BLACKBODY RADIATION

11
BLACKBODY RADIATION
BLACKBODY RADIATION
Rayleigh-Jeans Law

•An early classical attempt to explain

blackbody radiation was the Rayleigh-Jeans
law.

•At longer wavelengths or shorter frequency ,

the law matched experimental results fairly
well.
 RAYLEIGH-JEANS FORMULA

Figure shows the blackbody spectrum for two temperatures. To explain this
spectrum, the classical calculation by Rayleigh and Jeans begins by considering a
blackbody as a radiation-filled cavity at the temperature T .

A hole in the wall of a

hollow object is an excellent
approximation of a
The energy density of cavity radiation (or black body radiation) : r(n,T) blackbody

8𝜋𝑘𝑇 "
𝜌(𝜈, 𝑇) = ! 𝜈 , 𝑘 is Boltzmann constant
𝑐
 8𝜋𝑘𝑇 "
𝜌(𝜈, 𝑇) = 𝜈 , 𝑘 is Boltzmann constant
𝑐!
Rayleigh-Jeans Law

Ø Cavity with metallic walls heated uniformly to temp. T

Ø Walls emit EM radiation
Ø R-J : classical electromagnetic theory :
Ø Radiation inside the cavity exists in the form of standing waves
with nodes at metallic surface

Energy density in frequency interval n to n+dn

7 9 : ;<
u 𝜈, 𝑇 d𝜈 =
=>?@AB >C DE<FGH
8
 Rayleigh-Jeans Law

Count no. of standing waves in frequency

Interval n to n+dn (frequency dependence of waves)
Use kinetic theory (classical) to calculate
the average total energy of these waves

Energy density in frequency

interval n to n+dn

! # $ %&
u 𝜈, 𝑇 d𝜈 = '()*+, (- ./&012
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 d=(2a/c) (v+dv) ^

d=(2a/c) v

0 1 2 3 4••• n
Figure 1 5 The allowed values of the index n, which determines the allowed values of the 25

ISS t/1O
-

frequency, in a one-dimensional cavity of length a.

 where
n = 1,2,3,4,...
This condition determines a set of allowed values of the wavelength A. For these
allowed values, d=(2a/c) (v+dv)
the amplitude patterns of the standing waves^ have the appearance

shown in Figure 1-4. These patterns may be recognized as the standing wave patterns
for vibrations of a string fixed at both ends, a real physical system which also satisfies
(1-6). In our cased=(2a/c) v
the patterns represent electromagnetic standing waves.
It is convenient to continue the discussion in terms of the allowed frequencies
instead of the allowed wavelengths. These frequencies are v = c/ A, where 2a/1 = n.
0That1is 2 3 4••• v = cn/2a n = 1, 2, 3, 4, ... (1-10)
n
Figure 5 theseThe
1 -(v+dv)
We can represent allowedallowed values
values of frequency in termsofof the index
a diagram consistingn, which determines the
of an axis on which we plot a point at every integral value of n. On such a diagram,
d=(2a/c) ^

frequency,
the value in a
of thev allowed
d=(2a/c) one-dimensional
frequency cavity
v corresponding to a particular valueofof length
n is, by a.
(1-10), equal to c/2a times the distance d from the origin to the appropriate point, or
0the
1 2distance
3 4••• d is 2a/c times the frequency v.n These relations are shown in Figure 1-5.
Figure 1a 5diagram
Such is useful in calculating
of the index the number of allowed values in frequency
range v to v + dv, which we call N(v) dv. To evaluate this quan
The allowed values n, which determines the allowed values of the

NOIlV Iab'I:I Alln`d0A OAaOOHl i `dOISSt/1O

-

frequency, in a one-dimensional cavity of length a.

the number of points on the n axis which fall between two lim
range v to v + dv, which we call N(v) dv. To evaluate this quantity we simply count
n =1

structed
(v+dv)
structed
so as to correspond to the frequencies v and v + dv, r
the number of points on the n axis which fall between two limits which are con-
d=(2a/c) so as to correspond to the frequencies v and v + dv, respectively. Since the
^

points
points
d=(2a/c) are distributed
are distributed uniformly along the nuniformly along
axis, it is apparent that theof n axis, it is apparen
the number
pointsv falling between the two limits will be proportional to dv but will not depend
points
on v. In fact, falling
Figure 1 4 -

between
it is easy to see thedv.two
that N(v) dv = (2a/c) However,limits
walls at x = 0 and x = a, for the first three values of the index n.
we mustwill
multiplybe proportional to dv
The amplitude patterns of standing waves in a one-dimensional cavity with
this by an additional factor of 2 since, for each of the allowed frequencies, there are
0 1 2 3 4••• actually two independent waves correspondingn to the two possible states of polariza-
Figure 1 5 The
onallowed
tion of
v. Invalues
fact,
electromagnetic waves.
itThus
of the
isindex
easy to see that N(v) dv = (2a/c) dv. Howev
n, which determines the allowed values of the
we have

aOOHl i `dOISS t/1O

this by an additional factor a. of 2 since, for each of the allowed fr
-

frequency, in a one-dimensional cavity of length

N(v)dv = 4a dv (1-11)
actually two independent waves corresponding to the two possib
range v to v This
+ completes the
dv, which calculation
we call of the number
N(v) dv. To ofevaluate
allowed standing
this waves for the arti-
quantity we simply count
the number of tion
The of calculation
above electromagnetic
ficial case of a one-dimensional cavity.
points on the nmakes
axisapparent
whichthefallwaves.
between
procedures Thus we
two limits
for extending the have
which are con-
calcula-
structed so as
tiontotocorrespond
the real case of to the frequencies
a three-dimensional v This
cavity. andextension
v + dv,is indicated
respectively.
in Since the
Figure 1-6. Here the set of points uniformly distributed at integral values along a
points are distributed
single n axis isuniformly the n axis, itarray
alongthree-dimensional
replaced by a uniform is of
apparent
N(v)dv
points whosethat
threethe
= number
4a dv of
26
range v to v + dv, which we call N(v) dv. To evaluate this quantity we simply count
the number of points on the n axis which fall between two limits which are con-
structed so as to correspond to the frequencies v and v + dv, respectively. Since the
points are distributed uniformly along the n axis, it is apparent that the number of
points falling between the two limits will be proportional to dv but will not depend
on v. In fact, it is easy to see that N(v) dv = (2a/c) dv. However, we must multiply
this by an additional factor of 2 since, for each of the allowed frequencies, there are
actually two independent waves corresponding to the two possible states of polariza-
tion of electromagnetic waves. Thus we have
N(v)dv = 4a dv (1-11)
This completes the calculation of the number of allowed standing waves for the arti-
ficial case of a one-dimensional cavity.
The above calculation makes apparent the procedures for extending the calcula-
tion to the real case of a three-dimensional cavity. This extension is indicated in
Figure 1-6. Here the set of points uniformly distributed at integral values along a
single n axis is replaced by a uniform three-dimensional array of points whose three
coordinates occur at integral valuès along each of three mutually perpendicular n
Each point of the array corresponds to a particular allowed three-dimensional axes.
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Number of standing waves

3
 The cavity volume is L3 , which means that the number of independent
standing waves per unit volume is

Density of standing waves in a cavity

(1)

Equation (1) is independent of the shape of the cavity, even though we used a
cubical cavity to facilitate the derivation. The higher the frequency, the shorter
the wavelength and the greater the number of standing waves that are possible,
as must be the case.
 (1)

Density of standing waves in a cavity

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 The energy u(υ) dυ per unit volume in the cavity in the frequency interval
from υ to υ+ dυ is therefore, according to classical physics,

Rayleigh-Jeans formula

(2)

The Rayleigh-Jeans formula, which has the spectral energy density of blackbody
radiation increasing as without limit.
 Rayleigh-Jeans Law
By geometrical arguments:
Count no. of standing waves in frequency interval n to n+dn
Use kinetic theory (classical) to calculate the average total energy of these waves

Energy density in frequency interval n to n+dn 7 9 : ;<

u 𝜈, 𝑇 d𝜈 = =>?@AB >C DE<FGH

𝑘𝑇 8𝜋 I J
𝑢 𝜈, 𝑇 𝑑𝜈 = I I 𝑎 𝜈 𝑑𝜈
𝑎 𝑐
8𝜋𝑘𝑇 4
= 3 𝜈 𝑑𝜈
𝑐
EXTRA
How to count r ?

𝑐 𝑐
2-D case: Allowed frequencies : 𝜈= 𝑛!" + 𝑛#" = 𝑟
2𝑎 2𝑎

where, 𝑟 ! = 𝑛"! + 𝑛#!

ny
dr
r

nx No. of points in shaded area

= Area X no. of points per unit area (=1)
= Area

No. of points in shaded area

= no. of allowed values of r in the range r to r +dr, : N(r)dr
= no. of allowed frequencies in the range n to n+dn : N(n)dn
2-D case: Allowed frequencies No. of points in shaded area
= No. of allowed values of r in the range r to r +dr, : N(r)dr
𝑐 𝑐
𝜈= 𝑛!" + 𝑛#" = 𝑟 = no. of allowed frequencies in the range n to n+dn : N(n)dn
2𝑎 2𝑎

where, 𝑟 ! = 𝑛"! + 𝑛#!

N
ny N 𝑟 𝑑𝑟 = O 2𝜋𝑟 𝑑𝑟
dr
𝜋
= 𝑟𝑑𝑟
2
𝜋 2𝑎 2𝑎
r

nx = 𝜈 𝑑𝜈
2 𝑐 𝑐
JP
N 𝜈 𝑑𝜈 = D ! 𝑎J𝜈𝑑𝜈

With two independent states of polarisation of the wave: multiply above by 2

OP
N 𝑟 𝑑𝑟 = 𝑎J𝜈𝑑𝜈
D!

No. density of standing waves : 𝑁(𝜈)𝑑𝜈

𝑎"
3-D case:
𝑐 𝑐
Allowed frequencies : 𝜈= 𝑛!" + 𝑛#" + 𝑛$" = 𝑟
2𝑎 2𝑎

where, 𝑟 ! = 𝑛"! + 𝑛#! + 𝑛$!

No. of allowed frequencies : N(n)dn

= no. of allowed values of r between radii
r to r +dr : N(r)dr

The allowed frequencies in a three-dimensional cavity in form of a cube of edge length a

are determined by three indices nx ,ny,nz, which can each assume only Integral values.
 3-D case: 𝑐 𝑐
Allowed frequencies : 𝜈= 𝑛!" + 𝑛#" + 𝑛$" = 𝑟
2𝑎 2𝑎

where, 𝑟 ! = 𝑛"! + 𝑛#! + 𝑛$!

No. of allowed frequencies : N(n)dn

= no. of allowed values of r between radii
r to r +dr : N(r)dr

N
N 𝑟 𝑑𝑟 = 4𝜋𝑟 J 𝑑𝑟
Q
J
𝜋 2𝑎𝜈 2𝑎
= ⋅ 𝑑𝜈
2 𝑐 𝑐

4𝜋 I J
= I 𝑎 𝜈 𝑑𝜈
𝑐
Also taking in account two perpendicular directions of polarisation : mult. above by 2

8𝜋 I J
𝑁 𝜈 𝑑𝜈 = I 𝑎 𝜈 𝑑𝜈
𝑐 No. density of standing waves : 𝑁(𝜈)𝑑𝜈
𝑎!