HMT, 1-5 Farhan Ansar

Lab Reports
Heat and Mass Transfer

Mr. Syed Saqib
Farhan Ansar
2021-ME-19
Ahmad Masood Faizani HMT-LAB 2021-ME-111
Table of Contents
1 INVESTIGATION OF FOURIER’S LAW & CONDUCTION ALONG SIMPLE BAR..............3
1.1 OBJECTIVE............................................................................................................................3
1.2 INTRODUCTION...................................................................................................................3
1.3 LITERATURE REVIEW........................................................................................................3
1.3.1 Steady-State Method........................................................................................................3
1.3.2 Transient Method.............................................................................................................3
1.4 THEORY.................................................................................................................................4
1.4.1 Modes of Heat Transfer...................................................................................................4
1.4.2 Experimental Setup..........................................................................................................5
1.5 METHODOLOGY..................................................................................................................6
1.5.1 Apparatus.........................................................................................................................6
1.5.2 Procedure.........................................................................................................................7
1.6 Observations and Calculations.................................................................................................7
1.7 Results and Discussion............................................................................................................8
1.8 Conclusion...............................................................................................................................9
1.9 Safety Precautions....................................................................................................................9
1.10 References................................................................................................................................9
2 INVESTIGATION OF HEAT CONDUCTION ALONG COMPOSITE BAR..............................9
2.1 OBJECTIVE............................................................................................................................9
2.2 INTRODUCTION...................................................................................................................9
2.3 LITERATURE REVIEW......................................................................................................10
2.3.1 Method of Dimensional Analysis..................................................................................10
2.3.2 Analytical Evaluation of ‘h’–Assumptions for Laminar...............................................12
2.4 THEORY...............................................................................................................................12
2.5 METHODOLOGY................................................................................................................14
2.5.1 Apparatus.......................................................................................................................14
2.5.2 Procedure.......................................................................................................................15
2.6 Observations and Calculations...............................................................................................16
2.7 Results and Discussion..........................................................................................................17
2.8 Conclusion.............................................................................................................................17
2.9 Safety Precautions..................................................................................................................17
2.10 References..............................................................................................................................18
3 Investigation of the effect of change in cross-sectional area on the temperature profile..............18
1
3.1 Objective:...............................................................................................................................18
3.2 Theory....................................................................................................................................18
3.3 Literature review....................................................................................................................20
3.4 Methodology..........................................................................................................................21
3.4.1 Apparatus.......................................................................................................................21
3.4.2 Procedure.......................................................................................................................22
3.5 Calculations and Observations:.............................................................................................22
3.6 Results and Discussion..........................................................................................................23
3.7 Conclusion.............................................................................................................................23
3.8 References..............................................................................................................................24
4 Determination of the Temperature Profile and Heat Transfer Rate...............................................24
4.1 Objective:...............................................................................................................................24
4.2 Theory....................................................................................................................................24
4.3 Literature Review:.................................................................................................................26
4.4 Methodology..........................................................................................................................27
4.4.1 Apparatus.......................................................................................................................27
4.4.2 Procedure.......................................................................................................................28
4.5 Calculations and Observations:.............................................................................................28
4.6 Results and Discussions:........................................................................................................30
4.7 Conclusion.............................................................................................................................31
4.8 References..............................................................................................................................31
5 To determine the relation between power input and surface temperature in free convection.......31
5.1 Objective................................................................................................................................31
5.2 Apparatus...............................................................................................................................31
5.3 Introduction............................................................................................................................32
5.4 Theory....................................................................................................................................32
5.4.1 Convection.....................................................................................................................32
5.4.2 Classification of convection...........................................................................................33
5.4.3 Free Convection.............................................................................................................33
5.4.4 Fins.................................................................................................................................34
5.5 Procedure...............................................................................................................................34
5.6 Observation and Calculations................................................................................................34
5.7 Graph.....................................................................................................................................35
5.8 Discussion..............................................................................................................................35
5.9 References..............................................................................................................................35
2
1 INVESTIGATION OF FOURIER’S LAW & CONDUCTION

ALONG SIMPLE BAR
1.1 OBJECTIVE
To investigate and verify Fourier’s Law for linear heat conduction along a simple bar.
1.2 INTRODUCTION
Conduction is defined as the transfer of energy from more energetic particles to adjacent less
energetic particles as a result of interactions between the particles. In solids, conduction is the
combined result of molecular vibrations and free electron mobility. Metals typically have high free
electron mobility, which explains why they are good heat conductors.
Conduction can be easily understood if we imagine two blocks, one very hot and the other cold. If we
put these blocks in contact with one another but insulate them from the surroundings, thermal energy
will be transferred from the hot to the cold block, as evidenced by the increase in temperature of the
cold block. This mode of heat transfer between the two solid blocks is termed ‘conduction’.
1.3 LITERATURE REVIEW
There are a number of methods to measure thermal conductivity. In general, there are two basic
techniques for measuring thermal conductivity: steady ‐state methods and transient or non ‐steady ‐state
methods [1, 3]. Each of these methods is suitable for a limited range of materials, and they are based
on the fundamental laws of heat conduction and electrical analogy. Steady ‐state methods have been
traditionally used since they are mathematically simpler. There is an important distinction between
steady‐state and transient techniques [4, 5]. Transient heat transfer methods are capable of directly
determining thermal diffusivity, whereas steady ‐state methods are considered to be more accurate
than transient methods for testing dry materials [6].
1.3.1 Steady-State Method
The steady‐state technique records a measurement when a tested material's thermal state reaches
complete equilibrium [3]. A steady‐state condition is attained when the temperature at each point of
the specimen is constant and the temperature does not change with time. A disadvantage, however, is
that it generally takes a long time to reach the required equilibrium [2, 3]. The method involves
expensive method apparatus since a well‐designed experimental installation system is usually needed.
Nevertheless, it is the primary and most accurate measurement method.
1.3.2 Transient Method
The non‐steady‐state or transient technique records a measurement during the heating process. The
method determines thermal conductivity properties by means of transient sensors. These
measurements can be made relatively quickly, which garners an advantage over steady‐state
techniques [1,2]. For this reason, numerous solutions have been derived for the transient heat
conduction equation by using one‐
, two‐, three‐dimensional geometries [2]. Transient methods generally employ needle probes or wires
[3].
3
1.4 THEORY
In this experiment we will investigate conduction in an insulated long slender brass bar like the one in
Figure 1.
Figure 1: Schematic of a Long Cylindrical Insulated Bar
We will assume that the bar is of length L, a uniform hot temperature Th is imposed on one end, and a
cold temperature Tc is imposed on the other. We will also assume, because the bar is insulated in the
peripheral direction, that all the heat flows in the axial direction due to an imposed temperature
differential along the bar.
The equation that governs the heat flow is known as Fourier's Law, and in the axial direction it is
written as
(1)
where qx is the rate of heat conduction in the x-direction, k is the thermal conductivity of the material,
Ax is the cross-sectional area normal to the x-direction, and dT/dx is the temperature gradient in the x-
direction. The negative sign indicates that heat is transferred in the direction of decreasing
temperature. More generally, Fourier's Law is a vector relationship which includes all directions of
heat transfer:
(2)
The thermal conductivity k varies between different materials and can be a function of temperature,
but it can be treated as a constant over small temperature ranges. Because of the enhancement of heat
transfer by free electrons, thermal conductivity is analogous to electrical conductivity and as a result,
metals that are good conductors of electricity are also good conductors of heat.
In this experiment we will investigate Fourier's Law by finding the thermal conductivity k for brass
and comparing this value to the actual value from one or more references. To do so we will calculate
the cross-sectional area Ax of the bar and the slope dT/dx from a plot of measured temperatures vs.
length. We can then use these values in a rearranged version of Fourier's Law to find the thermal
conductivity, k:
(3)
1.4.1 Modes of Heat Transfer
There are three modes of heat transfer, detail of each as follows;
a. Conduction: In conduction heat is transferred due to vibration of molecules. For
example, in solids, metals heat is transferred as a result of conduction.
b. Convection: In convection heat is transferred due to movement of molecules. For
4
example, in liquids, gases heat is transferred as a result of convection.
5
c. Radiation: It takes place due to change of energy state of electron.

1.4.2 Experimental Setup
The apparatus we will be using in this experiment is the P.A. Hilton H940 Heat Conduction Unit,
which consists of three items. The first item is a transformer equipped with a circuit breaker. The
transformer has two cords which connect it to an AC outlet and to the second item, the calibration unit
(Figure 2).
Figure 2: Front view of Calibration unit and Transformer
The calibration unit has two basic functions. It delivers power to the heater element within the test
unit and it calibrates and displays the temperatures at nine locations along the test unit. The amount of
power delivered to the test unit is controlled by the power control knob on the right side of the
calibration unit; to its left is the temperature selector knob which is used to select one of the nine
thermocouple temperatures for display on the digital readout, as shown in Figures 3 and 4.
Figure 3: Rear view of Calibration unit
6
Figure 4: Front view of Test unit
The third item is the test unit, which consists of two test geometries: an insulated brass bar which
allows a sample to be placed between the two ends, and an insulated disk. Both geometries are
equipped with a power supply, but we will only use the insulated bar for this experiment. The test unit
is also equipped with a cooling water hose. The purpose of the cooling water running through the unit
at the cold end of the bar is to remove heat that is produced at the hot end and transferred by
conduction to the cold end, keeping the cold end at a constant temperature. Once the rate at which
heat is generated is equal to the rate at which heat is removed, steady state conditions (temperatures
will be fairly constant and readings can be taken) will exist. The test unit has two heater cords: one
from the test bar and the other from the test disk. Be sure to use only the heater cord for the bar, which
connects to the heater plug located in the lower right-hand corner of the calibration unit.
1.5 METHODOLOGY
1.5.1 Apparatus
For the conduction experiments, we were using the ‘’P.A. Hilton’’ Heat Conduction Study Bench
(Model: HE940)
7
1
2
3 7
4 8
5 9
6
Figure 5: Unit Assembly for Heat Conduction Study Bunch (Model; HE940)
1. Control Panel 6. Thermocouple connectors

2. Heater Power Indicator 7. Thermocouples
3. Heater Power Regulator 8. Radial Module
4. Temperature Indicator 9. Linear Module
5. Temperature Selector
1.5.2 Procedure
i. Connect the equipment as shown in Figures 3 and 4, making sure that the
calibration unit is switched off before connecting the transformer to the AC outlet.
ii. Apply a very small amount (a drop) of thermal conducting paste to make a thin
layer on each side of the test unit surface and spread it uniformly.
iii. Insert the brass sample (30 mm length and 25 mm diameter) into the unit and allow
cooling water to flow through the test unit.
iv. Connect all thermocouples in the appropriate order.

v. Switch the calibration unit on and adjust the power control knob to deliver 10 W of
power to the test unit; allow the system to reach steady state (approximately 20
minutes).
vi. Record the temperatures at each thermocouple and the power input.
1.6 Observations and Calculations
Specimen’s Material = Brass
Specimen’s Diameter = 25mm
Cross Sectional Area = 4.91*10-4 m2
Length = 0.09 m
8
Table 1: Calculations for thermal conductivity of Brass
Q Error
Sr.no T1 (C) T2 T3 T7 T8 T9 Kexp Kbrass
(W) (%)
1 5 40 40 39 33 33 33 130 150 13.3
2 10 52 51 50 34 34 34 108.43 150 27.7
3 15 60 58 54 35 34 34 105 150 30
4 20 76 72 66 35 35 34 85.71 150 42.8
X (m) 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.07 0.08 0.09
1.7 Results and Discussion
80
70 (Group1) (Group 2)
(Group 3)
(Group 4)
60
T(
50
40
30
0.00 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.10
X(mm)
Figure 6: Graph between Temperature and Distance from heater end

The data displayed on the pages above show the linear temperature distribution along the cylindrical
insulated bar. We can see from all graph of different heater power that are the temperature will
decrease when the distance from heater end is increase. This shown that the result is following the
theoretical and the Fourier’s Law is satisfied. We assumed that the bar length L, a uniform hot
9
temperature Th is
10
imposed on one end, and a cold temperature Tc is imposed on the other. We also assumed, because the
bar is insulated in the peripheral direction that all the heat flows in the axial direction due to an
imposed temperature differential along the bar. We have faced some error which sources of error
within the equipment failure that are heater power supply was not steady to the setup power and the
thermocouple were not place accurately.
1.8 Conclusion
As the conclusion that is taken from our result and analysis, we can say that the linear conduction of
heat along a homogeneous bar can be investigated by Fourier’s law. From that result also we can
identify the slope (dT/dx) of the graph of temperature profile along the entire length of the bar, the
thermal conductivity and the heat transfer coefficient of the brass.
1.9 Safety Precautions
 To avoid burns, do not touch any metal or plastic surfaces on the hot end of the
 sample or test unit.
 Avoid using a high cooling water flow to prevent disconnection of the hose from
the test unit.
 Do not exceed 20 W power delivery under any circumstances, and do not allow
the temperature to go above 100 °C at any of the thermocouple locations.
 Avoid using too much conducting paste as this may ‘fry’ the unit.
1.10 References
[1] D. Lampard and N.Hay: "The Use of a Mass Transfer Technique to Infer Heat Transfer
Coefficients on Film Cooled Turbine Components" Measurement Science and Technology 11 pp.933-
941, 2000
[2] Fundamentals of Heat and Mass Transfer by Theodore L. Bergman, Adrienne S. Lavine, Frank
P. Incropera, and David P. DeWitt
[3] Experimental Heat Transfer, Fluid Mechanics, and Thermodynamics by Jacques P. H. Rivière
and Robert P. Taylor
[4] ASTM E1952-17: Standard Test Method for Thermal Conductivity and Thermal Diffusivity by
Modulated Temperature Differential Scanning Calorimetry
2 INVESTIGATION OF HEAT CONDUCTION ALONG

COMPOSITE BAR
2.1 OBJECTIVE
To study the heat conduction along a composite bar and determine the overall heat transfer coefficient.
2.2 INTRODUCTION
In this experiment, linear conduction heat transfer method is studied for a stainless-steel bar in
between the brass at source and sink. The entire system (insulated heater, specimen air and laboratory
enclosure) is at room temperature initially. The heater generates uniform heat flow as switched on.
This experiment deals with the systematic way to find the thermal conductivity of the stainless- steel
specimen.
For conduction, an electrical heating element, which comprises of a heat input section fabricated from
brass fitted with an electrical heater (heat source), is bonded to one end of a stainless-steel rod. Other
11
end of the rod, which is made of satin less steel, is exposed to heat discharge (heat sink). For practical
situation, heat conduction occurs in three dimensions, a complexity which often requires extensive
computation to analyse. For experiment, a single dimensional approach is required to demonstrate the
basic law that relates rate of heat flow to temperature gradient and area. For this purpose, the outer
surface of the cylindrical rod is well insulated; thus, yielding one-dimensional linear heat conduction
in the rod once the heating element is switched on. We will use heat sensor values of temperature at
different point of the apparatus to find out conductivity (k).
2.3 LITERATURE REVIEW
The convective heat transfer coefficient in forced flow can be evaluated by:
(a) Dimensional Analysis combined with experiments;

(b) Reynolds Analogy –an analogy between heat and momentum transfer.
(c) Analytical Methods –exact and approximate analyses of boundary layer equations.
2.3.1 Method of Dimensional Analysis
Dimensional analysis does not yield equations which can be solved. It simply combines the pertinent
variables into non-dimensional numbers which facilitate the interpretation and extend the range of
application of experimental data. The relevant variables for forced convection heat transfer
phenomenon whether laminar or turbulent, are
i. the properties of the fluid –density p, specific heat capacity Cp, dynamic or absolute
viscosity, thermal conductivity k.
ii. the properties of flow –flow velocity Y, and the characteristic dimension of the system
L. As such, the convective heat transfer coefficient, h, is written as
h=f (V, L, Cp,k) = 0
Since there are seven variables and four primary dimensions, we would expect three dimensionless
numbers. As before, we choose four independent or core variables as V, L, k, and calculate the
dimensionless numbers by applying Buckingham ’s method:
12
Equating the powers of M, L, T and on both sides, we get

M: a + d +1 = 0
L: - 3a + b + c + d = 1 = 0
T: - b –3d –1 = 0
: - d = 0.
By solving them, d = 0, b = - 1, a = - 1, c = - 1
(Reynolds number is a flow parameter of greatest significance. It is the ratio of inertia forces to
viscous forces and is of prime importance to ascertain the conditions under which a flow is laminar or
turbulent. It also compares one flow with another provided the corresponding length and velocities are
comparable in two flows. There would be a similarity in flow between two flows when the Reynolds
numbers are equal and the geometrical similarities are taken into consideration.)
13
Therefore, the functional relationship is expressed as:

Nu = f (Re, Pr); or Nu = C Rem Prn
where the values of c, m and n are determined experimentally.

2.3.2 Analytical Evaluation of ‘h’–Assumptions for Laminar
As pointed out earlier, when the motion of the fluid is caused by the imposition of external forces,
such as pressure differences, and the fluid flows over a solid surface, at a temperature different from
the temperature of the fluid, the mechanism of heat transfer is called ‘forced convection’. Therefore,
any analytical coefficient would require the temperature distribution in the flow field surrounding the
body.
That is, the theoretical analysis would require the use of the equation of motion of the viscous fluid
flowing over the body along with the application of the principles of conservation of mass and energy
in order to relate the heat energy that is convicted away by the fluid from the solid surface.
For the sake of simplicity, we will consider the motion of the fluid in 2 space dimension, and a steady
flow. Further, the fluid properties like viscosity, density, specific heat, etc. are constant in the flow
field, the viscous shear forces m the Y –direction is negligible and there are no variations in pressure
also in the Y –direction.
2.4 THEORY
Conduction is defined as the transfer of energy from more energetic particles to adjacent less
energetic particles as a result of interactions between the particles. In solids, conduction is the
combined result of molecular vibrations and free electron mobility. Metals typically have high free
electron mobility, which explains why they are good conductors. Conduction can be easily understood
if we imagine two blocks, one hot and the other cold. If we put these blocks in contact with one
another but insulate them from the surroundings, thermal energy will be transferred from the hot
14
block to the cold block.
15
The rate of heat conduction through a medium generally depends upon the geometry of the medium,
its thickness and the material of the medium, as well as the temperature difference across the medium.
The rate of heat conduction through a plane layer is directly proportional to the temperature difference
across the layer and the heat transfer area but is inversely proportional to the thickness of the layer.
Rate of heat conduction 𝖺(𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎) (𝑇𝑒𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒)/ 𝑇ℎ𝑖𝑐𝑘𝑛𝑒𝑠𝑠
In the experiment performed, the assuming the length of the bar to be L, a uniform hot temperature
This imposed on one end, and on the other end, Tc is the temperature caused by the cooling water. We
have:
Figure 7: Schematic of long cylindrical insulated bar

Let's assume that we have a combination of different materials put together to form a composite
structure like the composite wall in Figure 1. Let's also assume that the cross-sectional area normal to
the flow of heat transfer is constant and that heat flows in a one-dimensional direction. Taking only
one of the, slabs for now, we learned from Experiment 1 that the heat transfer is governed by Fourier's
Law, given by
𝑑𝑇 𝑘𝐴
𝑞 = −𝑘𝐴 = (𝑇
−𝑇 ) (1)
𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑠,1 𝑠.2
𝐿
We already have an idea of the concept of thermal resistance for conduction. Resistance in general is
defined as the ratio of driving potential over the transfer rate. As transfer rate goes to zero, the
resistance becomes infinite and, similarly, as the driving potential goes to zero, resistance fails to
exist. By using Fourier's Law and the definition of resistance, we can derive the thermal resistance for
all the modes of heat transfer:
𝑇𝑠,1−𝑇𝑠.2 𝐿
𝑅 = = (2)
𝑡,𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑 𝑞𝑥 𝑘𝐴
𝑇𝑠−𝑇𝑓𝑙𝑑 1
𝑅 = = (3)
𝑡,𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑣 𝑞 ℎ𝐴
𝑇𝑠−𝑇𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑟 1
𝑅 = = (4)
𝑟𝑎𝑑 𝑞𝑟𝑎𝑑 ℎ 𝑟𝐴
where R is the resistance for each mode. Symbols Ts, Tfld, and Tsur are the temperatures for the
surface, fluid, and surroundings respectively. The symbols hr and h are the heat transfer coefficients
for radiation and convection respectively. Now what happens if we combine all the slabs? If we sum
up all the individual heat transfers, the intermediate temperatures cancel and we get
𝑇𝑠,1−𝑇𝑠,𝑛 𝑇𝑠,1−𝑇𝑠,2
𝑞𝑥 = = 𝐿1 𝐿 𝐿𝑛
(5)
∑ 𝑅𝑡 ( )+( 2 )+( )
𝑘1𝐴 𝑘2𝐴 𝑘𝑛𝐴
16
To simplify Equation 5, let’s combine everything that does not change across the composite, like the
initial and final temperature and the area A, and call the rest that does change from material to
material the overall heat transfer coefficient U. Now we have
𝑞𝑥 = 𝑈𝐴∆𝑇 (6)
and the overall heat transfer coefficient is:
1
𝑈=
𝑅𝑡𝑜𝑡 𝐴 (7)
𝐿1 𝐿1 𝐿𝑛
=( )+( 2)+( )
𝑘1 𝑘2 𝑘𝑛
We have two ways to find the overall heat transfer coefficient by finding k tot. The first way is by
summing up all the individual k's by methods from Experiment 1 and using these values in Equation
7. The second way is to evaluate ktot by the overall slope of the plot from the extreme temperatures.
Figure 8: Composite Wall (Heat Transfer)
2.5 METHODOLOGY
2.5.1 Apparatus
For the conduction experiments, we were using the ‘’P.A. Hilton’’ Heat Conduction Study
Bench (Model: HE940)
17
1
2
3 7
4 8
5 9
6
Figure 9: Unit Assembly for Heat Conduction Study Bunch (Model; HE940)
6. Control Panel 6. Thermocouple connectors

7. Heater Power Indicator 7. Thermocouples
8. Heater Power Regulator 8. Radial Module
9. Temperature Indicator 9. Linear Module
10. Temperature Selector
2.5.2 Procedure
 We ensured that the main switch was in the off position (the digital displays should not be
illuminated). Then we ensured that the residual current circuit breaker on the rear panel
was in the ON position.
 We turned the voltage controller anti-clockwise to set the AC voltage to minimum. So,
we ensured the Linear Heat Transfer Unit H112A had been connected to the Heat
Transfer Service Unit H112.Then the cold-water supply and electrical supply was turned
on at the source. We opened the water tap until the flow through the drain hose was
approximately
1.5 litres/minute. The actual flow could be checked using a measuring vessel and
stopwatch if required but this was not a critical parameter. The flow had to dissipate up to
65W only.
 We then released the toggle clamp tensioning screw and clamps. We ensured that the
faces of the exposed ends of the heated and cooled sections are clean. Similarly, we
checked the faces of the intermediate specimen to be placed between the faces of the
heated and cooled sections.
 We ensured the intermittent section, a 25 mm diameter and 30 mm long brass cylinder, to
be used is in the correct orientation then clamped the assembly together using the toggle
clamps and tensioning screw.
 We turned on the main switch and the digital display was illuminated. We set the
temperature selector switch to T1 to indicate the temperature of the heated end of the bar.
Then we rotated the voltage controller to increase the voltage to achieve a power of 5W.
 We observed the temperature T1 which began to increase.
 We allowed the system to reach stability and took readings and made adjustments as
instructed in the individual procedures for each experiment.
18
 When the experimental procedure was completed, it was good practice to turn off the
power to the heater by reducing the voltage to zero and allow the system a short time to
cool before turning off the cooling water supply.
 This process was repeated using 10W and 15W power supply.
 The readings of the power input and the temperature were tabulated.
2.6 Observations and Calculations
Specimen’s Materials = Brass, Stainless Steel
Distance between consecutive sensors = 10mm
Diameter of Specimen = 25mm
Length = 30mm
Table 2: Calculations for Overall Heat Transfer Coefficient
Q T1 T2 T3 T4 T5 T6 T7 K1 K2 K3 Ueq Rth Uexp Error
W 0 W/mk W/m2k Ω W/m2k %

C
5 39 38 38 36 35 35 33 204.08 102.04 102.04 1700 1.5 1360.53 19.9
10 47 46 43 40 36 35 33 102.04 81.63 204.08 1457.7 1.65 1236.83 15.1
15 62 60 57 46 40 38 34 122.48 76.53 153.06 1133.7 1.69 1200.56 -5.8
20 76 72 66 57 54 49 35 81.63 102.04 58.3 995.5 2.3 850.27 14.5
X 0.01 .02 .03 .04 .05 .06 .07
19
2.7 Results and Discussion
(Group1) (Group 2)
80 (Group 3)
(Group 4)
70
60
T(
50
40
30
0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05 0.06 0.07
X(mm)
From the graphs, we can see that varying th input power will affect the heat transfer coefficient. When
the input power, Q (watt) increases, the overall heat transfer coefficient, K (W/mC) will decrease.
There will be difference between U calculated from the experiment and U calculated theoretically
because of the difference in variables (input power, area, temperature, distance and thermal
conductivity) used.
2.8 Conclusion
This experiment shows that the thermal conductivity of stainless steel is less than the thermal
conductivity of brass as there is a steep gradient from T3 to T6 in the graph which shows the poor
thermal conduction of stainless steel than brass.
2.9 Safety Precautions
 To avoid burns, do not touch any metal or plastic surfaces on the hot end of the
 sample or test unit.
 Avoid using a high cooling water flow to prevent disconnection of the hose from
the test unit.
 Do not exceed 20 W power delivery under any circumstances, and do not allow
the temperature to go above 100 °C at any of the thermocouple locations.
 Avoid using too much conducting paste as this may ‘fry’ the unit.
20
2.10 References
[1] “Heat Transfer”. Wikipedia. Retrieved on 31 May 2011.
<http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heat_transfer#Conduction >
[2] Yunus A. Cengel. “Heat Transfer a Practical Approach”, WBC McGraw-Hill (1998)
[3] “Linear Heat Conduction”. Retrieved on 31 May 2011
<http://me.yeditepe.edu.tr/courses/me401/me401_linear_conduction.pdf >
3 Investigation of the effect of change in cross-sectional area on

the temperature profile
3.1 Objective:
To investigate the effect of a change in the cross-sectional area on the temperature profile along a
thermal conductor."
3.2 Theory:
Heat transfer is a fundamental concept in thermodynamics and physics that describes the movement
of thermal energy between systems. There are three primary modes of heat transfer: conduction,
convection, and radiation.
Conduction: Conduction is the transfer of heat through a substance without any apparent movement
of the substance itself. In conductive heat transfer, energy is transmitted through collisions between
adjacent molecules. This is more prominent in solids where particles are closely packed. When one
end of a metal rod is heated, the energy is conducted through the material, making the other end
warmer. Similarly, when you touch a metal spoon in hot soup, you feel the heat due to conduction.
Convection: Convection is the transfer of heat by the movement of fluids (liquids or gases) due to
temperature differences within the fluid. In convective heat transfer, warmer and less dense regions of
a fluid rise, while cooler and denser regions sink, creating a circulating flow. This is commonly
observed in liquids and gases. Boiling water is a classic example of convection. The heat from the
stove causes the water at the bottom to heat up, rise, and then cool as it moves away from the heat
source, creating a cycle.
Radiation: Radiation is the transfer of heat through electromagnetic waves, such as infrared radiation,
without the need for a medium. Unlike conduction and convection, radiation can occur in a vacuum. It
involves the emission, absorption, and transmission of electromagnetic waves. The Sun emits heat
through radiation. When you feel the warmth of the Sun on your skin, you're experiencing radiant
heat. Similarly, a glowing hot object emits heat in the form of infrared radiation.
The three modes of heat transfer; conduction, convection, and radiation, find diverse applications
across various fields.
 The efficient transfer of heat through conduction is crucial in cookware. Metal pans and pots
conduct heat well, allowing for even cooking.
 Conduction is also considered in the design of thermal insulation materials. For example,
materials with low thermal conductivity are used to reduce heat transfer in buildings, keeping
interiors warm in cold weather and cool in hot weather.
 Heat sinks in electronic devices, such as computers, use conduction to dissipate heat
generated by electronic components.
 Conduction is crucial in designing materials for efficient heat transfer in electronic devices.
 Heating, ventilation, and air conditioning (HVAC) systems rely on convection to distribute
warm or cool air throughout a building. Warm air rises, creating natural convection currents.
21
 Convection currents play a role in ocean circulation. Warm water near the equator rises, flows
toward the poles, and then sinks as it cools, creating a global circulation pattern.
 In boiling water or in baking, convection currents within the fluid or air contribute to the
cooking process.
 Convection is essential in designing HVAC systems for buildings.
 Convection currents in the atmosphere influence weather patterns.
 Solar panels convert sunlight, which is a form of electromagnetic radiation, into electricity.
This is a direct application of harnessing radiant heat from the Sun.
 Radiant heating systems, such as infrared heaters, emit infrared radiation to heat objects and
surfaces directly, providing warmth in spaces.
 Infrared radiation is used in medical imaging techniques like infrared thermography to detect
temperature variations in the human body.
 In space, where there is no medium for conduction or convection, spacecraft rely on radiation
for heat exchange. Radiators on spacecraft emit thermal radiation to dissipate excess heat.
 Radiation plays a role in designing solar panels and in the cooling of certain industrial
processes.
 Radiation from the Earth's surface and the Sun determines the overall climate.
 In building construction, understanding these modes helps in designing effective insulation to
maintain comfortable indoor temperatures.
In many real-world scenarios, heat transfer involves a combination of these modes. For instance, the
heating of a room involves conduction through the walls, convection in the air, and possibly radiation
from heating sources. Understanding and controlling these modes of heat transfer are essential for
optimizing the performance of various systems, improving energy efficiency, and designing
technologies for specific applications. Many practical engineering and scientific advancements are
based on the thoughtful application of these heat transfer principles. Overall, a comprehensive
understanding of these modes is essential for addressing challenges related to energy efficiency,
climate, and technological advancements.
Fourier's Law of Heat Conduction describes the rate at which heat is conducted through a material.
It is named after the French mathematician and physicist Jean-Baptiste Joseph Fourier. The law is
fundamental in understanding how heat flows through solids and plays a crucial role in the design of
various engineering applications. Mathematically, Fourier's Law is expressed as:
Q = -kA{dT/dx}
Where:
Q is the rate of heat transfer (in watts),

k is the thermal conductivity of the material (in watts per meter-kelvin, W/(m·K)),
A is the cross-sectional area through which heat is conducted (in square meters, m²),
dT/dx is the temperature gradient along the direction of heat transfer (in kelvins per meter,
K/m).
The negative sign in the equation indicates that heat flows from regions of higher temperature
to regions of lower temperature.
The overall heat transfer coefficient, or U-value, refers to how well heat is conducted through over a
series of resistant mediums. The heat transfer coefficient is the heat transferred per unit area per
kelvin. The overall heat transfer coefficient, or U-value, refers to how well heat is conducted through
over a series of resistant mediums. Its units are the W/(m2°C) [Btu/(hr-ft2°F)]. The overall heat
transfer coefficient is influenced by the thickness and thermal conductivity of the mediums through
which heat is transferred. The larger the coefficient, the easier heat is transferred from its source to
22
the product
23
being heated. In a heat exchanger, the relationship between the overall heat transfer coefficient (U) and
the heat transfer rate (Q) can be demonstrated by the following equation:
Q = UA∆T
Where;
Q = heat transfer rate, W=J/s [btu/hr]

A = heat transfer surface area, m2 [ft2]
U = overall heat transfer coefficient, W/(m2°C) [Btu/(hr-ft2°F)]
ΔTLM = logarithmic mean temperature difference, °C [°F]
From this equation it can be seen that the U value is directly proportional to Q, the heat transfer rate.
Assuming the heat transfer surface and temperature difference remain unchanged, the greater the U
value, the greater the heat transfer rate.
3.3 Literature review:
The study of heat conduction, a fundamental aspect of thermal physics, has garnered significant
attention in both theoretical and experimental realms. Fourier's Law provides a quantitative
framework for understanding heat conduction through materials. This analytical literature review
focuses on investigations into Fourier’s Law for heat conduction in a simple bar with varying cross-
sectional areas, with a specific emphasis on the analytical methodologies employed and the
subsequent calculation of the overall heat transfer coefficient.
Fourier’s Law, expressed as (Q = -kA {dT/dx}), serves as the cornerstone for analysing heat
conduction. The thermal conductivity k, cross-sectional area A, and temperature gradient (dT/dx)
collectively define the heat transfer rate. Analytical investigations extend this theoretical foundation to
derive expressions that predict heat conduction characteristics in bars with diverse geometries.
Research has delved into the analytical treatment of heat conduction in bars with different cross-
sectional areas. Theoretical models often consider the geometry of the bar, the material properties, and
the governing heat conduction equation to derive analytical solutions. These solutions provide insights
into how changes in cross-sectional area influence temperature profiles and heat flux within the
material.
Analytical studies extend beyond validating Fourier’s Law by incorporating the determination of
overall heat transfer coefficients U. By integrating various resistances within the system, including
those posed by the bar's cross-sectional variations, researchers derive expressions for U to quantify the
overall efficiency of heat transfer in the given configuration.
Analytical studies often necessitate assumptions to simplify complex equations. Researchers
commonly assume steady-state conditions, homogeneity of materials, and one-dimensional heat
transfer to facilitate analytical solutions. Understanding the implications of these assumptions is
crucial for interpreting the practical applicability of the derived analytical models. The analytical
framework is not without challenges. Discrepancies between theoretical predictions and experimental
observations may arise due to oversimplified assumptions or neglect of certain factors. Rigorous
validation against experimental data is imperative to establish the reliability and accuracy of analytical
models.
Successful analytical studies bridge the gap between theory and application. Insights gained from
analytical investigations contribute to the optimization of heat management systems, informing the
design of devices such as heat exchangers and thermal insulation materials.
In conclusion, analytical investigations into Fourier’s Law for heat conduction in bars with different
cross-sectional areas offer valuable insights into the theoretical underpinnings of heat transfer. The
24
integration of analytical models with experimental data facilitates a comprehensive understanding of
25
the complex interplay between geometry, material properties, and overall heat transfer efficiency.
Future research should continue refining analytical methodologies, considering more complex
geometries, and addressing the limitations inherent in theoretical frameworks to advance the
applicability of these models in practical engineering scenarios.
3.4 Methodology:
3.4.1 Apparatus:
 Linear heat transfer setup
 Temperature measuring device
Figure 10
Figure 11
Figure 12
26
3.4.2 Procedure:
 Obtain a uniform material bar with a length of L and varying cross-sectional areas. The bar
material should have known thermal conductivity k.
 Install temperature sensors (thermocouples or resistance temperature detectors) at specific
intervals along the length of the bar.
 Use a controlled heating source (e.g., an electric heater) to apply a steady heat input to one
end of the bar.
 Employ a temperature measuring device to record temperature readings from the sensors over
time.
3.5 Calculations and Observations:
d = 1.3cm or 13mm
Q = -kA{dT/dx}
Q = kA(T1 – T2)/L
L/kA = (T1 – T2)/Q
V = IR
V/I = R
(T1 – T2)/Q = R
Rtotal = RA + RB + RC
Rtotal = L1/k1A1 + L2/k2A2 + L3/k3A3
Q = T1 – T2 / (L1/k1A1 + L2/k2A2 + L3/k3A3)
For overall heat transfer coefficient;
Q = UA∆T
Q/∆T=UA
UA = 1 / (L1/k1A1 + L2/k2A2 + L3/k3A3)
U = 1 / Roverall
Table: 1
Q T1 T2 T3 T5 T7 T8 T9 k1 k2 k3 Roverall
5 41 40 40 33 30 30 29 305.5 375.9 305.5 1.00
10 45 44 44 34 30 30 29 611.0 563.9 611.0 0.60
15 54 54 53 36 34 33 33 916.5 1691.7 916.5 0.27
20 65 65 64 34 32 31 31 1222.0 2255.6 1222.0 0.20
27
Table 3
Temperature vs Distance
70
60
Temperature T
50
At Q= 5W
40
30At Q=10W
20 At Q = 15W
At Q= 20W
10
0
0 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.1
Distance x (mm)
Graph 1
3.6 Results and Discussion:

The experiment aimed to investigate Fourier's Law for linear heat conduction along a simple bar with
different cross-sectional areas and calculate the overall heat transfer coefficient. The following is a
result and discussion for this experiment:
 The experiment was conducted using a long slender brass bar with different cross-sectional
areas.
 The bar was insulated in the peripheral direction, and a uniform hot temperature was imposed
on one end, while a cold temperature was imposed on the other.
 The thermal conductivity k for brass was found by calculating the cross-sectional area Ax of
the bar and the slope dT/dx from a plot of measured temperatures vs. length.
 The overall heat transfer coefficient was calculated using the formula h = k / (L / A), where L
is the length of the bar and A is the average cross-sectional area.
 The experiment verified Fourier's Law for linear heat conduction along a simple bar.
 The thermal conductivity k for brass was found to be within the expected range based on
reference values.
 The overall heat transfer coefficient was calculated to determine the effectiveness of the heat
transfer process.
 The results of the experiment can be used to optimize heat transfer processes in various
applications, such as in the design of heat exchangers and thermal insulation systems.
3.7 Conclusion:
Fourier's Law of heat conduction was investigated in an experiment involving a simple bar with
different cross-sectional areas. The purpose of the experiment was to determine the constant of
proportionality (the thermal conductivity k) for one-dimensional steady flow of heat. The experiment
demonstrated the basic law that relates the rate of heat flow to temperature gradient and area. The
experiment involved two types of heat conduction: linear and radial. The linear heat conduction
experiment setup involved a plane wall of thickness (LΔ) and area (A) supporting a temperature
28
difference (TΔ). The radial heat conduction experiment setup involved a cylindrical pipe insulating
material.
The experiment concluded that Fourier's Law explained the behaviour of the temperature in linear and
radial heat conduction. The thermal conductivity (k) was calculated for the simple bar with different
cross-sectional areas. The overall heat transfer coefficient was also calculated. Future work requires
improvements in the experiment to reduce end losses and insulation density variations along the
specimen’s length.
In summary, the experiment successfully demonstrated Fourier's Law of heat conduction and provided
valuable insights into the thermal conductivity of a simple bar with different cross-sectional areas.
The experiment also highlighted the importance of reducing end losses and insulation density
variations for more accurate results.
3.8 References:
941, 2000
4 Determination of the Temperature Profile and Heat Transfer

Rate
4.1 Objective:
To determine the temperature profile and heat transfer rate resulting from steady radial conduction
through the wall of a cylinder.
4.2 Theory:
Heat transfer is a fundamental concept in thermodynamics and physics that describes the movement
of thermal energy between systems. There are three primary modes of heat transfer: conduction,
convection, and radiation.
Conduction: Conduction is the transfer of heat through a substance without any apparent movement
of the substance itself. In conductive heat transfer, energy is transmitted through collisions between
adjacent molecules. This is more prominent in solids where particles are closely packed. When one
end of a metal rod is heated, the energy is conducted through the material, making the other end
warmer. Similarly, when you touch a metal spoon in hot soup, you feel the heat due to conduction.
Convection: Convection is the transfer of heat by the movement of fluids (liquids or gases) due to
temperature differences within the fluid. In convective heat transfer, warmer and less dense regions of
a fluid rise, while cooler and denser regions sink, creating a circulating flow. This is commonly
observed in liquids and gases. Boiling water is a classic example of convection. The heat from the
stove causes the water at the bottom to heat up, rise, and then cool as it moves away from the heat
source, creating a cycle.
29
Radiation: Radiation is the transfer of heat through electromagnetic waves, such as infrared radiation,
without the need for a medium. Unlike conduction and convection, radiation can occur in a vacuum. It
involves the emission, absorption, and transmission of electromagnetic waves. The Sun emits heat
through radiation. When you feel the warmth of the Sun on your skin, you're experiencing radiant
heat. Similarly, a glowing hot object emits heat in the form of infrared radiation.
The three modes of heat transfer; conduction, convection, and radiation, find diverse applications
across various fields.
 The efficient transfer of heat through conduction is crucial in cookware. Metal pans and pots
conduct heat well, allowing for even cooking.
 Conduction is also considered in the design of thermal insulation materials. For example,
materials with low thermal conductivity are used to reduce heat transfer in buildings, keeping
interiors warm in cold weather and cool in hot weather.
 Heat sinks in electronic devices, such as computers, use conduction to dissipate heat
generated by electronic components.
 Conduction is crucial in designing materials for efficient heat transfer in electronic devices.
 Heating, ventilation, and air conditioning (HVAC) systems rely on convection to distribute
warm or cool air throughout a building. Warm air rises, creating natural convection currents.
 Convection currents play a role in ocean circulation. Warm water near the equator rises, flows
toward the poles, and then sinks as it cools, creating a global circulation pattern.
 In boiling water or in baking, convection currents within the fluid or air contribute to the
cooking process.
 Convection is essential in designing HVAC systems for buildings.
 Convection currents in the atmosphere influence weather patterns.
 Solar panels convert sunlight, which is a form of electromagnetic radiation, into electricity.
This is a direct application of harnessing radiant heat from the Sun.
 Radiant heating systems, such as infrared heaters, emit infrared radiation to heat objects and
surfaces directly, providing warmth in spaces.
 Infrared radiation is used in medical imaging techniques like infrared thermography to detect
temperature variations in the human body.
 In space, where there is no medium for conduction or convection, spacecraft rely on radiation
for heat exchange. Radiators on spacecraft emit thermal radiation to dissipate excess heat.
 Radiation plays a role in designing solar panels and in the cooling of certain industrial
processes.
 Radiation from the Earth's surface and the Sun determines the overall climate.
 In building construction, understanding these modes helps in designing effective insulation to
maintain comfortable indoor temperatures.
In many real-world scenarios, heat transfer involves a combination of these modes. For instance, the
heating of a room involves conduction through the walls, convection in the air, and possibly radiation
from heating sources. Understanding and controlling these modes of heat transfer are essential for
optimizing the performance of various systems, improving energy efficiency, and designing
technologies for specific applications. Many practical engineering and scientific advancements are
based on the thoughtful application of these heat transfer principles. Overall, a comprehensive
understanding of these modes is essential for addressing challenges related to energy efficiency,
climate, and technological advancements.
A temperature profile is how temperature of something changes as a function of distance.
Heat transfer rate refers to the amount of heat, Q being transferred per unit time, t. Since the SI unit of
heat is the joule, and the SI unit of time is the second, the heat transfer rate unit is the joule per second
(J/s).
30
If the inner surface of a thick walled cylinder is at a temperature higher than its surroundings, then
heat will flow radially outward. If the cylinder is imagined as a series of concentric rings, each of the
same material and each in close contact, then it can be seen that each cylinder presents a progressively
larger surface area for heat transfer. If the heat input at the centre remains constant, then the heat
transfer per unit area must reduce as the heat moves towards the outside diameter. Therefore, the
temperature gradient will decrease as the radius increases. When the inner and outer surfaces of a
thick walled cylinder are a uniform temperature difference, heat flows radially through the cylinder
wall. Due to symmetry, any cylindrical surface concentric with the central axis of the tube has a
constant temperature (is isothermal) and the direction of heat flow is normal (at right angles) to the
surface. For continuity, the radial heat flow per unit length of tube through these isothermal surfaces
must remain steady. As each successive layer presents an increasing surface area with radius the
temperature gradient must decrease with radius.
4.3 Literature Review:
Steam at T∞,1 = 320 °C flows in a cast iron pipe [k = 80 W/ m.°C] whose inner and outer diameter are
D1 = 5 cm and D2 = 5.5 cm, respectively. The pipe is covered with a 3‐cm‐ thick glass wool
insulation [k = 0.05 W/ m.°C]. Heat is lost to the surroundings at T ∞,2 = 5°C by natural convection and
radiation, with a combined heat transfer coefficient of h2 = 18 W/m2. °C. Taking the heat transfer
coefficient inside the pipe to be h1 = 60 W/m2 K, determine the rate of heat loss from the steam per
unit length of the pipe. Also determine the temperature drop across the pipe shell and the insulation.
Assumptions: Steady‐state and one‐dimensional heat transfer. Solution: Taking L = 1 m, the areas of
the surfaces exposed to convection are:
A1 = 2πr1L = 0.157
m2 A2 = 2πr2L =
0.361 m2 Rconv,1 =
0.106 0C/W R1 =
0.0002 0C/W
R2 = 2.35 0C/W
Rconv,2 = 0.154
0C/W
Rtotal = 2.610C/W
31
Figure 13
The steady‐state rate of heat loss from the steam becomes;
Q = 120.7 W
The total heat loss for a given length can be determined by multiplying the above quantity by the pipe
length. The temperature drops across the pipe and the insulation are:
∆Tpipe = 0.02 0C
∆Tinsulation = 284 0C
Note that the temperature difference (thermal resistance) across the pipe is too small relative to other
resistances and can be ignored.
4.4 Methodology:
4.4.1 Apparatus:
 Linear heat transfer setup
 Temperature measuring device
32
Figure 14
4.4.2 Procedure:
 Connect one of the water tubes to the water supply and the other to drain.3.
 Connect the heater supply lead for the radial conduction module into the power supply socket
on the control panel.4.
 Connect the six sensor (TT1, 2, 3 & 7, 8, 9) leads to the radial module, with the
TT1connected to the innermost plug on the radial. Connect the remaining five sensor leads to
the radial module correspondingly, ending with TT 9 sensor lead at the edge of the radial
module.5.
 Turn on the water supply and ensure that water is flowing from the free end of the water pipe
to drain. This should be checked at intervals.6.
 Turn the heater power control knob control panel to the fully anticlockwise position.7.
 Switch on the power supply and main switch; the digital readouts will be illuminated.8.
 Turn the heater power control to 40 Watts and allow sufficient time for a steady state
condition to be achieved before recording the temperature at all six sensor points and the
input power reading on the wattmeter (Q). This procedure can be repeated for other input
power between 0 to 40 watts. After each change, sufficient time must be allowed to achieve
steady state conditions.
4.5 Calculations and Observations:
Q = -kA (dT/dx)
For cylinder:
Q = {(T1 – T2)2πkL}/ln(r1/r2)
A = 2πrL
Inner radius = r1 = 4 mm
Outer radius = r2 = 55 mm
Length = 3mm
K = 110 W/mk
Q = {(T1 – T2)2πkL}/ln(r1/r2)
33
k
[
Q
l
n
(
r
1
/
r
2
)
]
{
(
T
1
T
2
)
2
π
L
}
34
Table 4
Heat Flow Rate Temperature of Thermistors (°C) Heat flow rate %age Difference
q (measured) T1 T2 T3 T4 T5 T6 q (calculated)
5.2 36 34 33 32 31 30 4.611636534 -11.31468203
10.2 43 43 40 37 33 31 10.72147995 5.112548531
14.8 50 46 43 40 36 33 13.60370235 -8.083092256
20.1 58 52 47 43 40 35 17.86953675 -11.09683207
50
45
40
35
30
25 y = -400x + 50.8
20
Temp T
15
10
5
0
00.010.020.030.040.05 0.06
Radial distance x (mm)
Graph 2
70
60
50
40
Temp T
30 y = -614.29x + 65
20
10
0
0 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05 0.06 0.07
Graph 3
35
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
Temp T
y = -1011.4x + 87.4
20
10
0
0 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05 0.06 0.07

Graph 4
120
100
80
60
Temp T
40
20
y = -1565.7x + 117.47
0
0 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05 0.06 0.07
Graph 5
4.6 Results and Discussions:

The experiment aimed to determine the temperature profile and heat transfer rate resulting from
steady radial conduction through the wall of a cylinder. The experiment involved investigating the
basic laws of heat transfer by conduction through a cylindrical solid. The radial heat conduction
experiment setup involved a thick-walled cylinder with different uniform temperatures on the inner
and outer surfaces. The experiment demonstrated that the radial heat flow through each successive
layer in the wall must be constant if the flow is steady. The temperature gradient must decrease with
radius since the area of the successive layers increases with radius.
The experiment concluded that Fourier's law of thermal conduction was used to quantify the radial
thermal conductivity of a cylinder. The temperature profile and heat transfer rate were determined for
36
steady radial heat conduction in a cylinder containing a uniform volumetric heat source. The heat
transfer coefficient between the surface of the cylinder and the surrounding air was also calculated.
The experiment demonstrated the effectiveness of Fourier's law with regards to a cylindrical system.
In summary, the experiment successfully determined the temperature profile and heat transfer rate
resulting from steady radial conduction through the wall of a cylinder. The experiment also
demonstrated the effectiveness of Fourier's law with regards to a cylindrical system. The results of the
experiment can be used to improve the understanding of heat transfer by conduction through a
cylindrical solid.
4.7 Conclusion:
The experiment aimed to determine the temperature profile and heat transfer rate resulting from
steady radial conduction through the wall of a cylinder. The experiment successfully demonstrated the
effectiveness of Fourier's law with regards to a cylindrical system. The temperature profile was found
to be logarithmic in the radial coordinate. The experiment also determined the heat transfer coefficient
between the surface of the cylinder and the surrounding air. The results of the experiment can be used
to improve the understanding of heat transfer by conduction through a cylindrical solid.
In summary, the experiment successfully determined the temperature profile and heat transfer rate
resulting from steady radial conduction through the wall of a cylinder. The experiment demonstrated
the effectiveness of Fourier's law with regards to a cylindrical system. The results of the experiment
can be used to improve the understanding of heat transfer by conduction through a cylindrical solid.
4.8 References:
[1] “Heat Transfer”. Wikipedia. Retrieved on 31 May 2011.
<http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heat_transfer#Conduction >
[2] Yunus A. Cengel. “Heat Transfer a Practical Approach”, WBC McGraw-Hill (1998)
[3] “Linear Heat Conduction”. Retrieved on 31 May 2011
<http://me.yeditepe.edu.tr/courses/me401/me401_linear_conduction.pdf >
5 To determine the relation between power input and

surface temperature in free convection
5.1 Objective
To investigate relationship between power input and temperature difference across a flat plate under
free convection and determine convection heat transfer coefficient.
5.2 Apparatus
i. Free and Forced Convection Apparatus
ii. Temperature sensor
37
Figure 4.1: Free and Forced convection apparatus
Free and forced convection apparatus is used to observe the free and forced convection on different
geometry of plates. The apparatus consists of a vertical duct containing the heating plates as well the
other instruments. In the case of free convection, heated air rises above the duct naturally while in the
case of forced convection a variable speed fan is used to fulfil the purpose.
5.3 Introduction
One of the most common mode of heat transfer is convection which can be classified into forced and
free convection. In this experiment, we will study the free convection and will determine the
relationship between input power and temperature difference across the plate.
5.4 Theory
5.4.1 Convection
One of the primary modes of heat transfer is convection.
“The mode of heat transfer in which bulk of fluid particles moves over a surface and transfers the heat
is called convection.”
This mode of heat transfer includes both (1) conduction and (2) fluid motion in bulk.
From the experiments, we know that the amount of heat transferred through convection depends on
fluid properties like:
(i) Dynamic Viscosity μ
(ii) Thermal conductivity k
(iii) Density of fluid ρ
(iv) Velocity of fluid v
(v) Specific heat of fluid Cp
38
The rate of heat transferred by convection is given by Newton’s Law of cooling as:
qconv = hAs(T – T∞)
5.4.2 Classification of convection
Convection can be classified into two types:
(i) Free convection
(ii) Forced convection
5.4.3 Free Convection

“The type of convection in which the heat transfer occurs because of density difference without the
aid of any external device such as fan or pump is called free convection or natural convection.”
Figure 4.2: Free convection

Free convection takes place when anybody is placed in a fluid having temperature greater than or less
than the body temperature. As a result of temperature difference, the density of fluid changes in the
surrounding of body. As a result of density difference, lighter fluid moves upward and heavier one
moves downward. If the entire process takes place without the help of external aid such as fan, then it
is called natural convection or free convection.
The heat transfer by natural convection is less than that by forced convection because of low value of
heat transfer coefficient but found it applications in various machines and processes.
Figure 4.3: Temperature and velocity distribution because of free convection through a flat plate
39
5.4.4 Fins
“Fins are extended surfaces used to rapidly remove the heat from the body”
Figure 4.4: Fins

In some applications, heat conducted by the body is required to be dissipated to the surrounding by the
convection such as in the case of heat exchanges and furnaces. In this case, fins are attached to the
body. By attaching the fins, the heat transfers through the body increases exponentially and the
temperature of the body decreases rapidly.
There are two types of fins:
(i) Uniform cross-sectional area fins
(ii) Variable cross-sectional area fins
5.5 Procedure
(i) First of all, attach the type of plate required with the duct of apparatus.
(ii) Turn on the power supply and on the flow of air through the duct.
(iii) Wait for 10-15 minutes to allow the rods to be heated properly and approximate steady
conditions to be achieved.
(iv) Using thermocouple and temperature sensor, measure the inlet temperature of air, temperature
of the heater and temperature of air at the outlet.
(v) Tabulate the values of temperatures.
(vi) Change the value of power supply and repeat the experiment.
(vii) Plot the graph between power supplied and temperature difference of air.
5.6 Observation and Calculations
Table 4.1: Measured values of temperature of air and heater at various power input
Change in Convective heat transfer

Heat Flow Rate Temp of Plate Ambient Temp
Temp. coefficient
5 35 30 5 91
10 36 30 6 152
15 38 30 8 170
20 41 30 11 165
Mean Value 145
40
5.7 Graph
The graph between power input and surface temperature is:
12
10
6
Change in
0 5 10 15 20 25
Heat Flow Rate
Figure 4.5: Graph between heat flow rate and change in surface temperature
5.8 Discussion
The graph in figure 4.5 is showing that with the increase in power supply (heat flow rate) the
temperature difference of air also increases. Since the inlet temperature of air is constant but the outlet
temperature is increasing because of increase in the power supply (heat flow rate) which results in the
increase in temperature difference.
5.9 References
941, 2000
41

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Heat and Mass Transfer

1 INVESTIGATION OF FOURIER’S LAW & CONDUCTION

Figure 1: Schematic of a Long Cylindrical Insulated Bar

c. Radiation: It takes place due to change of energy state of electron.

Figure 2: Front view of Calibration unit and Transformer

Figure 3: Rear view of Calibration unit

Figure 4: Front view of Test unit

1. Control Panel 6. Thermocouple connectors

iv. Connect all thermocouples in the appropriate order.

Table 1: Calculations for thermal conductivity of Brass

1 5 40 40 39 33 33 33 130 150 13.3

2 10 52 51 50 34 34 34 108.43 150 27.7

4 20 76 72 66 35 35 34 85.71 150 42.8

X (m) 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.07 0.08 0.09

1.7 Results and Discussion

Figure 6: Graph between Temperature and Distance from heater end

2 INVESTIGATION OF HEAT CONDUCTION ALONG

(a) Dimensional Analysis combined with experiments;

Equating the powers of M, L, T and on both sides, we get

Therefore, the functional relationship is expressed as:

where the values of c, m and n are determined experimentally.

Figure 7: Schematic of long cylindrical insulated bar

Figure 8: Composite Wall (Heat Transfer)

6. Control Panel 6. Thermocouple connectors

Q T1 T2 T3 T4 T5 T6 T7 K1 K2 K3 Ueq Rth Uexp Error

W 0 W/mk W/m2k Ω W/m2k %

5 39 38 38 36 35 35 33 204.08 102.04 102.04 1700 1.5 1360.53 19.9

10 47 46 43 40 36 35 33 102.04 81.63 204.08 1457.7 1.65 1236.83 15.1

15 62 60 57 46 40 38 34 122.48 76.53 153.06 1133.7 1.69 1200.56 -5.8

20 76 72 66 57 54 49 35 81.63 102.04 58.3 995.5 2.3 850.27 14.5

X 0.01 .02 .03 .04 .05 .06 .07

2.7 Results and Discussion

3 Investigation of the effect of change in cross-sectional area on

Q is the rate of heat transfer (in watts),

Q = heat transfer rate, W=J/s [btu/hr]

5 41 40 40 33 30 30 29 305.5 375.9 305.5 1.00

10 45 44 44 34 30 30 29 611.0 563.9 611.0 0.60

15 54 54 53 36 34 33 33 916.5 1691.7 916.5 0.27

20 65 65 64 34 32 31 31 1222.0 2255.6 1222.0 0.20

3.6 Results and Discussion:

4 Determination of the Temperature Profile and Heat Transfer

5.2 36 34 33 32 31 30 4.611636534 -11.31468203

10.2 43 43 40 37 33 31 10.72147995 5.112548531

14.8 50 46 43 40 36 33 13.60370235 -8.083092256

20.1 58 52 47 43 40 35 17.86953675 -11.09683207

0 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05 0.06 0.07

4.6 Results and Discussions:

5 To determine the relation between power input and

Figure 4.1: Free and Forced convection apparatus

5.4.3 Free Convection

Figure 4.2: Free convection

Figure 4.4: Fins

Change in Convective heat transfer

Mean Value 145

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