Elton John D.

Delos Santos, RN, MAEd, MAN

Associate Professor, UB-SN
 Biochemistry

- Disintegration of the naturally

occurring foodstuff into
absorbable forms
 G L O S S A RY
Absorption Fibroscopy
Achalasia hydrochloric acid
Amylase Ingestion
Anus intrinsic factor
Chyme large intestine
Digestion Lipase
Dyspepsia small intestine
Elimination Stomach
Esophagus trypsin
 PURPOSE
BREAK DOWN FOOD
INTO NUTRIENTS
WHICH CAN BE
ABSORBED INTO THE
BODY
 Primary Factor
➢ the enzymes found in the juices of
the different portions of the
digestive tract
 Secondary Factors
➢ Cooking
➢ Mastication
➢ movements of the stomach and
intestines
➢ absorption from the intestines,
➢ autodigestion.
Salivary Digestion
Gastric Digestion
Intestinal Digestion
 CHO
digestion? FAT
DIGESTION?

CHON
DIGESTION?
Individual Components of the Gastrointestinal System:
the Salivary glands

2
3
 DIGESTION in the
MOUTH
 Mechanical digestion in the mouth
➢ Chewing or mastication
➢ Food manipulated by tongue, ground
by teeth, and mixed with saliva
➢ Forms bolus
• Chemical digestion in the mouth
➢ hydrolysis of starch by salivary
amylase (ptyalin)
➢ takes place in the buccal cavity and
to a certain extent in the fundus
➢ Starch & glycogen → maltose +
various dextrins
 SALIVARY DIGESTION
Salivary glands release saliva
 Enoughis secreted to keep mouth
and pharynx moist and clean
 When food enters mouth,
secretion increases
 SALIVA
➢ colorless, slightly viscid, opalescent
fluid
➢ Salivary glands:
▪ Parotid glands: rich in ptyalin;
watery
▪ Sublingual glands: rich in mucin;
viscid
▪ Submandibular glands.
Copyright 2009, John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
1. Psychic factor
2. Chemical factor
3. Mechanical factor
Average secretion: 1500 mL/24 hrs
❖ 99.42 % water
❖ 0.58 % solid
❖2/3 = org. matter (mucin, ptyalin, urea,
glucose, lactic acid)
❖1/3 = inorg. salts (Cl-, HCO3- of Na,
K, Ca, SO4- and PO4- )
➢ pH: 7.0 – 7.3
6.4 – 6.9
➢Function: moisten and reduce the
foods into a consistency suitable
for swallowing
➢ endoamylase which acts only on α-
1,4 glycosidic linkage
➢ activators: Cl- & Br -; I- & NO3
➢ Unstable below pH 4 - 5
➢ Inactivated by pepsin
 Polysaccharides

lower MW, non-fermentable,

soluble dextrin

maltose
Concerned with the digestion of
proteins through the action of
pepsin and HCl
Mechanical digestion
 peristaltic movements
 chyme
3 Phases of Gastric Juice
Secretion
1. Psychic phase – stimulation of
secretion due to the smell, sight,
taste or thought of food
2. Gastric phase – stimulating
effect of food
Gastric phase . . .

Secretagogue

gastrin (from the pyloric mucosa)

stimulates the gastric glands to

secrete a juice rich in HCl but poor in
pepsin.
3. Intestinal phase
Acid chyme (from stomach)

Duodenum (duodenal mucosa: secretin)

❖ Secretin: stimulates secretion of

gastric, pancreatic and intestinal juices
and bile
GASTRIC JUICE: from cells of the
gastric glands

1. Parietal cell: HCl (0.17N) pH 0.87

2. Chief cells: pepsin

3. Mucous cells: mucin

➢ Average secretion: 2 -3 L/24 hrs
▪ 99.4 % water
▪ 0.6 % solid
- organic: mucin, pepsin, & small
amount of lipase
- inorganic: HCl, KCl & PO4-
▪Pepsin

➢principaldigestive constituent
of the gastric juice
➢ pepsinogen – activated by HCl;
➢ autocatalytic
▪Pepsin

➢Optimum activity: pH 1.5 – 2.5

➢An endopeptidase that acts on
peptide bonds
➢CHONS proteoses, peptones,
peptides
▪Mucin

➢ not digested by pepsin

➢Protectsthe mucous membrane of
the stomach
➢Buffers the HCl
➢Promotes absorption of Vit. B12
Functions of HCl
➢ Provides a suitable pH for protein
digestion by pepsin
➢ Exerts preliminary swelling, denaturing
& hydrolyzing effect on proteins
➢ Facilitates absorption of iron
 GASTRIC DIGESTION
Functions of HCl
➢ Activates pepsinogen
➢ Causes hydrolysis of
disaccharides
➢ Stimulates secretin secretion
➢ Exerts bactericidal action
Rennin (chymosin):
▪ Milk-curdling enzyme found in
the gastric juice of newborns
▪ Little or no pepsin but high
conc. HCl
▪ Enterogastrone - inhibits gastric
secretion and motility

▪ Urogastrone = found in urine

▪ Acid inhibitors

➢ 0.03 N HCl – slows secretion

➢ 0.10 N HCl – inhibits parietal cells

▪ Achloridia:
- absence of free HCl
- seen in Pernicious anemia
▪ Achylia gastrica
- absence of free HCl & enzymes
- indicates degeneration of the
gastric glands
▪ Hypochloridia:
- suggestive of chronic gastritis or
gastric carcinoma
▪ Hyperchloridia:
- suggestive of peptic ulcer,
cholecystitis.
➢ Pancreatic juice
➢ Intestinal juice
➢ Bile
➢ Pancreatic juice: by the acinar cells
▪ Clear, watery
▪ Volume: 500 ml/24 hrs
▪ 98.7% water
▪ 1.3 % solids
Pancreatic juice:
solid:
❖ 1/3Organic: (trypsin, chymotrypsin,
steapsin, diastase, nucleolytic
enzymes)
❖ 2/3Inorganic:(Na, K, Ca, HCO3, Cl,
PO4)
➢ pH: 7.5 – 8.2 (HCO3-)
Pancreatic juice Secretion:
➢ Vagal stimulation – secretion is
rich in enzymes but less volume
➢ Secretin - stimulates the
secretion of a fluid of high volume
and HCO3- ; low in enzymes
➢ Pancreozymin – secretion similar
to vagal stimulation
 Enzymes
1.CHO Note: pepsin, inactive
a.Salivary amylase- pepsinogen, and trypsin
b.Pancreatic amylase are examples of enzymes
called proteases
c. Maltase
3. Lipids= lipase
2. CHONs
4. Nucleic
a.pepsin acids/nucleotides
b.Trypsin a.Pancreatic nuclease
c.Peptidase b.Intestinal nuclease
Trypsin:
➢ Endopeptidase acting on peptide
linkage involving the COOH group
of Arginine and Lysine.
➢ pH 8 - 9
➢ Trypsinogen – activated by
enterokinase (intestinal juice)
 Intestinal Digestion
Pancreatic juice: ENZYMES:

Chymotrypsin:
➢ activated by trypsin
➢ Endopeptidase: phenylalanine,
tyrosine and tryptophan
➢ Has a milk-curdling effect
 Intestinal Digestion
Pancreatic juice: ENZYMES:

Carboxypeptidase:
➢ Exopeptidase: peptide linkage
nearest the free COOH group
(pH 7.4)
➢ Zn-containing enzyme
 Intestinal Digestion
Pancreatic juice: ENZYMES:
Pancreatic amylase
(Diastase/Amylopepsin)
➢ Rapid hydrolysis of starch
➢ Maltose is immediately acted upon
by the intestinal enzyme maltase
➢ SI is the most important locus of
starch digestion (pH 7.1)
 Intestinal Digestion
Pancreatic juice: ENZYMES:

Pancreatic lipase/Steapsin
➢ weak lipolytic enzyme
➢ Action is potentiated by bile acids,
Ca & certain amino acids
 Intestinal Digestion
Pancreatic juice: ENZYMES:

Nucleodepolymerases
➢ Ribonuclease & deoxyribonuclease

➢ Nucleic acids --> mononucleotides

➢ Secretion
of the glands in the:
duodenum, jejunum & ileum
➢ Viscous
and turbid due to mucin
and desquamated epithelial cells
➢ Controlling
hormones: secretin
and enterocrinin
➢ Enterocrinin:

▪ Secreted by the intestinal

mucosa; stimulates the mucosal
glands
▪ Increases the volume of fluid
and the content of enzymes
➢ Solid constituents:
▪ Mucin, inorganic salts
▪ enzymes
▪ Fats, Cholesterol, Phospholipids
▪ Metabolites (urea)
➢ Carbohydrases:

▪ Maltase
▪ Lactase
▪ Sucrase (Invertase)
 Intestinal Digestion
Intestinal Juice (Succus Entericus)
Peptidases

A. Aminopeptidase
▪ exopeptidase: attacks the peptide
linkage of the N-terminal amino
acid
▪ requires Mg++ or Mn++
 OH OH OH
NH2-CH-C N-CH-C N-CH-C N-CH-COOH
R R R R
 Intestinal Digestion
Intestinal Juice (Succus Entericus)

Peptidases

B. Tripeptidases and Dipeptidases

▪ tripeptides
Amino acids
▪ dipeptides
- Requires Co++ or Mn++
 Intestinal Digestion
Intestinal Juice (Succus Entericus)

• Nucleotidases
(Nucleophosphatases):
Nucleotides H3PO4 &
nucleosides
 Intestinal Digestion
Intestinal Juice (Succus Entericus)

• Nucleosidases
➢ purine nucleosidase
➢ pyrimidine nucleosidase

Nucleosides sugar & base

 Intestinal Digestion
Bile (fel):
➢ clear, golden yellow, slightly viscid
fluid
➢ secreted by the liver cells
➢ stored in the gallbladder
▪ Concentration = 4 - 17% solids
➢ pH: 7 - 8.5
➢ Volume: 500 - 700 ml/day
 Intestinal Digestion : Bile
Liver Bile Gall Bladder Bile

▪1-4% ▪ Solids: 4 - 17%

▪ Less viscous ▪ more viscous
▪ Golden yellow ▪ dark yellow-
green
▪ pH 7 - 8.5
▪ pH 5.5
 Intestinal Digestion : Bile
➢ Solid content (1 - 4%)

*Organic components (3/4) * Inorganic

▪ Bile acids ▪ HCO3-
▪ Bile pigments ▪ Cl
▪ Cholesterol ▪ Na

▪ Small amount of ▪K
phospholipid (Lecithin)
▪ Mucin, Urea, ALP
 Intestinal Digestion : Bile

▪ Cholecystokinin: stimulates
discharge of bile into the bowel
➢Relaxation of the Sphincter of
Oddi
▪ Cholagogues: substances that
stimulate flow of bile
 Intestinal Digestion : Bile

Bile Acids
1. Cholic acid: 26 - 60%
2. Chenodeoxycholic acid: 30 - 50%
3. Deoxycholic: 5 - 25%
conjugated with glycine or taurine
= glycocholic or taurocholic
acid
 Intestinal Digestion : Bile
Functions of Bile Acids:
▪ Activate steapsin
▪ Emulsification
▪ Choleretics
▪ Neutralization of acid (pH >7)
▪ Aid in absorption of fat and fat-
soluble substances (Hydrotropic
effect)
▪ Maintain cholesterol in solution
 Intestinal Digestion : Bile Pigments
▪ Derived from the degradation of
HEMOGLOBIN:
✓Biliverdin
✓Bilirubin
➢ Protoporphyrin biliverdin and CO

Biliverdin

Bilirubin
Couples w/albumin
Liver

Intestinal Tract
Degraded by normal flora
INDIVIDUAL COMPONENTS OF THE GASTROINTESTINAL
SYSTEM: LARGE INTESTINES
 Chemical Changes in the
Large Intestines

 Thesemi- liquid residue which has

escaped digestion and absorption are
passed into the large intestine
 Intestinalmicroorganisms
disintegrate these organic residues
into simpler fragments
 Chemical Changes in the
Large Intestines

I. Fermentation - bacterial
degradation of carbohydrates under
anaerobic condition
Products: Organic acids (e. g. lactic
acid, acetic acid, formic acid,
propionic acid and succinic acid)
Gases (methane, CO2,H2)
 Chemical Changes in the Large
Intestines

II.Putrefaction- bacterial
decomposition of proteins under
anaerobic condition

Example: Tryptophan → Indole +

Skatole
 Chemical Changes in the
Large Intestines

III.Deamination - removal of amine

group from simple amino acids to
form short- chain organic acids

R - CH - COOH → R - CH2 COOH

NH2
 Chemical Changes in the
Large Intestines

IV.Decarboxylation – removal of carboxyl

group forming amines

R - CH - COOH → R - CH - NH2

NH2
 DETOXIFICATION
Reactions involved:

1. Oxidation - one of the most

important means of detoxification

CH3CH2OH + O2 → CO2 + H2O

2. Reduction

3. Hydrolysis - some drugs used for

therapy are hydrolyzed in the body

Acetylsalicylic acid → Salicylic acid +

Acetic acid
4. Conjugation- combination of the
toxic substance or its metabolite with
a compound occurring normally in the
body (whenever oxidation becomes
ineffective)
 Occurs mainly in the liver
 Conjugating agents:
a. acetic acid
b. Cysteine
c. Glucuronic acid
d. Glutamine
e. Glycine
f. Methyl group
g. Sulfuric acid
h. Thiosulfate
Gerontologic Considerations
GI disorders occurs in the
elderly population, aging per se
appears to have minimal direct
effect on most GI functions, in
large part because of the
functional reserve of the GI tract