( + ) 2𝑔𝐷
√𝑓𝑚𝑜𝑜𝑑𝑦 3.7D Re√f 𝑓𝑒𝑥𝑝 = ℎ𝑓
𝐿𝑣 2
Length of pipe=2m
Sr. Dischar Q hf hf Velocity Re ln(Re) fexp fmoody

No ge flow (mmHg) (mH20) v=Q/A
. rate(Q) (m/s)
lph m3/s 1″ ¾″ 1/2″ 1″ ¾″ 1/2″ 1″ ¾″ 1/2″ 1″ ¾″ 1/2″ 1″ ¾″ 1/2″ 1″ ¾″ 1/2″ 1″ ¾″ 1/2″
52
Table 3.5-2: Table for calculating minor losses in fittings & Valves
2𝑔
𝑘 = ℎ𝑤
𝑣2
Discharg
Sr. e flow Gradual Gradual Globe Sudden Sudden
Velocity Re ln(Re) 90o elbow Gate valve Ball valve 90o bend
No. rate expansion contraction valve expansion contraction
(Q) (v)
(Q)
hm hm hm hm hm hm hm hm hm
mm mm mm mm mm mm mm mm mm
Hg Hg Hg Hg Hg Hg Hg Hg Hg
(lph) (m3/s) (m/s) - - K K K K K K K K K
(hw) (hw) (hw) (hw) (hw) (hw) (hw) (hw) (hw)
(mH2 (m (mH2 (mH2 (mH2 (mH2 (mH2 (mH2 (m
O) H2O) O) O) O) O) O) O) H2O)
53
Table 3.5-3: Table for calculating Coefficient of discharge of flow meters
Diameter of orifice plate=d0=0.0147m,

Diameter of nozzle= dn=0.0131m,
𝜋
Diameter of venturi tube= dv=0.0119m 𝑄𝑜 = 4 𝑑𝑜2 √2𝑔ℎ𝑚
Discharge (Q) v h hm Ideal flow rate Coefficient of Re ln(Re)
Sr. flow rate (m/s) (mmHg) (mH2O) Qideal discharge
No (Q)
lph m3/ Ori No ven Ori No ven Ori No ven Ori No vent Or No vent Ori No vent Orifi No ventur
s fice zzl tur fice zzl tur fice zzl tur fice zzle uri ific zzle uri fice zzle uri ce zzle i
e i e i e i e
54
Table 3.5-4: Table for calculating developing length
𝐿𝑒
= 0.06𝑅𝑒 ( 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝐿𝑎𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑟 𝐹𝑙𝑜𝑤)
𝐷
𝐿𝑒
= 4.4𝑅𝑒1/6 ( 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑇𝑢𝑟𝑏𝑢𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝐹𝑙𝑜𝑤)
𝐷
Sr. Discharge Discharge Velocity Re ln(Re) Developing length
No. flow rate flow rate (m/s) Le(cm)
lph m3/s 1″ 3/4″ 1/2″ 1″ 3/4″ 1/2″ 1″ 3/4″ 1/2″ 1″ 3/4″ 1/2″
55
3.6 Sample Calculations
56
3.7 Results & Discussion
i. Plot the graph of fexp and fmoody versus ln(Re) for ½″,3/4″ and 1″ pipe
ii. Plot the graph of k versus ln(Re) for 90o elbow, 90o bend, gradual expansion, gradual
contraction, sudden expansion and sudden contraction, globe, gate and butterfly valve.
iii. Plot the graph of coefficient of discharge (Cd ) versus ln(Re) for orifice plate, nozzle and venturi
tube.
iv. Calculate developing length for ½″, 3/4″ and 1″ pipe at different flow rates.
3.7.1 Points to be discussed

i. Compare the values of fexp and fmoody and discuss the possible reasons for it. The one possible
reason comes out to be smooth pipe assumption (𝜀/𝑑 = 0) used while calculating fmoody from
Colebrook’s relationship.
ii. Discuss the trend of fexp and fmoody versus ln (Re) for different pipes.
iii. Compare the values of k for different fitting.
iv. Discuss the trend of k for different fittings.
v. Discuss about the Coefficient of Discharge of each flow measuring device (orifice plate, nozzle
and venturi meter) and the effectiveness of each measuring devices regarding efficiency and
cost. Also, plot the graph between Reynolds number and Coefficient of Discharge for these
three measuring devices and discuss about the trend.
vi. Discuss about the assumption we use during the performance of this test (the flow is fully
turbulent). Calculate developing length and discuss about the actual flow regime in the pipe
that whether flow is in developing flow regime or fully developed. Plot the graph between
Developing length and Reynold’s number and discuss the trend.
vii. Discuss the possible reasons of errors.
57
58
Study of Pelton and Cross Flow Turbines
4.1 Purpose
The purpose of this experiment is to study and plot the performance curves for the Pelton wheel and
cross flow turbines. Its aim is to make the students aware of the effect of the input parameters i.e.
pressure and flow rate on the output parameters of a turbine, such as torque, power output, and
efficiency. Moreover, students can broaden their concepts about the basic working of a turbine, and
also get to know how to process a turbine and calculate different parameters; like the rotational speed,
in our case, would be measured by dynamometer. In this way, students would get an insight about the
industrial applications of turbine in combined with theoretical illustration.
By observing the performance curves, students can get clear their understanding about the efficiency
of a turbine and the effect of different parameters on the performance of a turbine. They can also
manipulate the factors responsible for efficiency drops in real cases as compared to the ideal one.
4.2 Theory
4.2.1 Dynamometer
A dynamometer is a mechanical device that measures the torque produced by a turbine. It has a lot of
industrial applications in the study of engine, so it is useful for a mechanical engineer. In our case, it
is used to measure the power output and the rotational speed of a pump. It is connected to the pump’s
shaft as shown in figure 4.2-1.
Figure 4.2-1: Dynamometer
Then a Tachometer is attached which measures the rotational speed of the pump and displays it on the
meter as shown in Figure 4.2-2.
59
Figure 4.2-2: Multi Turbine Test Set (Meter)
The torque on the shaft, produced either by the pump or an engine can be measured by using a hydraulic
dynamometer. It is placed after the Tachometer as shown in above figure. The hydraulic dynamometer
works on the principle of dissipating the power in fluid friction rather than in dry friction. Some main
characteristics of a hydraulic dynamometer are as follows:
i) In principle, hydraulic dynamometer construction is similar to that of a fluid flywheel.
ii) Hydraulic dynamometer consists of an impeller or inner rotating member coupled to the output
shaft of the engine.
iii) The impeller in this dynamometer rotates in a casing filled with a fluid.
iv) Due to the centrifugal force developed in the outer casing, tends to revolve with the impeller,
but is resisted by a torque arm supporting the balance weight.
v) The frictional forces generated between the impeller and the fluid are measured by the spring
balance fitted on the casing.
vi) The heat developed due to the dissipation of power in Hydraulic dynamometer is carried away
by a continuous supply of the working fluid.
vii) The output power can be controlled by regulating the sluice gates which can be moved in and
out to partially or wholly obstruct the flow of water between the casing and the impeller.
The force signal (F) from the spring balance is converted into a torque (T) by multiplying by the
distance from the center of the shaft to the pivot point of the spring balance:
T=rxF
In the end, torque is multiplied with the rotational speed to get the power output.
4.2.2 A Comprehensive Overview of Hydraulic Dynamometer

A hydraulic dynamometer as shown in the figure below works on the principle of dissipating the power
in fluid friction.
60
Figure 4.2-3: Schematic Diagram of Hydraulic Dynamometer
4.2.3 General Description:

A typical hydraulic dynamometer has a ribbed rotor and stators. As the rotor turns, it churns up water
and creates a resisting torque by fluid friction. This torque depends on the rotor speed, water flow rate,
and pressure. The power generated by the engine is dissipated as heat to the dynamometer cooling
water. For safety reason, the temperature of water leaving the dynamometer should not exceed 80°C.
Consequently, more powerful engine requires higher water flow rate as well as higher pressure.
4.2.3.1 Control Valves:

Inlet Valve
The valve controls the water flow rate into the absorber. The higher the flow rate the higher the load.
Outlet Valve
The valve controls the outlet flow rate from the absorber. The lower the flow rate, the higher the
pressure in the absorber and the higher the load.
Vent Valve
This valve allows air into and out of the water absorber. If air is allowed to go into the absorber it
replaces the water, hence lower the load.
61
Figure 4.2-4: Control Valves of Dynamometer
Air may be purged completely out if the outlet valve is almost closed while inlet valve is open
especially at low speed. In this case, water can be observed flowing out through the vent valve. To
achieve maximum load, air in the water absorber should be completely purged. The load can then be
reduced later if the vent valve is open to allow air in while the rotor is running.
4.2.3.2 Water Absorber Operation:

A test run with water absorber should start from a low load to high load. Operating procedures are as
follows:
• Open the vent valve and open slightly the outlet valve.
• Open the inlet valve slightly to allow minimal water flow.
• Increase the load by opening the inlet valve more to allow higher flow rate.
• At higher flow rate, pressure in the absorber builds up and air is observed leaving the absorber.
Load is now increased. When the air is completely purged, the vent valve should be closed.
• Load is further increased with higher flow rate by opening the inlet valve more. The absorbed
energy increases the outlet water temperature. Monitoring should be made to ensure that the
discharge water temperature is not more than 70 °C. If water temperature is too high, open the
outlet valve more to allow higher flow rate.
• If the load is too high, the first step is to reduce the flow rate by closing the inlet valve slightly.
Next is to reduce the pressure by opening the outlet valve slightly. If the load is still too high,
then vent valve should be open to allow air in. Note: Load can be controlled by adjusting the
three valves –inlet valve, outlet valve, and vent valve.
• Load reading is by either a spring balance or a torque indicator. Procedure
• Check that at least inlet valve of one turbine is open before turning on the pump.
• Turn the switch on and fully open the inlet water valve.
• Close all the valves of the turbines except the valve of Cross-flow turbine or Pelton wheel.
62
• Note the pressure on the pressure gauge. Also, note down the value of turbine speed and flow
rate at no-load condition.
• Now slightly open the load control valve of dynamometer such that only a minimal water flow
through the dynamometer. By doing this, you apply a counter torque to the rotation of turbine.
• Note down the value of force from the spring balance after bringing the dynamometer back to
its original position.
• Now, vary the amount of applied counter torque by changing the amount of water flowing into
the dynamometer via the valve attached. Avoid overflowing of water into the dynamometer.
Note down the values of force, rpm and flow rate.
• Similarly, note down 5 readings by increasing the dynamometer torque.
• Reduce the turbine control valve opening to lower the volume flow rate to the desired value
and reduce dynamometer cooling water flow to the minimal. Repeat the steps for dynamometer.
• Repeat the same procedure for the other turbine.
4.3 Procedure
The procedure of the experiment is explained below:
1. Check that at least inlet valve of one turbine is open before turning on the pump.
2. Turn on the switch and open the inlet water valve to full.
3. Close all the turbines’ valves except the valve of Pelton Turbine.
4. Note the pressure on the pressure gauge. Also, note down the value of turbine speed and flow rate
at no-load condition.
5. Now slightly open the load control valve of dynamometer such that only a minimal water flow
6. The dynamometer will show a value of force. Note down it and multiply it with 0.2 m to get the
value of torque. Also, note down the value of rpm and flow rate.
7. Now, vary the amount of applied counter torque by changing the amount of water flowing into the
dynamometer via the valve attached. Avoid overflowing of water into the dynamometer. Note
down the values of force, rpm and flow rate.
8. Similarly, note down 5 readings by increasing the dynamometer torque.
9. Reduce the turbine control valve opening two times (for test 2 & test 3) to a lower a required flow
rate and reduce dynamometer cooling water flow to the minimal and repeat the test per 4 to 8.
10. From the test data, calculate turbine input power, output power and efficiency.
63
11. From the calculated results, plot curves of : i. Turbine speed vs pressure at no load the maximum
speed is referred to as runaway speed. ii. Turbine torque vs speed. iii. Turbine output power vs
speed. iv. Turbine efficiency vs speed. v. Pressure vs flow rate
Repeat the same procedure for cross flow turbine.

If
Q = Flow rate, lt. /min.
P = Turbine inlet pressure, psi
F = Force on the mechanical dynamometer, N
T = Torque on the mechanical dynamometer, Nm
n = dynamometer speed, rev/min
Then
Turbine input = Wi = 0.11495xQxP Watts
Turbine output = Wo = 0.10472xTxn Watts
Wi
Turbine efficiency = η = Wo x 100 %
Where
T = (0.2 m)xF
64
Table 4.4-1: Observations and Calculation for Pelton Turbine
Turbine: Pelton , Frequency=50Hz, Mechanical dynamometer radius=0.2m

Sr. # Pressure Flow Rate Turbine Speed Force Torque Input Power Output Power Efficiency
(psi) (lpm) (rpm) (N) (Nm) (W) (W) %
TEST NO.1
1
2
3
4
5
TEST NO. 2
1
2
3
4
5
TEST NO.3
1
2
3
4
5
65
Table 4.4-2: Results and Calculations for Cross Flow Turbine
Turbine: Cross Flow , Frequency=50Hz, Mechanical dynamometer radius=0.2m

(psi) (lpm) (rpm) (N) (Nm) (W) (W) %
TEST NO.1
1
2
3
4
5
TEST NO. 2
1
2
3
4
5
TEST NO.3
1
2
3
4
5
4.5 Precautions
Following precautions should be followed:
• Make sure that at least inlet valve of one turbine is open before switching on the apparatus.
• Don’t lower the flow rate beneath a certain limit.
• Keep your hands away from the coupling of turbine and dynamometer.
• Loose fitting clothes should never be worn in a laboratory. These clothes can cause a serious
accident if caught in rotating equipment, i.e. tie, shalwar kameez etc.
• Ear protectors should be worn when operating noisy equipment.
66
4.6 Results & Discussion
Plot the performance curves for these two turbines
i) Efficiency vs. impeller speed
ii) Power output vs. impeller speed
iii) Torque vs. impeller speed
iv) Pressure vs. volume flow rate (at no load)
v) Turbine speed vs. pressure
4.6.1 Points to be discussed

• Discuss the trends of efficiency, power output and torque with impeller speed. Compare with
the theoretical ones.
• Discuss the trends of turbine speed with volume flow rate. Also discuss the trend of pressure
vs flow rate at no load. Compare with the theoretical ones.
• Explain the reasons of deviations of trends form the theoretical ones, if any (sources of
errors).
67
68
69
Study of Francis and Kaplan Turbines
5.1 Purpose
The purpose of this experiment is to make the students able to obtain the performance curves of Francis
and Kaplan turbines. Its aim is to make the students aware of the effect of the input parameters i.e.
pressure and flow rate on the output parameters of a turbine, such as torque, power output, and
efficiency. Moreover, students can get to know how to measure different parameters; like the turbine
torque, in our case, would be measured by dynamometer. By observing the performance curves,
students can also clear their understanding about the efficiency of a turbine and the effect of different
parameters on the performance of a turbine. They can also manipulate about why the efficiency drops
in real case as compared to the ideal one.
5.2 Theory
A turbine is a rotary mechanical device that extracts energy from a fluid flow and converts it into
useful work. The work produced by a turbine can be used for generating electrical power when
combined with a generator. A turbine is a turbomachine with at least one moving part called a rotor
assembly, which is a shaft or drum with blades attached. Moving fluid acts on the blades so that they
move and impart rotational energy to the rotor. Early turbine examples are windmills and waterwheels.
Generally, there are two categories of water turbines on the basis of their operation:
• Impulse Turbines
• Reaction Turbines
Francis and Kaplan turbines are reaction turbines. So, we’ll only discuss reaction turbines.
5.3 Reaction Turbines

The rotor of a reaction turbine is fully immersed in water and is enclosed in a pressure casing. The
runner blades are profiled so that pressure differences across them impose lift forces, just as on aircraft
wings, which cause the runner to rotate faster than is possible with a jet.
Reaction turbines develop torque by reacting to the gas or fluid's pressure or mass. The pressure of the
gas or fluid changes as it passes through the turbine rotor blades. A pressure casement is needed to
contain the working fluid as it acts on the turbine stage(s) or the turbine must be fully immersed in the
fluid flow (such as with wind turbines). The casing contains and directs the working fluid and, for
water turbines, maintains the suction imparted by the draft tube. Francis turbines and most steam
turbines use this concept. For compressible working fluids, multiple turbine stages are usually used to
70
harness the expanding gas efficiently. Newton's third law describes the transfer of energy for reaction
turbines. Reaction turbines are better suited to higher flow velocities or applications where the fluid
head (upstream pressure) is low.
5.3.1 Francis Turbine

The Francis turbine is a type of water turbine that was developed by James B. Francis in Lowell,
Massachusetts. It is an inward-flow reaction turbine that combines radial and axial flow concepts.
Francis turbines are the most common water turbine in use today. They operate in a water head from
40 to 600 m (130 to 2,000 ft.) and are primarily used for electrical power production. The electric
generators that most often use this type of turbine have a power output that generally ranges from just
a few kilowatts up to 800 MW. Penstock (input pipes) diameters are between 3 and 33 ft. (0.91 and 10
m). The speed range of the turbine is from 75 to 1000 rpm. A wicket gate around the outside of the
turbine's rotating runner controls the rate of water flow through the turbine for different power
production rates. Francis turbines are almost always mounted with the shaft vertical to isolate water
from the generator. This also facilitates installation and maintenance.
In dams of Pakistan, semi-umbrella type Francis turbines are being used.
5.3.2 Working Principle

Francis turbine blades are designed in such a way that one portion of the blade design creates the
pressure difference between the opposite faces of the blade when water flows through it, and the
remaining portion’s blade design use the impulse force of water hitting it and this combined action of
pressure difference and impulse force generates enough power to get turbine moving at a required
speed. Thus, there would be a decrease in both kinetic energy and potential energy of water at exit,
then what it has when it enters the turbine. It is a clever design which uses both the reaction and impulse
force to generate power output better than individual impulse turbine or reaction turbines could
produce at same water head conditions.
5.3.3 Components
The various main components of Francis turbine are:
71
Figure 5.3-1: Components of Francis Turbine
5.3.3.1 Spiral casing

It is a spiral casing, with uniformly decreasing cross- section area, along the circumference. Its
decreasing cross-section area makes sure that we have a uniform velocity of the water striking the
runner blades, as we have openings for water flow in-to the runner blades from the very starting of the
casing, so flow rate would decrease as it travels along the casing. So we reduce its cross-section area
along its circumference to make pressure uniform, thus uniform momentum or velocity striking the
runner blades.
5.3.3.2 Stay vanes

Stay vanes and guide vanes guides the water to the runner blades. Stay vanes remain stationary at their
position and reduces the swirling of water due to radial flow, as it enters the runner blades. Thus
making turbine more efficient.
Stay and guide vanes of Francis turbine:
Figure 5.3-2: Vanes of Francis Turbine
72
5.3.3.3 Guide vanes
Water after passing through stay vanes, glides through guide vanes to enter the runner blades. Guide
vanes can change their angle thus can control the angle of attack of water to the runner blades, making
them work more efficiently. Moreover, they also regulate the flow rate of water into the runner blades
thus controlling the power output of a turbine according to the load on the turbine.
5.3.3.4 Runner blades

Design of the runner blades decides how well a turbine is going to perform. So runner blades of mixed
flow turbine can be divided into two parts, the upper part of the blades use the reaction force of water
flowing through it and the lower half is in the shape of a small bucket using the impulse action of water
flowing through it. These two forces together make the runner to rotate.
5.3.3.5 Draft tube

Draft tube connects the runner exit to the tail race. Its cross-section area increases along its length, as
the water coming out of runner blades is at considerably low pressure, so its expanding cross-section
area help it to recover the pressure as it flows towards tail race.
The velocity triangles Francis Turbine in full load and part load operations are shown below:
Figure 5.3-3: Velocity Triangles of Francis Turbine
5.3.4 Kaplan Turbine

The Kaplan turbine is a propeller-type water turbine which has adjustable blades. It was developed in
1913 by Austrian professor Viktor Kaplan, who combined automatically adjusted propeller blades with
automatically adjusted wicket gates to achieve efficiency over a wide range of flow and water level.
The Kaplan turbine was an evolution of the Francis turbine. Its invention allowed efficient power
production in low-head applications which was not possible with Francis turbines. The head ranges
73
from 10–70 meters and the output ranges from 5 to 200 MW. Runner diameters are between 2 and 11
meters. Turbines rotate at a constant rate, which varies from facility to facility.
Kaplan turbines are now widely used throughout the world in high-flow, low-head power production.
The Kaplan turbine is an inward flow reaction turbine, which means that the working fluid changes
pressure as it moves through the turbine and gives up its energy. Power is recovered from both the
hydrostatic head and from the kinetic energy of the flowing water. The design combines feature of
radial and axial turbines.
5.3.5 Components
The main parts of Kaplan turbine are:
5.3.5.1 Scroll Casing

It is a spiral type of casing that has decreasing cross section area. The water from the penstocks enters
the scroll casing and then moves to the guide vanes where the water turns through 90° and flows axially
through the runner. It protects the runner, runner blades guide vanes and other internal parts of the
turbine from an external damage.
Figure 5.3-4: Main Components of Kaplan Turbine.
5.3.6 Guide Vane Mechanism

It is the only controlling part of the whole turbine, which opens and closes depending upon the demand
of power requirement. In case of more power output requirements, it opens wider to allow more water
to hit the blades of the rotor and when low power output requires it closes itself to cease the flow of
water. If guide vanes are absent then the turbine cannot work efficiently and its efficiency decreases.
74
5.3.6.1 Draft Tube
The pressure at the exit of the runner of Reaction Turbine is generally less than atmospheric pressure.
The water at exit cannot be directly discharged to the tail race. A tube or pipe of gradually increasing
area is used for discharging water from the exit of turbine to the tail race. This tube of increasing area
is called Draft Tube. One end of the tube is connected to the outlet of runner while the other end is
sub-merged below the level of water in the tail-race.
5.3.6.2 Runner Blades

The heart of the component in Kaplan turbine are its runner blades, as it the rotating part which helps
in production of electricity. Its shaft is connected to the shaft of the generator. The runner of this turbine
has a large boss on which its blades are attached and the blades of the runner is adjustable to an
optimum angle of attack for maximum power output. The blades of the Kaplan turbine have twist along
its length.
Figure 5.3-5: Runner Blades of Kaplan Turbine.
The velocity triangles of Kaplan turbine is shown below:
Figure 5.3-6: Velocity Triangles of Kaplan Turbine
75
5.4 Performance Curves
Characteristic curves or performance curves of hydraulic turbines are the curves with the help of which
the exact behavior and performance of the turbine under different working conditions can be known.
These are plotted from the results of the tests performed. The important parameters which are studied
during a test are: 1. Speed 2. Pressure 3. Flow rate 4. Output power 5.Efficiency 6. Toque.
Some performance curves of Francis turbine is shown below. The performance curves are from Figure
5.4-1 to Figure 5.4-5.
Figure 5.4-1: Torque vs Turbine Speed Performance Curve
Figure 5.4-2: Output Power vs Turbine Speed Performance Curve
76
Figure 5.4-3: Efficiency vs Turbine Speed Performance Curve
Figure 5.4-4: Pressure vs Flow Rate Performance Curve
Speed v s Pressure at no load

2500
TURBINE SPEED (RPM)
2000
1500
1000
500
0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35
PRESSURE (PSI)
Figure 5.4-5: Turbine speed versus pressure at no load condition
77
5.5 Hydraulic Dynamometer
A hydraulic dynamometer as shown in the figure below works on the principle of dissipating the
power in fluid friction.
Figure 5.5-1: Hydraulic Dynamometer
5.5.1 General Description

A typical hydraulic dynamometer has a ribbed rotor and stators. As the rotor turns, it churns up water
and creates a resisting torque by fluid friction. This torque depends on the rotor speed, water flow rate,
and pressure. The power generated by the engine is dissipated as heat to the dynamometer cooling
water. For safety reason, the temperature of water leaving the dynamometer should not exceed 80°C.
Consequently, more powerful engine requires higher water flow rate as well as higher pressure.
5.5.2 Control Valves

1. Inlet Valve: The valve controls the water flow rate into the absorber. The higher the flow rate the
higher the load.
2. Outlet Valve: The valve controls the outlet flow rate from the absorber. The lower the flow rate,
the higher the pressure in the absorber and the higher the load.
3. Vent Valve: This valve allows air into and out of the water absorber. If air is allowed to go into the
absorber, it replaces the water, hence lower the load.
78
Figure 5.5-2: Control Valves of Dynamometer
Air may be purged completely out if the outlet valve is almost closed while inlet valve is open
especially at low speed. In this case, water can be observed flowing out through the vent valve. To
achieve maximum load, air in the water absorber should be completely purged. The load can then be
reduced later if the vent valve is open to allow air in while the rotor is running.
5.5.3 Water Absorber Operation

A test run with water absorber should start from a low load to high load. Operating procedures are as
follows:
• Open the vent valve and open slightly the outlet valve.
• Open the inlet valve slightly to allow minimal water flow.
• Increase the load by opening the inlet valve more to allow higher flow rate.
• At higher flow rate, pressure in the absorber builds up and air is observed leaving the absorber.
Load is now increased. When the air is completely purged, the vent valve should be closed.
79
• Load is further increased with higher flow rate by opening the inlet valve more. The absorbed
energy increases the outlet water temperature. Monitoring should be made to ensure that the
discharge water temperature is not more than 70 °C. If water temperature is too high, open the
outlet valve more to allow higher flow rate.
• If the load is too high, the first step is to reduce the flow rate by closing the inlet valve slightly.
Next is to reduce the pressure by opening the outlet valve slightly. If the load is still too high,
then vent valve should be open to allow air in. Note: Load can be controlled by adjusting the
three valves –inlet valve, outlet valve, and vent valve.
• Load reading is by either a spring balance or a torque indicator.
5.5.4 Torque Reading by Spring Balance

In the case of dynamometer torque is recorded by a spring balance, the spring reading must be done
only when the dynamometer pointer is in line with a set pointer. This is to ensure that the torque arm
is horizontal and perpendicular to the spring balance position. To match the pointers, the spring
balance needs to be adjusted by a knob at the top. A tare reading must be recorded. This is the reading
before any load is applied. Dynamometer arm length must also be recorded. After the load is applied,
another reading must be recorded and the difference between the readings is the net spring force.
5.6 Procedure
The procedure of the experiment is explained below:
1. Check that at least inlet valve of one turbine is open before turning on the pump.
2. Turn on the switch and open the inlet water valve to full.
3. Close all the turbines’ valves except the valve of Francis Turbine.
4. Note the pressure on the pressure gauge. Also, note down the value of turbine speed and flow
rate at no-load condition.
5. Now slightly open the load control valve of dynamometer such that only a minimal water flow
6. The dynamometer will show a value of force. Note down it and multiply it with 0.2 m to get
the value of torque. Also, note down the value of rpm and flow rate.
7. Now, vary the amount of applied counter torque by changing the amount of water flowing into
the dynamometer via the valve attached. Avoid overflowing of water into the dynamometer.
Note down the values of force, rpm and flow rate.
8. Similarly, note down 5 readings by increasing the dynamometer torque.
80
9. Reduce the turbine control valve opening (Guide vane valve) two times (for test 2 & test 3) to
a lower a required flow rate and reduce dynamometer cooling water flow to the minimal and
repeat the test per 4 to 8.
10. From the test data, calculate turbine input power, output power and efficiency.
11. From the calculated results, plot curves of: i. Turbine speed vs pressure at no load the maximum
speed is referred to as runaway speed. ii. Turbine torque vs speed. iii. Turbine output power vs
speed. iv. Turbine efficiency vs speed. v. Pressure vs flow rate
12. Repeat the same procedure for Kaplan turbine.

If
Q = Flow rate, lt. /min.
P = Turbine inlet pressure, psi
F = Force on the mechanical dynamometer, N
T = Torque on the mechanical dynamometer, Nm
n = dynamometer speed, rev/min
Then
Turbine input = Wi = 0.11495xQxP Watts
Turbine output = Wo = 0.10472xTxn Watts
Wi
Turbine efficiency = η = Wo x 100 %
Where
T = (0.2 m) x F
81
Table 5.7-1: Results and Calculation for Francis Turbine
(psi) (lpm) (rpm) (N) (Nm) (W) (W) %
TEST NO.1
1
2
3
4
5
TEST NO. 2
1
2
3
4
5
TEST NO.3
1
2
3
4
5
82
Table 5.7-2: Results and Calculations for Kaplan Turbine
(psi) (lpm) (rpm) (N) (Nm) (W) (W) %
TEST NO.1
1
2
3
4
5
TEST NO. 2
1
2
3
4
5
TEST NO.3
1
2
3
4
5
5.8 Results and Discussions

Points to be discussed:
• Trends in the performance curves

• Reasons of trends of performance curves
1. Why the output power and efficiency varies parbolically?
2. Why the pressure decreases with increase in flow rate?
3. Why the turbine torque decreases with increasing turbine speed?
4. Why the efficiency of Francis turbine is more than Kaplan turbine?
5. Why turbine rpm increases with pressure at no load condition(Racing condition)
• Sources of error
83
84
5.9 Conclusions
85
Impact of Jet

i. To determine the impact of water jet and its behavior after striking various types of surfaces.
ii. To calculate flow rate and velocities just before impact.
iii. To find the force exerted by the water jet theoretically as well as experimentally and calculating
the error.
6.2 Apparatus
i. Hydraulic Bench
ii. Transparent Cylinder
iii. Vertical Tapered Nozzle
iv. Flat Deflecting Plates i.e. θ=90°
v. Conical Deflecting Plates with θ=120° and 180°
vi. Drain Tub
vii. Centrifugal Motor
viii. Stop Watch
ix. Weights
Figure 6.2-1: Impact of Jet Apparatus
86
6.3 Theoretical Background
To proceed with following experiments, following assumptions are taken;
• friction between the impact surface and the water jet is negligible
• velocity profiles are uniform where the flow crosses the control surface
• the jet exit is circumferentially symmetrical
Consider a stream of water with average velocity V flows upward from the nozzle. It impinges on the
impact surface and turns to flow radially outward from the axis of the impact surface.
Applying the conservation of mass to the jet streams gives 𝑣1 𝐴1 - 𝑣2 𝐴2 = 0
Where 𝑣 is the average velocity at a given cross-section, and 𝐴 is the cross-sectional area normal to
the direction of the average velocity. The subscripts 1 and 2 refer to the inlet and outlet of the control
volume respectively. Since the magnitude of the velocity is assumed to not change,
Equation simplifies to
𝐴1 = 𝐴2 = 𝐴
The momentum equation based on Newton's second law of motion states that the algebraic sum of
external forces applied to control volume of fluid in any direction equal to the rate of change of the
momentum in that direction.
The external forces include the component of weight of the fluid and the forces exerted externally upon
the boundary surface of the control volume.
Sum of external forces is zero in x-direction. So, rate of change of momentum in horizontal direction
is zero.
If a vertical water jet moving with a velocity 'V' made to strike the target surface which is free, to move
in vertical direction, and force will be exerted on the target by the impact of the jet.
Applying the momentum equation in y-direction, force exerted by the jet on the surface, 𝐹𝑦 is given
by:
𝐹𝑦 = 𝑚̇(𝑣2 − 𝑣1 )
Where 𝑚̇ = mass flow rate = flow rate × density =𝑄 × 𝜌
→ 𝐹𝑦 = 𝑄 ∙ 𝜌 ∙ (𝑣2 − 𝑣1 )
𝑣1 is velocity before impact
𝑣2 is velocity after impact
87
So, general case becomes
𝐹𝑦 = 𝑄 ∙ 𝜌 ∙ (𝑣1 − 𝑣2 cos 𝜃)
As friction is neglected, then
𝑣1 = 𝑣2 = 𝑣
→ 𝐹𝑦 = 𝑄 ∙ 𝜌 ∙ 𝑣 ∙ (1 − cos 𝜃)
This 𝑣 is the average velocity of jet at nozzle. If height correction is considered then;
𝑣𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑒 = √𝑣𝑛𝑜𝑧𝑧𝑙𝑒 2 + 2(−𝑔)(ℎ)
Formulae Used
𝐴 = 𝜋𝑟 2
𝑄
𝑣𝑛𝑜𝑧𝑧𝑙𝑒 =
𝐴
𝐹𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ𝑜𝑢𝑡 𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = 𝑚̇ × 𝑣𝑛𝑜𝑧𝑧𝑙𝑒 × (1 − cos 𝜃)
𝐹𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ 𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = 𝑚̇ × 𝑣𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑒 × (1 − cos 𝜃)
6.4 Procedure
1. Remove the top plate (by releasing the knurled nuts) and the transparent cylinder from the
equipment, and check and record the exit diameter of the nozzle.
2. Replace the cylinder, and screw the 90-degree deflector onto the end of the shaft.
3. Connect the inlet tube to the quick-release connector on the bench.
4. Replace the top plate on the transparent cylinder, but do not tighten the three knurled nuts.
5. Using the spirit level attached to the top plate, level the cylinder by adjusting the feet.
88
6. Replace the three knurled nuts, then tighten in sequence until the built-in circular spirit level
indicates that the top plate is horizontal. The nuts should only be tightened enough to level the
plate.
7. Ensure that the vertical shaft is free to move and is supported by the spring beneath the weight
pan.
8. With no weights on the weight pan, adjust the height of the level gauge until it aligns with the
datum line on the weight pan. Check that the position is correct by gently oscillating the pan.
9. Place a mass of 100 grams on the weight pan, and turn on the pump.
10. Open the bench valve slowly, and allow water to impinge upon the target until the datum line
on the weight pan is level with the gauge. Leave the flow constant. Observe and note the flow
behavior during the test.
11. Measure the flow rate, using the volumetric tank. This is achieved by closing the ball valve and
measuring the time that it takes to accumulate a known volume of fluid in the tank, as measured
from the sight glass. Repeat this procedure by adding an additional 100 grams incrementally.
12. Repeat the entire test for each of the other two flow deflectors.
6.5 Precautions
i. Do not overtighten the knurled nuts, as this will damage the top plate.
ii. Water should be collected for at least one minute to minimize timing errors.
iii. Weights should be added slowly.
iv. Pump should be turned OFF before opening the lid.
v. Cover should be firmly closed.
89
Diameter of nozzle = 𝑑 = 7mm Height of plate from nozzle = ℎ = 30mm
Radius of nozzle = 𝑟 = 3.5mm 𝑔 = 9.8 m/s2
Area of nozzle = 𝐴 = 3.8 × 10−5 m2 𝜌 = 999 kg/m3
Velocity 𝑭𝒘/𝒐 𝑭𝒘𝒊𝒕𝒉 𝒄𝒐𝒓𝒓𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏

𝒄𝒐𝒓𝒓𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏
Mass Weight Volume of water Time Flow Rate Mass Flow Rate (m/s) (N) (N)
𝜽
(g) (N) (lit) (s) (lit/s) (kg/s)
%
𝒗𝒏𝒐𝒛𝒛𝒍𝒆 𝒗𝒑𝒍𝒂𝒕𝒆 Value % error Value
error
100
200
300
400
500
600
90
6.7 Sample Calculation
For 𝜃 = 90°
𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒
𝑄= =
𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒
𝑚̇ = 𝑄 × 𝜌 =
𝑄
𝑣𝑛𝑜𝑧𝑧𝑙𝑒 = =
3.8 × 10−5
𝑣𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑒 = √𝑣𝑛𝑜𝑧𝑧𝑙𝑒 2 + (2)(−9.8)(0.03) =
𝐹𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑢𝑡 𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = 𝑚̇ × 𝑣𝑛𝑜𝑧𝑧𝑙𝑒 × (1 − cos 90°) =

𝐹𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ 𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = 𝑚̇ × 𝑣𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑒 × (1 − cos 90°) =
91
6.8 Conclusion
92
To Determine the Metacentric Height of a
Floating Body and the Height Variations with the Tilt Angle

1. To demonstrate the application of fluid statics
2. To determine the metacentric height of a floating object
3. To study the variations in the metacentric height with the tilt angle
4. To study how the stability of a floating object is affected by its metacentric height
7.2 Apparatus
i. Pontoon
ii. Water tank (use tank of hydraulic bench as water reservoir)
7.3 Theoretical background

When a pontoon is floated on the water and its center of gravity is at G at which point the weight of
the pontoon is acting through point O. At the same time point O is a crossing point between the
horizontal water level and the vertical line dividing the pontoon in half. Point B is center of gravity of
the water displacement volume of the pontoon and is also the point at which buoyancy force, the water
supporting force, vertically acts through. In stable condition the pontoon weight and the buoyancy
forces are equal and opposite.
In the study of stability of pontoon, we must consider that if pontoon is acted upon by an external force
which will cause the pontoon to tilt slightly by small angle 𝜃 as shown in figure. In this position, the
displaced volume of water will change its configuration from a rectangular body to a parallel side
body. Therefore the center of buoyancy force moves from B to B1. If a vertical line is drawn through
B1 it will intersect with the original vertical line dividing the pontoon into half at M. This point M is
called “Metacenter” and the distance ̅̅̅̅̅
𝑀𝐺 is called metacentric height. And the new line of force acting
̅̅̅̅̅𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃.
on the pontoon through point B1 will be horizontally apart from B at distance 𝑀𝐵
In the case of pontoon floating on the water surface, the buoyancy force FB or the supporting force of
the water is equal to the total weight “W” of the pontoon. But the acting planes of both forces are
separated at a distance of ̅̅̅̅̅
𝑀𝐺 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃. Therefore the couple moment caused by these two forces will be
equal to,
̅̅̅̅̅ sin 𝜃
𝐶𝑜𝑢𝑝𝑙𝑒 𝑀𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡, 𝑇 = 𝑊 𝑀𝐺
93
It can be observed that resulting moment couple is in clockwise direction. Thus it will tend to turn or
twist the pontoon back to its original vertical positon of figure. Therefore pontoon in figure 2 is in
stable state.
It can also be observed that if point am coincides to the point G, then the moment arm ̅̅̅̅̅
𝑀𝐺 will be zero
and couple moment in equation above will be zero. That means there is no couple moment to rotate
the pontoon back to its vertical position, nor rotate the pontoon to a greater angle of tilt. Hence the
pontoon in this case is considered to be in neutral state.
But if the crossing point of M is on the right side of the point G, the resulting couple moment will be
in counter clockwise direction. It will turn or twist the pontoon more and more until it turns over into
upside down position. In this condition the pontoon is considered to be in an unstable condition.
̅̅̅̅̅ is considered as measuring indicator of the stability of the pontoon that
Therefore the distance 𝑀𝐺
floats on the water surface. It can be defined as follows:
1. If point M is above point G, the pontoon is in “stable state”.
2. If point M is below point G, the pontoon is in “unstable state”.
3. If point M coincides with point G, the pontoon is in “neutral state”.
7.3.1 Determination of Metacentric Height by experiment

If 𝑤 is the mass of jockey weight and is displaced to a linear distance 𝑥. Which results in slight tilt of
pontoon by angle 𝜃 .
If 𝑊 is the total weight of Pontoon. Then taking moment about point 𝐺, we get
𝑤𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 × 𝑥 = 𝐺𝐺1 × 𝑊
̅̅̅̅̅ sin 𝜃 × 𝑊
𝑤 cos 𝜃 × 𝑥 = 𝑀𝐺
94
𝑤×𝑥 𝑤𝑥
̅̅̅̅̅
𝑀𝐺 = =
𝑊 tan 𝜃 𝑊𝜃
Where,
Total mass of pontoon = 𝑊= 2530 g = 2.53 kg
Mass of jockey weight = 𝑤 = 200 g = 0.2 kg
7.3.2 Determination of Metacentric Height Theoretically

Theoretical Metacentric height of the pontoon as shown in figure is given by,
̅̅̅̅̅
𝑀𝐺 = ̅̅̅̅̅
𝑀𝐵 − ̅̅̅̅
𝐺𝐵
And,
𝐼
𝑀𝐵 =
𝑉
Where,
𝐿𝑏3
𝐼 = 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑀𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝐼𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝐵𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑃𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑜𝑜𝑛 =
12
𝐿 = Length of Pontoon base = 400 mm
𝑏 = Width of Pontoon base = 200 mm
𝑉 = volume of water displaced by pontoon
By using Archimedes Law,
𝑊 = 𝜌𝑔𝑉
𝜌 = density of displaced water = 1000 kg/m^3
From the above diagram,
𝑉
ℎ=
𝐿𝑏
So,
̅̅̅̅̅ = 𝑀𝐵
𝑀𝐺 ̅̅̅̅̅ − 𝐺𝐵
̅̅̅̅
From above figure,
𝐼 ℎ
̅̅̅̅̅
𝑀𝐺 = − (𝑌̅ − )
𝑉 2
To calculate ̅𝑌, using figure as shown below,
𝐴𝑌1 + (𝑊 − 𝐴)𝑌𝑔
𝑌̅ =
𝑊
𝐴 = mass of Vertical Sliding Weight = 500 g
𝑊 = total mass of Pontoon = 2530g
Y𝑔 = Height of center of gravity of pontoon without vertical sliding weight = 64.6mm
95
7.4 Procedure
1. When placing the pontoon in the water ensure that the position of jockey weight for horizontal
adjustments is in middle of the pontoon and the pontoon is sitting level in water. The pontoon
should be in a vertical position and have no angle of tilt as shown on the scale mounted on the
pontoon. If not adjust the balancing weight position to until the tilt angle is zero.
2. Adjust the height of vertical sliding weight to a specific value and note it down on the sheet.
3. Change the position of the jockey weight to change the position of pontoon in the water. Move
the jockey weight in step form its central position horizontally and record the angle of tilt of
the pontoon from the scale on the pontoon in degrees for specified height of vertical sliding
weight.
4. Repeat step 2, 3 for different values of height of Vertical sliding weight and record the data on
the sheet provided.
96
7.5 Observations
Distance 𝑥 of the jockey from the center of the pontoon (mm)
80 60 40 20 0 20 40 60 80
Tilt angle 𝜃
Height of vertical sliding 𝑥 𝑚𝑚

( )
weight = mm 𝜃 𝑟𝑎𝑑
Metacentric height
(mm)
Tilt angle 𝜃

( )
Metacentric height
(mm)
Tilt angle 𝜃

( )
Metacentric height
(mm)
Tilt angle 𝜃

( )
Metacentric height
(mm)
97
7.6 Calculations
Pontoon total mass = 𝑊 = 2530g = 2.53kg
Mass of jockey weight = 𝑤 = 200 g =0.2kg
Mass of vertical sliding Weight = 𝐴 = 500 g = 0.5 kg
Center of gravity position with vertical sliding weight = 𝑌̅𝑔 = 64.6 mm
Determine the following in calculations:
1. Theoretical metacentric height
2. Experimental Metacentric height
98
99
7.7 Results and Discussion
100
To determine the hydrostatic forces on a tilting
submerged plane

1. To determine the hydrostatic forces acting on the tilting submerged plane at various angles and
water levels.
2. To determine the center of pressure of the resultant force acting on the tilting submerged plane
at various angles and water levels.
8.2 Apparatus
i. Hydrostatic pressure Apparatus
ii. Weights
8.3 Theory
The basic theory for the center of pressure of a fluid or the position of resultant hydrostatic forces
acting on a submerged body is as follows.
8.4 Hydrostatic force acting on a plane

The static forces acting on a submerged plane tilted at an angle 𝜃 can be calculated using following
diagram.
From following figure, it can be seen that A’B’ is the side view of a plane making an angle 𝜃 with the
water level. The crossing point between the inclined line of plane and the water surface is the x-axis
and the y-axis is in the same line as A’B’. The origin of x and y-axis is O.
From the following figure it can be seen that;
ℎ = depth of differential area 𝑑𝐴
ℎ𝑐 = depth of center of gravity of plane
ℎ𝑝 = depth of resultant force at center of pressure
𝑦 = distance measured to strip of differential area
𝑦𝑐 = distance measure to the center of gravity
𝑦𝑝 = distance measured to the resultant force acting at the center of pressure
From figure, it can be seen that the differential area “𝑑𝐴” has thickness “𝑑𝑦”. Applying the hydrostatic
pressure equation,
101
𝑑𝐹 = 𝑝𝑑𝐴 = 𝛾𝑦 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 𝑑𝐴
Thus,
𝐹 = 𝛾 sin 𝜃∫ 𝑦𝑑𝐴 = 𝛾𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 𝑦𝑐 𝐴
Since,
ℎ𝑐 = 𝑦𝑐 𝑆𝑖𝑛 𝜃
𝐹 = 𝛾ℎ𝑐 𝐴
Because of 𝛾ℎ𝑐 is the pressure at the center of gravity of the area, it can be concluded that a force on
an area submerged in a liquid will be equal to the pressure at the center of gravity of the area multiplied
by that area.
8.5 Center of Pressure

Center of pressure is the point at which the resultant force of the fluid acting on the plane surface.
From above figure, if “ox” denotes the revolving axis of moment. Then the moment about “ox” axis
due to small force “𝑑𝐹” will be;
𝑑𝑀 = 𝑦𝑑𝐹 = 𝛾𝑦 2 sin 𝜃𝑑𝐴
𝑀 = ∫ 𝑦𝑑𝐹 = 𝛾𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃∫ 𝑦 2 𝑑𝐴
𝑦𝑝 𝐹 = 𝛾 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 𝐼𝑜𝑥
Where, 𝐼𝑜𝑥 = moment of inertia or the second moment of inertia of area about 𝑜𝑥 axis.
If we divide both sides of the above equation by force F,
Then,
𝛾 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 𝐼𝑜𝑥 𝛾 sin 𝜃 𝐼𝑜𝑥 𝐼𝑜𝑥
𝑦𝑝 = = =
𝐹 𝛾 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 𝑦𝑐 𝐴 𝑦𝑐 𝐴
From above figure,
𝐼𝑜𝑥 = 𝐼𝑐 + 𝑦𝑐2𝐴
Where, 𝐼𝑐 = Moment of inertia of area about the axis passing through the centroid of that area.
Substituting the value of 𝐼𝑜𝑥 we get,
𝐼𝑐
𝑦𝑝 = 𝑦𝑐 +
𝑌𝑐 𝐴
The above equation gives the theoretical value of center of pressure.
102
8.6 Description of hydrostatic pressure apparatus
A PVC quadrant is hinged on a shaft pivoted on a knife edge which coincide with the quadrant center.
The quadrant is adjustable relative to the balance arm such that the submerged plane surface can be
tilted by changing the lock pin position between the quadrant and the lever arm. A depth scale is
indicated on the quadrant. When the quadrant is immersed in water, there are hydrostatic forces
develop.
The balance arm has an adjustable counter balance and weights with a hanger. The quadrant is mounted
on the top of a clear acrylic tank which allows water to be admitted and drained at required level by a
valve. The tanks rest on adjustable footing and bullseye level is provided.
8.6.1 Data related

Quadrant inner radius = 𝑅𝑖 = 100 mm
Quadrant outer radius = 𝑅𝑜 = 200 mm
Width = 𝑊 = 75 mm
8.7 Determination of center of Pressure experimentally

To determine the center of pressure experimentally, consider following figure. When there is no water
in tank, the counter weight 𝑊𝑜 at the end of the arm on the opposite side of the quadrant is adjusted to
a certain distance from the axis so that it will balance the weight of quadrant and weight of arm itself.
In this equilibrium position, the arm will be in horizontal level that can be observed from the needle
indicator pointing to the level of plane attached to the end of the arm.
When water is admitted in to the tank, it will insert pressure onto the quadrant. The resultant force
acting on the curved part of quadrant will be passing through the center of quadrant that is also the
fulcrum in this case.
On the other hand the forces acting on the rectangular end section will be normal to plane surface and
will produce a clockwise torque equal to the product of resultant force on the plane surface multiplied
by the distance of center of pressure of the resultant force from fulcrum. If we experimentally balance
the clockwise forces produced with the counter clockwise torque by hanging weight 𝑊 at distance𝐿.
𝐴𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑘𝑤𝑖𝑠𝑒 𝑚𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 = 𝐶𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑘𝑤𝑖𝑠𝑒 𝑀𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡
𝐹×𝑌 =𝑊 ×𝐿
Where 𝐿 = 0.28 m
In the above equation, the 𝐹 is the hydrostatic force acting on the plane surface and can be found by;
𝐹 = 𝜌𝑔𝑦𝑐 sin 𝜃
103
So,
𝑊×𝐿
𝑌=
𝜌𝑔 𝑦𝑐 sin 𝜃
There are four different cases based on the water level and angle of the plane surface.
Case 1: Water level is above the upper edge of plane surface & (𝜃 ≤ 90)
Case 2: Water level is below the upper edge of plane surface & (𝜃 ≤ 90)
Case 3: Water level is above the upper edge of plane surface & (𝜃 ≥ 90)
Case 4: Water level is below the upper edge of plane surface & (𝜃 ≥ 90)
8.7.1 Case 1
Water level is above the upper edge of plane surface & (𝜃 ≤ 90)
For case-1, the value of 𝑦𝑐 is given by,
0.1𝑚 𝑅𝑜 − 𝑅𝑖
𝑦𝑐 = 𝑃 − −
𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃 2
Where, P = water level measured directly from experiment in 𝑚.
𝜃 = Angle of tilt of submerged plane surface
104
Appendix
Appendix A
Program Learning Outcomes (PLOs)
On the basis of the Knowledge Attributes defined in the Washington Accord, twelve (12) Program
Learning Outcomes, also known as Graduate Attributes, are listed below:
(i) Engineering Knowledge: An ability to apply knowledge of mathematics, science and
engineering fundamentals and an engineering specialization to the solution of complex
engineering problems.
(ii) Problem Analysis: An ability to identify, formulate, research literature, and analyze complex
engineering problems reaching substantiated conclusions using first principles of
mathematics, natural sciences and engineering sciences.
(iii) Design / Development of Solutions: An ability to design solutions for complex engineering
problems and design systems, components, or processes that meet specified needs with
appropriate consideration for public health and safety, cultural, societal, and environmental
considerations.
(iv) Investigation: An ability to investigate complex engineering problems in a methodical way

including literature survey, design and conduct of experiments, analysis and interpretation of
experimental data, and synthesis of information to derive valid conclusions.
(v) Modern Tool Usage: An ability to create, select and apply appropriate techniques, resources,
and modern engineering and IT tools, including prediction and modeling, to complex
engineering activities, with an understanding of the limitations.
(vi) The Engineer and Society: An ability to apply reasoning informed by contextual knowledge
to assess societal, health, safety, legal and cultural issues and the consequent responsibilities
relevant to professional engineering practice and solution to complex engineering problems.
(vii) Environment and Sustainability: An ability to understand the impact of professional

engineering solutions in societal and environmental contexts and demonstrate knowledge of
and need for sustainable development.
(viii) Ethics: Apply ethical principles and commit to professional ethics and responsibilities and
norms of engineering practice.
105
(ix) Individual and Team Work: An ability to work effectively, as an individual or in a team, on
multifaceted and/or multidisciplinary settings.
(x) Communication: An ability to communicate effectively, orally as well as in writing on

complex engineering activities with the engineering community and with society at large, such
as being able to comprehend and write effective reports and design documentations, make
effective presentations, and give and receive clear instructions.
(xi) Project Management: An ability to demonstrate management skills and apply engineering
principles to one’s own work, as a member and/or leader in a team to manage projects in a
multidisciplinary environment.
(xii) Lifelong Learning: An ability to recognize importance of, and pursue lifelong learning in the
broader context of innovation and technological developments.
106
Appendix B
Details of Domains
107
Appendix C
Lab Rubrics for ME-301L Fluid Mechanics Lab
CLOs Criteria Unsatisfactory (0) Weak (1) Moderate (2) Good (3) Excellent (4)
Task Completion Absented/not Delayed joining Partial Task Nearly completed

CLO- 2 Fully completed task
Marks: 24 completed at all experiment Completion task
Work in
Teamwork No involvement in
Lab CLO- 5 Little coordination Some Coordination Good coordination Full coordination
Marks: 4 Teamwork
Total
Marks=32 Safety
Requires constant Requires some Requires minimal Routinely follows
CLO- 4 consciousness Doesn’t follow
reminders reminders reminders safety.
Marks: 4
Abstract Loosely conforms with Involves some major
Missing Minor mistakes only Well composed
Marks: 4 the requirement mistakes
Results
Loosely conforms with Involves some major
Etc. Missing Minor mistakes only Well composed
Lab Report the requirement mistakes
CLO- 3 Marks: 12
Marks=28
Discussion Loosely conforms with Involves some major
Format Loosely conforms with Involves some major
Correct Answers Answer with minor Perfectly correct

No Answers Answers with hints Partially true Answers
Lab Viva CLO- 1 Marks: 24 omission answers
Marks=40
Confident Answers Answers with Answers but
No Answers Answers with pauses Fully confident
Marks: 16 Nervousness somewhat doubtful
1
Lab Rubrics for ME-301L Fluid Mechanics Lab (Open Ended Lab/Open Ended Experiment)
CLOs Criteria Unsatisfactory (0) Weak (1) Moderate (2) Good (3) Excellent (4)
Task Completion Absented/not completed
CLO- 2 Delayed joining experiment Partial Task Completion Nearly completed task Fully completed task
Marks:12 at all
Work in Lab
Teamwork No involvement in
Total CLO- 6 Little coordination Some Coordination Good coordination Full coordination
Marks: 4 Teamwork
Marks=20
Safety consciousness Requires minimal
CLO- 5 Doesn’t follow Requires constant reminders Requires some reminders Routinely follows safety.
Marks: 4 reminders
Abstract Loosely conforms with the Involves some major
Marks: 4 requirement mistakes
Results etc. Loosely conforms with the Involves some major

Lab Report Marks: 8 requirement mistakes
CLO- 4
Marks=20 Discussion Loosely conforms with the Involves some major
Format Loosely conforms with the Involves some major
Correct Answers Answer with minor
No Answers Answers with hints Partially true Answers Perfectly correct answers
Lab Viva CLO- 1 Marks: 24 omission
Marks=40 Confident Answers Answers but somewhat
No Answers Answers with Nervousness Answers with pauses Fully confident
Marks: 16 doubtful
Plan Experiment based Planned most portions of
No Planning of A little planning of some parts Well planned experiment Perfect execution of a
Work in Lab on the given problem experiments but didn’t
experiment of experiment with slight deviation well-planned experiment
Total Marks: 8 follow it
Marks=20 CLO-3 Setting up the Equipment Set the equipment in a wrong Set some portion of Nearly set the equipment Perfect setting of
No equipment set
(Only for Marks: 4 way equipment in right way right with slight errors equipment
OEL/OEE Calculations Some calculations are Slight error in
No calculations Wrong Calculations Correct calculations
Marks:8 correct calculations

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ME-301L Fluid Mechanics Lab

No table of figures entries found.

0.1 Course Learning Outcomes (CLOs)

6. Perform the experiment as an individual or in a team or group. Affective 2 9

PLO # PLO Statement CLO1 CLO2 CLO3 CLO4 CLO5 CLO6

PLO-1 Engineering Knowledge ✓

PLO-2 Problem Analysis

PLO-3 Design/Development of Solution

PLO-5 Modern Tool Usage

PLO-7 Environment and Stability

PLO-9 Individual and Team Work ✓

PLO-11 Project Management

PLO-12 Life Long Learning

0.2 Guidelines for Lab Report

0.2.1.1 Cover Page

0.2.1.6 Observations & calculations

0.3 General Guidelines in a Lab for safety

1.1 Learning Objectives

1.2 List of Equipment

1.3 Theoretical Background

1.3.1 Bernoulli’s Theorem

1.3.2 Venturi Tube

Applying Bernoulli’s equation at point of section-1 and Section-2,

1.4 Description of Equipment

1.4.1 Pitot tube

2𝑔ℎ𝑃𝑤 2 × 9.81 × 0.06 × 1000

Figure 2.3-1: Lift & Drag Force

2.3.1 Wind Tunnel

2.3.2 Smoke Generator

Figure 2.3-3: Installation of flow visualizing components

2.3.3.1 Airfoil Terminology

2.3.7 Working of airfoils

2.3.8 Aerodynamic Center

2.3.9 Lift & Drag Forces:

Figure 2.3-5: Pitching angle

2.3.10 Lift at an airfoil surface

2.3.11 Drag at an airfoil surface

Figure 2.3-6: Lift & Drag in airfoil

2.3.12 Types of Drag

Following are the types of the Drag:

2.3.12.1 Form Drag

2.3.12.2 Lift Induced Drag

2.3.12.3 Interference Drag

2.3.12.4 Skin Friction Drag

2.3.14 Moment Correction

2.3.15 Boundary Layer

2.3.16 Wake region

Figure 2.3-7: Boundary layer characteristic

2.3.18 Stall condition

2.4 Procedure for measurement of coefficients

2.5 Observation and calculation

Angle Actual Force Pitching Coefficients

of Attack Lift Drag CM CL

(Degree) (N) (N) Nm

2.6 Procedure for boundary layer Estimation

2.7 Observation and calculation

2.8 Procedure for observing boundary layer

Figure 2.8-1: Streamlines for low attack angle

Figure 2.8-2: Streamlines for high attack angle

Figure 2.8-4: Flat plate at 0 degree of attack angle

Figure 2.8-5: Flat plate at 30 degree attack angle

Figure 2.8-7 Flat plate at 90 degree attack angle

Figure 2.8-8: Streamlines around the car model

2.10 Results & Discussions