Natural Crop Protection Based On Local Farm Resou Wageningen - University - and - Research - 425679

AGRECOL An information center within the network for
sustainable agriculture in third world countries
NATURAL
CROP PROTECTION
based on Local Farm Resources

in the Tropics
and Subtropics
ILEIA
P.O. Box 64
r.ahv <%tnll
VJttUy kJlUII
3830AB LEUSDEN
The Netherlands
Tel. 033 - 494 30 86
Title page:
Leaf and fruits of a Neem tree

Drawing by Wolfgang Lang
Last page:
Twig of a Neem tree

Photo by Gustav Espig
Preparation of herbal insecticides

Photo by HEKS, Zürich
Idea and text:
Gaby Stoll
Illustrations and layout:
Katrin Geigenmüller
Translation:
John Coates
Printing and binding:
F. & T. Müllerbader
Filderstadt, Germany
© Margraf Verlag, 1986, 1987, 1988, 1992, 1995, 1996
P.O. Box 105

97985 Weikersheim
Germany
The book is also available in French, German, Spanish and Thai.
ISBN 3-8236-1113-5
C O N T E N T
Foreword 5
Introduction 7
How to use this book 10
Principles of preventive crop protection 14
Pests in field and store 23

Rice 25
Maize 34
Legumes 44
Vegetables 50
Fruits 64
Storage 69
Methods of crop and storage protection 80
FIELD CULTIVATIONS
Insecticidal plants 81
Mixtures 122
Animal substances 124
Ashes 127
Baits and traps 129
Other methods 138
STORAGE PROTECTION
Principles of preventive storage protection 141
Insecticidal plants 146
Vegetable oils 163
Mineral substances and ashes 165
Other methods 167
References 168
Index 179
Current activities 185
Request for information 188

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
I should like to express my grateful thanks to all those persons

who made it possible to present this practical guide in its present
form.
Above all these are my colleagues Almut Hahn and Mathias

Zimmermann, who were always ready to listen and talk things
over, and who arranged the financial framework. Berchtold von
Steiger and Helmut Hess made important criticisms and further in
spired me. Thanks I also owe to the team of the Project-Consult,
namely Marie-Luise Gebauer, for the exchange of reflections and
information. Josef Margraf also deserves my thanks, not only for
undertaking to publish this book, but also for the bottles of red
wine we shared while discussing it. Katrin Geigenmüller has won
derfully enlivened my rather dry text with her beautiful illustra
tions. Dr. K. Carl of the Commonwealth Institute of Biological
Control and Dipl.-Biol. C. Hellpapp, a member of the Organisation
for the Promotion of Agriculture and Environmental Protection in
the Third World, critically reviewed the manuscript and John
Coates took considerable trouble with the English translation.
Finally I am grateful to all those people who contributed funds or
helped to raise funds as mentioned on page 5 and 6.
Further I should like to express my deepest thanks to all those

persons who have contributed important material. Some have gone
to great trouble to describe local plant protection practices on
paper or to compile their information, namely Blauw W., Burgess
M., ILEIA, Peries L., Rankin J., and many others. This book has
gained greatly in quality due to their help and co-operation.
Last, but not least, I want to heartily thank Jürgen Trautner

who did a huge job on the key words and Katrin Geigenmüller who
completed the make up of this book with untiring energy. Many
thanks also to my colleagues at the Centre for Appropriate
Technology who were so considerate and helpful during the final
steps of the manuscript. Thanks for the fantastic teamwork!
Langenbruck, January 1987 Gaby Stoll
4
F O R E W O R D
Three years experience at AGRECOL (1983-86) have shown that fre

quently at the crucial moment the practitioner has no access to the
most recent results of agrarian research or the treasures of Univer
sity libraries. On the other hand, the most valuable experiences of
farmers based on decades of observation are seldom written down.
This book attempts at least partially, to overcome these obstacles to

information flow, and to present a specific subject of our scope in
a simple and understandable, although by no means complete, way.
The intention is to make existing knowledge more easily accessible
and to present it in a form which encourages farmers to make their
own trials and to experiment further so as to widen our knowledge.
This is a typical exercise in transmission for an information and
contact centre like AGRECOL.
We express our hopes that this book - end of 1988 edited in French,
Spanish, German, Thai, and English (3rd edition) - may fulfil its
task as a useful guide for the practitioner and send it on its way
with every good wish - a way that calls for a permanent improve
ment, deepening and fulfilment.
We extend great thanks to Gaby Stoll who, after working at AGR

ECOL, studied this subject deeply and with great engagement. From
many and widely scattered sources she collected the material and
ultimately presented them in this book.
The finances were contributed by individuals and institutions with

whom we maintain friendly co-operation. Without their open ears our
endeavour could not have been carried out:
Mr. Gunnar Videgard, Grasse, France
AGKED: Association of the Churches Development Services, FR Ger

many
5
AGRICO: Producer-Consumer Cooperative for Biological Horticulture,
Basel, Switzerland
CTA, Technical Centre for Agricultural and Rural Co-operation,

Ede-Wageningen, Netherlands, supported the French trans
lation.
IFOAM: International Federation of Organic Agriculture Movements
MISEREOR: Catholic Church Aid, FR Germany
PROJECT-CONSULT: Frankfurt, FR Germany (due to an information

exchange)
Protestant Church Congregation, Schwanden GL, Switzerland
John Coates, a friend of the Centre for Appropriate Technology in

Langenbruck, who often worked with us - either with shovel or
typewriter - has dedicated himself with great personal engagement
to the translation of the German manuscript into English.
Georges Bray did the same for the French translation and Mrs.
Irene Steiner and Mrs. Milda Jelenis of F.U.N.A.M., Argentina, for
the Spanish translation. The author Gaby Stoll, actually working in
Thailand, just recently sent us the first copy of the book in Thai
language.
Thanks to all of them!
Langenbruck, December 1988
Matthias Zimmermann
Director AGRECOL
6
I. INTRODUCTION
7
This book wishes to offer a contribution to the reflections about
crop protection and the agri-"culture" connected with it. Sugges
tions for appropriate solutions to pest management problems are
pointed out. Having in mind the political and economic background
of the crop protection problem one can notice that there is a need
to look for long lasting and reliant solutions for the agricultural
practice, solutions that respect the requirements of man and envi
ronment.
Natural methods of plant protection have assumed a new impor

tance in an age when a host of commercial products is available
which seems to offer an easy answer to the problems of fighting
pests and diseases. However, these have neither solved the purely
agricultural problems of the small farmer, nor have they improved
his financial situation. On the contrary, they have resulted in a
series of consequences which politically, economically, ecologically
and socially are self-defeating.
The aid programmes of the international development organisa

tions are often based on western technology. The instruments of
this "high-input-agriculture" such as extension services, credits to
small farmers for seeds, fertilizers, pesticides etc. tend to ignore
and erode inherited experience and traditional systems. The fast
and radical destruction of "traditionally-developed-agriculture" has
considerably worsened the economic and social security of small
farmers. The problem of crop protection is aggravated by the
policy of companies who profit from the fact that their products
cannot solve the actual problems of the small farmers.
Nature herself has offered us a profusion of plants for use in

crop protection; a potential which deserves our interest. In natu
ral crop protection we are applying nature's own instruments.
Even though they seem to belong to another age, they can still to
day contribute to an appropriate pest management the more as they
are minimizing the risks for farmer, consumer and the environ
ment. Furthermore, scientific investigation can do much to improve
their applicability and effectiveness, thus modernizing their use.
8
It is hoped this book will make a contribution to this aim and
motivate people to work for the rediscovery and further develop
ment of a natural and more independant crop protection and to
strengthen the belief in our powers of observation and judgement.
It is we who decide how we exploit and treasure the vast variety
of resources which are locally availabe at all places.
Langenbruck and Hohberg

January 1987
Gaby Stoll
Dipl.-Agrobiologist
9
II. HOW TO USE
THIS BOOK
This is a practical guide to inform farmers, advisers, experts of
development agencies and scientists about the protection of crops
in field and store with natural resources. It is based on simple
technology which can be practised by the farmer himself. It deals
mainly with the steps to be taken after an infestation has
occurred. Preventive measures are considered as at least equally
important. But in this book they are touched on only briefly.
STRUCTURE
The structure of this book derives from the situation that a
farmer encounters an infestation in a specific crop in his field.
In chapter IV some important pests are presented. The choice for

the pests described depended on the availability of natural control
measures and was restricted to food plants. For these pests the
life-cycles and habits are detailed in order to allow control
measures to be understood more comprehensive. The control
measures recommended for each pest fall into two categories:
* Preventive measures
These are dealt with in chapter III and are especially described
with reference to specific pests.
* Curative measures
These are described in chapter V and practical details given.
All methods of control which are described in chapter V receive

a reference to the respective page.
SOURCES OF INFORMATION
Four principle sources of information have been used:
* Information gathered by an inquiry among contacts of the AGRE-

COL INFORMATION CENTRE dealing with natural crop protection.
11
* Answers to several 'Call for Information' published in newslet
ters and international magazins concerned with organic farming,
ecology, networking etc.
* These two categories contain much information drawn from prac

tice. Much of this kind of knowledge lies in the hands and
heads of farmers and has never been written down.
* Research from the period between the two world wars. During
this time alternatives to the crop protection of the "arsenic age"
were sought. White colonial farmers learnt from native popula
tions that there were certain plants which possessed protective
or repellent properties against pests. They planned to grow and
process plants with such properties so that they could be sold
as insecticides. From this period stems the most important
research into insecticidal plants. In the post Second World War
period this was quickly superseded by the rapid development of
the convincingly effective synthetic pesticides.
* Research after about 1980 which was again concerned with

insecticidal plants. After it became obvious that the use of
synthetic pesticides carries grave problems, a renaissance of
insecticidal plants began.
PRACTICE - RESEARCH
Scientific research into insecticidal plants has produced import
ant information about their properties and potential effectiveness.
But often these information are not very suitable for the farmer's
purpose. They are rather focused on producing preparations on a
commercial scale.
Scientific results which contribute directly to the practical work

of a farmer have been integrated deliberately into this manual.
They might give useful suggestions for experimentation in the
field.
12
INCOMPLETENESS
This book makes no claim to be complete. It sets out to stimulate
an interest in and to revive knowledge based on "people's science"
as well as to make the results of research available to farmers.
The informations for the actual measures are to be considered as

a basic information. In the respective situation factors such as
climate, elevation and season can all influence the results and
variations should be tried to suit local conditions. This is
particularly so in the case of insecticidal plants because the
concentration of the active substances can vary greatly. This is
also true for the transference of scientific results to farm
conditions.
CALL FOR COLLABORATION

In the interest of an exchange of practically-oriented information
and of a mutual learning, the writer would be most grateful for
any additional informations on the use of Natural Crop Protection
Measures.
Thus, the process of cooperation could be enhanced and the pre

sent level of information be realized and extended in a further
issue.
Please write to the following address:
Gaby Stoll
Bühlengasse 2
D-7609 HOHBERG 1
FR Germany
13
III. PRINCIPLES OF
PREVENTIVE CROP
PROTECTION
14
In agricultural systems where synthetic products are not used
for crop protection, farmers use a series of direct and indirect
measures to safeguard their crops from the ravages of enemies. In
this sense "Integrated Pest Management" has long been an integral
component of good farming practice. The most important factors in
these traditional methods of crop protection are the utilisation of a
pest's biological characteristics in such a way that they combat
its development, and reducing the possibility of pests using
cultivated crops as a means of sustenance. Further protection can
be given by encouraging the development of natural enemies.
Crop protection is a complex process which requires an under

standing of the interactions between the environment, methods of
farming and the predominant system of cultivation. Hence, crop
protection cannot consist in only one specific measure, but re
quires a suitable combination of methods depending on crop, cli
mate and region. A knowledge of these factors must play an impor
tant role in the way a farmer decides to protect his crops.
It is not the function of plant protection to ensure maximum pro

duction. This is an aim imposed by man. It is better to strive for
an optimum ecological and economical relationship which leave
other life forms space and resources. But when pests threaten the
safeguard of food and human existence, it is not easy to not re
gard them as enemies.
It is important to recognize that a natural crop protection mea

sure as described in the book is to be understood as one measure
amongst many. It does not pretend to replace preventive cultural
measures, but to supplement them. Generally, the short term effec
tiveness of natural measures is not as great as that of synthetic
pesticides. But in the long run it is obvious that they have the
following advantages: They
* diminish the risk of pests building up a resistance to treatment.
* have a less destructive effect on the natural enemies of pests.
* diminish the risk of secondary outbreaks.
* are less harmful to the health of either humans or farm animals
* cause no damage to the environment or to water supplies.
15
* mean no dependancy on a constant supply of agricultural chemi
cal to the farmer.
* can cost much less.
Subsequently, the essential principles of preventive crop protec

tion measures through cultural practices are described. Practical
examples shall visualize them.
1. Knowledge of Agricultural Ecosystems
A knowledge of the way in which cultivated fields and the sur

rounding countryside are ecologically associated is helpful to a
farmer when he is deciding which preventive measures are best
suited to his requirements. Farmers, and even more importantly,
advisers, should consider the following:
* Species of pests and beneficial insects on the cultivated land

and in the neighbouring countryside.
* Biology of pests and beneficial insects (morphology, life-cycle,

breeding behaviour, feeding habits etc.)
* The rhythmic patterns of insects at different seasons and their

dependence on environmental factors.
* Vulnerable states during the life-cycles of an insect which offer

a suitable means of controlling it.
* The season or stage of development of a cultivated plant when it

is most vulnerable to attack.
* Alternative host plants (either cultivated or wild) which might

attract a particular pest.
* Predators and parasites which might be encouraged.
Constant observation is highly important to gain a vital knowledge

about these interactions. This is a valuable instrument for the
proper decisions and measures most suited to local conditions.
16
2. Mixed Farming and Diversification
Traditional agricultural systems present a landscape of great

variety. In the fields many different crops grow simultaneously
side by side, and wild flowers and plants add to the diversity.
This multiformity itself already offers a considerable degree of
preventive protection which follows naturally from mixed farming
for the following reasons:
* There is a greater availability of small habitats and a multi

plicity of food sources, e.g. nectar and pollen, on which natu
ral enemies are able to draw. Thus a higher permanent popula
tion of the predators and parasites of pests is maintained.
* Visual and aromatic attraction by host and non-host plants as

well as the micro-climate influence the movements and migration
behaviour of pests in particular localities. Mixed farming offers
many forms of attraction. Pests can become confused or disorien
tated and thus are unable to detect or discover their food
plant. Repellent effects also reduce the spread of pests.
Some examples from practical experience:
* When maize and peanuts are planted together, infestation by the

maize stalk borer (Busseola fusca) is reduced. Predatory spiders
(Lycosa spp.) control the maize stalk borer much more
effectively than when maize alone is grown (89)
* Maize and cowpeas planted together are subject to significantly

less damage from the stalk borers Busseola fusca and Sesamia
calamistis (148).
* A mixture of maize and beans reduces infestation by the fall

army worm (Spodoptera frugiperda) (155).
* Tomatoes planted in rows between cabbages, reduces damage by

the diamondback moth (Plutella xylostella), but do not prevent
it entirely (89).
* Potatoes planted in conjunction with onions, beans, soya beans

tomatoes and maize were significantly less affected by the pota-
toe tuber moth (Phthorimaea operculella) (32).
* Potato-wheat and potato-maize combinations offer some protection

against the potato flea beetle (Epitrix spp.) (32).
17
The opposite effect can also take place. In some cased mixed
cultivation increases infestation.
3. Land Formation
Non-cultivated sites like steep slopes or inaccessible places, the

vicinity of hedges, or marshy areas where perennial plants grow,
offer numerous habitats for birds, reptiles and insects which prey
on pests. From these highly varied locations complex plant colo
nies can develop which offer living space to predators. Pests
which infest cultivated crops are liable to reduction when many
such natural habitats abound because they form a natural link in
the food chain. Furthermore it is evident that an abundance of
perennial growths such as bushes and trees encourage the develop
ment of a stable population of predators which annuals do not.
Areas with permanent varieties suffer less disturbance from outside
and local fauna can breed undisturbed.
4. Crop Rotation
The basic principle of crop rotation lies in separating a parti

cular pest in space and time from its host plant. The interruption
of the life-cycle by introducing a non-host reduces the spread of
pests in subsequent cultivations. It is therefore best to choose
crops for successional plantings which have few common enemies.
The best effects result from the successional planting of crops
which belong to different families (89). Crop rotation is highly
effective for controlling pests which originate in the soil like
nematodes, wireworms and cutworms.
An example of a crop rotation pattern which is successful in

Nicaragua (121):
* ROOT OR TUBER CROPS LEAF OR FRUIT CROPS GRAIN CROPS
Potato, sweet potato, Cabbage, salat, pepper, Maize, beans,
carrots, cassava. c h i l l y , tomatoes.
18
* Potatoes - Beans - Maize (32).
5. Natural Rhythms and Optimum Planting Season
Choosing the right time for planting also keeps infestation low.
An outbreak of pests or disease is usually associated with a par
ticular stage of development of the host plant. The coincidence of
an increase of pest population with a crop's most vulnerable
period should therefore be avoided. A knowledge of the life-cycle
of an insect and the corresponding effect on the host plant is ne
cessary to enable a farmer to reach the right decision. No definite
rules can be laid down regarding these fluctuations; they are al
ways to be observed locally.
* Rice farmers in Southeast Asia who adhere to traditional methods

cultivate only one crop of rice during the rainy season in order
to interrupt the life-cycle of the rice stem borer (95).
* In Ghana the farmers only plant maize in the main rainy sea
son. In the lesser rainy season maize suffers a higher infesta
tion of stem borers (HESS, pers.comm.)
* Simultaneous planting over a large area means that the period

of time when all plants are at a vulnerable stage of develop
ment and attractive to pests is restricted. Successional plantings
prolong the risk of infection.
* In Colombia the incidence of jassids in beans is reduced when

the beans are sown 20-30 days after the maize. This can pro
bably be attributed to the fact that the maize shelters the jas
sids' food plant and makes it more difficult for them to detect.
Damage to the beans is reduced by 66 % compared to monocul
ture (103).
6. Manuring and Plant Health
The health of a plant and therefore its value as a food are di
rectly connected with disease and pest infestation. A plant which
is undernourished is in a state of imbalance and is more easily
prone to the pressure of pests or diseases. Treatment with too
much fertilizer can have the same results.
19
The introduction of modern inputs like artificial fertilizers and
irrigation often encourages pests. Highly fertilized crops attract
insects more strongly and can build up and support large popula
tions. An increased incidence of aphids is a typical example of
how large applications of artificial nitrogen encourages pests. On
plants which receive high doses of nitrogen, mites were observed
to lay ten eggs per day, while on those with lower doses they lay
on average only 5.4 per day (161).
In Nicaragua VAN HUIS observed that invasions by the fall army

worm (Spodoptera frugiperda) and the stem borer (Diatraea
lineolata) were encouraged by treatment with artificial fertilizers
(154).)
The opposite condition of imbalance, i.e. undernourishment' and

stress, also renders the plants more vulnerable to pests.
A well formulated and balanced manure and a healthy organic

soil contribute a strong resistance to disease and pests.
7. Soil Tillage
Soil tillage as a preventive measure aims at pests which exist

as larvae or pupae in the soil or in crop residues. Ploughing
affects them in two ways:
* Eggs, larvae and pupae can be ploughed in to a depth from

which they cannot succeed in resurfacing.
* Are they exposed to the surface by ploughing they will dry

out or are devoured by birds or other animals (154).
The introduction of the plough as a preventive measure in warm

climates should be carefully weighted against its harmful effects
such as the destruction of humus and soil erosion.
* In the Philippines, cowpeas and mungbeans were sown directly

onto undisturbed stubble. The stubble impeded the detection of
the peas and beans by bean flies, thrips and jassids (95).
* It is reported by Nicaraguan farmers that 'white grubs' can

effectively be ploughed out when the soil is dry. The exposed
larvae then shrivel up in the sun (154).
20
8. Choice of Variety
In combination with other methods the choice of plant variety

constitutes a further means of reducing attacks by pests. Breeding
and selection of special varieties is by no means new. In tra
ditional systems of cultivation farmers have long been familiar
with a wide choice of local varieties which were appropriate to
their particular needs. Secondary substances such as gossypol in
cotton or alkaloids in lupins play an important role in resisting
pests or disease. With modern breeding and its emphasis on high
yields, many of these protective properities have been lost. Today
new attempts are being made to breed varieties with specific pro
perties of resistance.
Resistance can take a number of forms:
* Insect will not accept a plant as a food source, a place to de

posit eggs, or a habitat.
* Insects sicken after feeding on the host plant.
* Host plants can tolerate insect feeding and recover again (45).
The following food plants (among many others) have resistant

varieties:
* Sorghum varieties resistant to sorghum shootfly.
* Cowpeas resistant to aphids and jassids (161)
* Beans resistant to beanflies (45).
* Maize resistant to the stem borers Busseola fusca and Sesamia

calamistis (Nigeria).
* Rice resistant to the brown plant hopper (Philippines).
9. Field Hygiene
Field hygiene is a measure aimed at interrupting the life-cycle

of pests. This includes, for instance, the removal of harvest resi
dues or prematurely fallen fruit, which might be infested with
larvae or pupae. Preventing the further development of pests in
this way reduces future populations.
21
* To control maize stem borers, Nicaraguan farmers burn the
stubble after the harvest, which destroys many of the remaining
larvae or pupae. Some farmers turn out cattle to graze the
stubble (154).
* According to KUMAR, burning stubble destroys 96 % of the larvae

and pupae living in (83).
* Fly-infested fruit should be gathered together in one place and

removed so that the maggots may not continue their life-cycle in
the ground. The fruit should then be immersed in water for two
or three weeks or buried deep (126).
10. Social Aspects
Plant protection also has a social aspect. An individual farmer

cannot take effective measures against pests which range over
a large territory. Here it is worth considering joint action with
his neighbours.
For instance in the case of the variegated grasshopper (Zonoce-

rus variegatus) preventive measures should be taken in the loca
tions where the eggs are laid, such as old tree stumps, heaps of
uprooted weeds and damp places in general. Eggs are most effec
tively destroyed by raking them out so that they dry in the sun.
Nest sites are comparatively rare, usually one or two per hectare.
The key for a successful control is the destruction of all nest
sites over a large area by all farmers. One farmer acting alone
has little effect, whereas joint action can reduce the succeeding
grasshopper population by 70-80 % (132).
22
IV. PESTS IN FIELD
AND STORE
In this chapter the most common and important pests which cause
much damage to crops growing in the field or stored in silos and
barns are described.
In order that the methods by which they can be controlled may

be better understood the life-cycle of these insects is given in
some detail. A picture of the damage they inflict is also given.
The selection of the pests described resulted from two aspects:
1. Restriction to food plants.
2. Availability of information about Natural Crop Protection meth

ods.
The control measures described for each pest lead to Chapter V,

in which curative methods are described in detail. A short mention
is also made of preventive measures.
Insects infesting crops fall into five main groups according to

the dominant group of host plants. A further section describes the
ones which are found mainly in stores.
24
PESTS OF RICE
1. RICE STEM BORERS
Stem or stalk borers are found wherever rice is grown, and are
usually present in the greatest numbers at the end of the rainy
season. They have increased since it has become the practice to
harvest several crops a year because the insects have a constant
supply of food plants.
The following are the most important:
Darkheaded rice stem borer - Chilo polychrysus

Purple stalk borer - Sesamia inferens
Striped rice stem borer - Chilo suppressalis
White paddy stem borer - Scirpophaga innotata
Yellow paddy stem borer - Scirpophaga incertulas
Host Plants
primary: Rice
secondary: Maize, sugar-cane, millet, wildgrasses.
Distribution
Principally on the Indian subcontinent and in Southeast Asia.
Life-Cycle
The development cycle of all the stem borers is similar and one
description will serve. The adult female moth lays about 200 eggs
on the leaves or sheaths of the rice plant. The caterpillars hatch
after 5-10 days and begin to feed on the leaves. Some days later
they bore into the stalk where they feed on the pith. The dark
headed rice stem borer is particularly fond of feeding on the stalk
joints so that they weaken and break. The larval stage lasts from
28-35 days. Pupation takes place in the lower regions of the
stalk, although it can happen in the ground if the caterpillars
have travelled that far.
25
PURPLE STALK BORER (Sesamia inferens)
STRIPED RICE STEM BORER (Chilo suppressalis)
YELLOW PADDY STEM BORER (Scirpophaga incertul

Damage Pattern
The damage is caused by the caterpillars feeding inside the

stalks which disrupts the flow of water and nourishment to the
plant. The weakened stem thus easily breaks off. Stem borers be
come particularly numerous in areas where there are several har
vests a year and infestations can be especially high when the
young rice plants are planted too late (48).
The white and striped varieties bore into the leaf sheath and
make their way to the growing point which they destroy, producing
the 'dead-heart-effect1. As soon as the plant begins to weaken the
larvae seek a new food source and in this way inflict a great
deal of damage. Young plants are particularly prone to the
dead-heart-effect. If the plants are infested after the ears have
begun to form they produce only sterile, whitish panicles (White
heads).
Control Measures
Once stem borers have disappeared inside the rice stalk it is

difficult to treat them effectively because sprays don't reach them.
Preventive measures must therefore play the greater role. These
are:
* The use of early ripening varieties (67).
* The use of resistant varieties.
* Simultaneous planting.
* Destruction of eggs in the seedbeds (54).
* As a rule, the greater the distance between the plants the

greater the infestation.
* The use of light traps (67) p. 133

At the time of the new moon catches are particularly high.
* Spraying with plant preparations:

- Neem (52) p. 94
- Persian Lilac (52) p. 94
- Tobacco p. Ill
- Cow urine (112) p. 124
28
GRIST suggests that the best time for spraying (although with
synthetic pesticides) is about a month before the rice begins to
flower, which is also the time when the infestation is at its
highest. Several applications may be necessary (54).
FRÖHLICH (48) maintains that the best time for treatment is
when the adults are in active flight and the young caterpillars
are emerging.
* In the case of heavy infestations the rice should be cut very

close to the ground. Most of the larvae and pupae will be re
moved with the straw which can then be grazed or burnt (54).
* Deep ploughing of the stubble immediately after the harvest pre

vents the development of the adult insect.
RICE HOPPERS
Rice hoppers not only devour rice plants as food, but also in
flict great damage because they are carriers of destructive virus
diseases.
The most important species are:
Brown rice plant hopper Nilaparvata lugens

Green rice leaf hopper Nephotettix nigropictus
Whitebacked rice plant hopper Sogatella furcifera
Zigzag rice leaf hopper Recilia dorsalis
29
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**
Control Measures
* Crop rotation
The spread of the brown rice plant hopper has been due above
all to the unbroken planting of irrigated rice (89).
* A film of kerosene can be added to the water in seed beds. The

young plants are then shaken, whereupon the pests fall into the
water and die (36).
* Plant early.
* Control the weeds because many types of wildgrasses are also

host plants.
* Use light traps to observe the beginning of the infestation as

well as to~catch the hoppers (67) p. 133
* Spraying with plant preparations:

- Derris (55) p. 86
- Neem (52) p. 94
- Pyrethrum (55) p. 99
- Soap-solution (55) p. 140
* lise tobacco dust (55).
33
PESTS OF MAIZE
AMERICAN BOLLWORM
Heliothis armigera, Fam. Noctuidae
Host Plants
Maize, sorghum, beans, cotton, tobacco, tomatoes, legumes,

various vegetables, sunflowers.
Distribution
Throughout the tropics and sub-tropics and the temperate zones

of Europe and Asia. Despite its name it is not found on the Ameri
can continent. There the related species Heliothis zea and H. vi-
rescens are common.
Life-Cycle
Round, yellow-brown eggs (1000-1500 per female) are laid singly

on young buds, stalks or fruit. In the case of maize this coin
cides with the flowering period. Stout caterpillers, 3-4 cm long,
hatch in 2-4 days with typical wavy and pale longitutional stripes
on a yellow to dark green background. The larvae bore into the
young maize cobs and feed there. After 14-30 days they make their
way to the ground where they pupate and after a further 14 days
(at the earliest) the adult brown moths emerge to begin a new life
cycle. If the weather is cool the pupating stage is prolonged.
Damage Pattern
The caterpillers bore into the young maize cobs when they are in
milk ripe condition. It is characteristic that only the foreparts
are in the cobs, the hind parts remaining outside. When they
attack other food plants they bore into a suitable part of the
fruit. Secondary fungus infections often occur after an infestation
of the bollworm.
34
Control Measures
* Avoid continuous maize cropping. Crop rotation is recommended

(20).
* Plant early.
* The host plants should be inspected regularly. In the case of

maize and sorghum, particularly when they are in a milk ripe
condition.
* Introduce light traps (126), p. 133

Eggs are laid when the maize is in flower. To catch the moths
of the bollworm the light traps should be set up just before this
35
ARMY WORMS
Spodoptera spp., Fam. Noctuidae
Army worms are the caterpillars of a number of different moths

of the genus Spodoptera. Most of them embark on migratory flights
as moths and are well known for their sudden appearances.
The flight of the African army worm (Spodoptera exempta) is

connected to the prevailing trade winds and the onset of the rainy
season. Periodically their arrival coincides with a supply of young
food plants and the huge numbers of ensuing, simultaneously-born
caterpillars possess in their young stage a swarming instinct. As
soon as they have devoured one field they move like an army to
the next, and hence their name.
Favourable conditions for an outbreak occur when high night

temperatures and late precipitations coincide with a supply of
young tender grass or corn. According to ALLAM outbreaks of army
worms are connected with a state of imbalance in the ecosystem
and a reduction in the population of their natural enemies (54).
AFRICAN ARMYWORM
(Spodoptera exempta)
36
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38
Control Measures
* In endangered areas at the time of probable outbreaks it is

most important to keep a careful lookout. .
* VAN HUIS reports from Nicaragua that Spodoptera frugiperda is

present in reduced numbers when maize is grown in conjunction
with beans (154).
* Nitrogen fertilizer has an influence on the probability of an

outbreak. In Japan, fields with high applications of nitrogen
prove to be more susceptible to army worms (54).
* Army worm traps can be dug (74), p. 135
* Use army worm repellent (10), p. 140
* Use plant preparation:

- Neem (52), p. 94
- Pyrethrum (126), p. 99
- Tobacco (126), p. Ill
* Where possible flood a field for two or three days (54).
* Introduce light traps in endangered areas in time to forecast a

possible outbreak and reduce future development (126, 21), p. 133
CAREFUL OBSERVATION AND QUICK ACTION ARE CRUCIAL !
BLACK MAIZE BEETLE

Heteronychus spp. (H. arator, H. licas, H. consimilis),
Fam. Scarabaeidae
Host Plants
primary: Maize and wheat,

secondary: Sugar cane, other cereals, yams, tobacco, vegetables
and wildgrasses.
39
Distribution
H. arator is found in Southern Africa, Madagascar, Australia

and New Zealand. H. licas is found in tropical Africa, Nigeria,
Zaire, Swaziland, East Africa, Zimbabwe, South Africa. H. consimi-
lis is encountered only in East Africa.
Life-Cycle
The eggs, about 50 per female, are laid in the ground about 1
cm deep near the host plant. The caterpillars hatch after about 10
days and have a soft, fleshy, C-shaped body about 35 mm long.
Their food is the organic debris to be found in the ground and
root hairs. After a long larva and pupa stage, the adult beetle
emerges. It is black, roundish and 15-20 mm long, and as a rule
there are only one or two generations a year. After a week the
beetles are sexually mature. They live for about 120 days.
Damage Pattern
Plants suffer through the adult beetles who feed on them at

ground level, or eat through the young stems below the earth. A
single beetle can eat through several plants in a row. When the
growing point is affected the 'dead-heart-effect' ensues. Damage
by the larvae is comparatively light. Severe feeding at the roots
can however, lead to loss of nutrients and a withering of the
plant.
Control Measures

According to RANKIN these are an ideal solution. In Zambia more
than 3000 beetles were caught in a single night with 10 light
traps. These were arranged in triangular patterns 100 m apart.
* Use a tobacco spray (126), p. Ill

The spray should be used in the late evening and aimed at the
point where the plant emerges from the ground.
40
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Damage Patterns
Young caterpillars of Busseola fusca and Chilo partellus leave

typical holes and 'windows' in the leaves due to their feeding and
mining activity.
When the infestation is early and heavy the growing point can
be damaged by feeding larvae (dead-heart-effect). The plants then
become stunted and produce only small maize cobs. Feeding also
affects the pith of the plant and disrupts the nutrient and water
supply. This weakens the plant still further.
PINK STALK BORER

(Sesamia calamistis)
42
Control Measures
* Use resistant varieties.
* Where possible plant simultaneously over a large area.
* Grow in conjunction with legumes.

A maize-cowpea mixture reduces the incidence of Busseola fusca
and Sesamia calamistis.
* Use the system of crop rotation.
* Introduce light traps before the eggs are laid, i.e. shortly be
fore the female moths embark on their flight, which is usually
before the maize flowers, p. 133
* Once the maize has been infested the following preparations can
be used:
- Garlic, p. 89
- Neem (1), p. 94
- Ryania (1), p. 106
- Cow urine (115), p. 124
The timing of the spraying is crucial for the effectiveness of the

treatment. Because the young larvae rest on the leaves and in
the sheaths before they bore into the stalk, it is essential to
spray them at this time, because it is then they are at their
most vulnerable. It is also important to ensure that sufficient
spray enters the leaf sheaths (48).
* Field hygiene.
After a severe outbreak the stubble should be either ploughed in
deep or burnt so as to kill any remaining larvae (83).
43
PESTS OF LEGUMES
BEAN FLY
Melanagromyza phaseoli, Fam. Agromyzidae
Host Plants
Beans of all kinds, including Phaseolus, Vicia and Glycine spp.

Other legumes are also attacked.
Distribution
The Indian sub-continent, Southeast-Asia, East-Australia, parts

of East and Southern Africa.
Life-Cycle
As soon as the first leaves have appeared the bean fly lays its
eggs on the upper surface of the leaf. They are white, oval,
about 1 mm long and are laid singly in small cavities
concentrated along the leaf veins where the leaf joins the stem.
The larva, a small white maggot, burrows into the leaf and forms
a bow-shaped track. Finally the maggot burrows into the stem and
travels downwards to the neck of the root where it feeds just
above the ground level. There pupation takes place, although
sometimes it occurs in the cracked parts of the stem. The adult
insect emerges as a 2 mm long glistening black fly. The whole
life-cycle can last as little as two or three weeks.
Damage Pattern
Infested plants become yellow and show a stunted growth. The

nutrient flow is diminished due to the destruction of the stem pith.
The stems thicken directly above the ground and often break off.
Many plants die. Surviving plants produce very few pods which
are often empty or contain very small seeds. Damage is particular
ly high in the dry season.
44
egg-laying
bean fly
Control Measures
* A good measure of control can always be achieved by planting

at an appropriate season (142).
* Overlapping, successive plantings of beans should always be

avoided. It is better to rotate the crops.
* Spray with a tobacco preparation (18), p. Ill

Two pre-flowering sprayings are recommended. (When synthetic
insecticides are used it usually is carried out 2 and 12 days
after germination).
* After an outbreak all plant residues should be removed after the

harvest and burnt (26).
MEXICAN BEAN BEETLE

Epilachna varivestis Muls., Fam. Coccinellidae
Host Plants
primary: Legumes (principally common beans), limabeans, cow-

peas, soyabeans,
secondary: Maize, cucurbits, potatoes, eggplants.
Distribution
From Panama to Canada, Africa and Asia.
Life-Cycle
Elliptical, pale yellow eggs are laid in groups on the underside

of the leaf. After 4-5 days oval-shaped yellow larvae hatch out.
Each body segment is covered with 4-6-branched yellow hairs with
black tips. The larvae grow to about 8 mm long and pupate on the
leaf. The adult beetles are oval in shape and from 6-8 mm long.
46
They are coloured reddish-yellow to yellowish-brown with 16
black spots. The Mexican bean beetle is a ladybird and it is one
of the rare leaf-eating members of this family. The females lay
about 1500 eggs and under good conditions the life-cycle lasts from
35-40 days.
Damage Pattern
Both larvae and beetles cause severe feeding damage. The larvae
rupture the undersides of the leaves to imbibe the sap, but the
upper epidermis remains intact and the leaves assume a bizarre
pattern of translucent patches. The beetles on the other hand de
vour all the leaf between the ribs, but in severe cases will con
sume the stems and pods of legumes as well. Mexican bean beetles
are particularly harmful to young plants before they have flowered
(30).
Control Measures
* Early ripening varieties often suffer less damage.
* After an infestation crop residues should be ploughed in to a

depth of at least 15 cm. It is important that all the plant mate
rial is completely covered.
47
* Use plant preparations:
- Derris, p. 86
- Garlic (106), p. 89
- Neem (52), p. 94
- Yam bean (52), p. 120
Applications should take place before the eggs are laid (19).
POTATO JASSIDS
Empoasca fabae, Fam. Cicadellidae
Host Plants
Legumes (principally common beans), potatoes, cucurbits, sweet

potatoes, okra, tomatoes and many others.
Distribution
North-America (East-USA), Central- and South America.
Life-Cycle
Greenish, banana-shaped eggs are sunk into the stalks and ribs
on the underside of the leaf. After about 9 days they hatch and
take from 14-18 days to go through five larval (nymphal) stages.
When they are fully grown they are about 2 mm long,
yellowish-green and froglike. The adult insect is pale green with
a thin body about 2,5 mm long. When they are disturbed they
jump or fly or they scuttle sideways like the nymphs. A female
lays up to about 200 eggs (61).
48
Damage Pattern
Both nymphs and adults imbibe sap from the underside of the
leaf and from the stems. The leaves of infested plants become
yellow at first and gradually the edges turn reddish-brown and
curl under. As a result the plant becomes stunted, shrivelled and
may die. Young plants and seedlings are particularly at risk
(19).
Control Measures
* Planting during the rainy season (30).
* Plant resistant varieties, such as those with dense hairy leaves

which prevent the jassid from depositing its eggs (142).
* Mulching (30).
* Use sprays:
* Use dusts:
- Derris (19), p. 86
- Sabadilla (19), p. 107
The best time for treatment against E. fabae is during the first
month of growth when the plants are about 10 cm high. This is
the time when the females are laying their eggs (161).
49
PESTS OF VEGETABLES
APHIDS
All species, Fam. Aphididae
Since all aphids have similar life-cycles and require similar con
trol methods, they are described collectively.
Host Plants
Legumes, cucurbits, nightshade family, wildgrasses, citrus, and

many more.
Life-Cycle
Aphids are soft, pear-shaped, polyphagous sap imbibers, at big

gest 4 mm long. The mouth parts consist of a needle sharp stiletto
to puncture into the plant and suck out the sap. Aphids colonize
preferably young leaves and shoots.
Reproduction is both sexual and parthenogenetic. An adult can

produce 2-20 offspring per day and under favourable conditions a
whole life-cycle can last as little as two weeks. There are both
winged and wingless types, the winged form developing when the
population density becomes too high.
Damage Pattern
Aphids cause direct and indirect damage:
Direct damage occurs through the imbibing of sap. A simultaneous

higher rate of plant respiration is probably attributable to the in
jection of spittle by the aphid. Deformation of the leaves, reduced
growth, and in the case of legumes, a smaller nitrogen nodule,
are direct results. Aphids secret honeydew and this results in a
fungus growth which affects photosynthèses.
Indirect damage is caused by the transmission by aphids of vi

rus disease, e.g. bean mosaic virus, rosette virus and cucumber
mosaic virus.
50
Control Measures
* Encourage natural enemies by enhancing diversity.
* Use nitrogen-fertilizers with discretion, but apply organic

manures liberally.
* Use sprays:
- Annona (13), p. 81
- Chilli (43), p. 84
- Derris (37), p. 86
- Garlic (124), p. 89
- Neem (52), p. 94
- Quassia (133), p. 103
- Yam bean (13), p. 120
- Urine (115, 127), p. 124
- Flour preparation (125), p. 139
- Soap solution, p. 140
51
CUTWORMS
Agrotis ypsilon (greasy cutworm), Agrotis segetum (turnip moth)
Fam. Noctuidae
Host Plants
primary: Vegetables and roots,

secondary: Maize, tobacco, coffee.
Distribution
European continent, Africa and Indian sub-continent.
Life-Cycle
The eggs are laid on the stalks of the host plant or in the
ground nearby. A moth lays between 1000 and 1300 eggs and the
caterpillars hatch in 10-14 days, feeding on the leaves of the host
plant for the first one or two weeks. Thereafter they move into the
ground where they settle close by a host plant. When fully grown
they are greyish brown and 4-5 cm long. Pupation takes place in
the ground. This stage lasts 10-30 days. The turnip moth has a
wingspan of 3-4 cm and the forewings are grey-brown with dark
brown or black kidney-shaped markings. The rear wings are
almost white although those of the male are darker. The moths of
the greasy cutworm are larger with a grey body and grey
forewings with dark brown or black markings. The rear wings are
almost white with darker edgings.
Damage Pattern
During the day the caterpillars remain in the ground where they
feed on the roots of the host plant (48). At night they emerge and
feed on the stems of young plants which fall over as a result and
entire rows can be destroyed. They also severely damage root and
tuber crops.
52
Control Measures
It is advisable to control the caterpillars when they are young

and are feeding on the leaves. Once they have retired into the
ground it is much more difficult to treat them effectively.
* Ploughing a month before sowing turns the caterpillars or pupae

up to the surface where they shrivel in the sun or are eaten by
birds (161).
* Keeping down weeds early in the year reduces the egg laying
sites (161).
* Treat the seed bed with wood ash or a mixture of wood ash and
chalk (36).
* Nails or splinters of wood can be set in the ground near each

stalk of the host plant. This causes the caterpillars to avoid
such host plants to a certain degree (161).
* Introduce light traps, p. 133
* Put out cutworm bait, p. 129
* Use sprays:
- Derris (35), p. 86
this should not be used where a member of the Solanaceae
family is being grown because of the danger of transmitting
a virus disease.
Sprays should be used on young plants and directed particularly

at the point where they emerge from the ground.
54
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57
Control Measures
* Encourage natural enemies by maintaining natural surroundings

with plenty of breeding places.
* Mixed cultivation can help reducing infestation:

For instance tomatoes planted between the rows of cabbages re
pel the diamondback moth (Plutella xylostella).
* Use sprays:
- Annona (52), p. 81
- Derris (37), p. 86
- Mammey (52), p. 92
- Neem (52), p. 94
- Quassia (35), p. 103
- Yam beans (52), p. 120
MITES
Tetranychus spp., Fam. Tetranychidae
Host Plants
Cucurbits, legumes, nightshade family, sweet potatoes, cassava,

citrus, tree tomato, taro and others.
Distribution
Tropical, subtropical and temperate zones.
Life-Cycle
Mites are tiny, spider-like creatures. Many are bright red in

colour, but sometimes they are green or orange. Yellowish eggs are
58
laid singly on the underside of the leaf or under the silk web
woven by the adults. After 4-7 days the larvae hatch and pupate
after another 6-10 days. A fully grown mite lives for about 3
weeks and in this time lays about 200 eggs.
Damage pattern
At all stages of development mites imbibe sap from between the

leaf veins. These places show up as yellowish spots. Later the
leaf turns brown and becomes covered with a silvery coating. In
particularly severe cases the leaf shrivels, the development of new
leaves and buds is inhibited and the plant gradually dies. Infe
station by mites is heaviest in the dry season.
Control Measures
* Encourage natural enemies

The role of mites as pest has increased with the more intensive
use of synthetic pesticides since these have reduced the number
of natural enemies (118).
* Plant the most vulnerable vegetables in the rainy season where

possible.
* Choose resistant varieties.
* Use nitrogen-fertilizers sparingly (161).
* Use sprays:
- Garlic (125), p. 89
- Neem (52), p. 94
- Pyrethrum, p. 99
- Urine (127), p. 124
- Flour preparation (125), p. 139
- Kerosene-soap emulsion (146), p. 140
- Soap solution (74), p. 140
59
THRIPS
Thrips spp., Fam. Thripidae
Host Plants
The onion thrips infest a whole range of vegetables such as to

matoes, collards, leeks, garlic and peas, as well as onions. The
bean thrips feed not only on beans, but on peas, peanuts, coffee,
avocado and many others.
Distibution
The onion thrips is most widely distributed and is found every

where except West Africa.
Life-Cycle
Onion thrips eggs are laid in incisions in the epidermis of the

leaves and stems of young plants. They are white and hatch in
4-10 days. Both the larvae (nymphs) and the adult insects pierce
the epidermis of the leaves and imbibe the sap. Pupation takes
place in the ground. The emerging insects are very small, only
about 1 mm long, yellow brown with dark cross stripes on the
body. The entire life-cycle lasts only three weeks or so and there
fore 5-10 generations a year can result.
Damage Pattern
Typical damage pattern is a silvery flecked leaf surface which

in severe cases turns brown. Onion leaves often become deformed
and die. A further sign of thrips infestation are small black spots
on the leaves, the excrements of the insect.
Indirect damage results from virus diseases which are carried

by thrips. The most common are cassava mosaic, cotton leaf curl,
tobacco leaf curl and sweet potato virus B.
60
ONION THRIPS
(Thrips tabaci)
Control Measures
* Mulching reduces thrips infestation considerably (61).
* Deep ploughing after the harvest to bury the pupae (48).
* Stubble and other harvest remains should be burnt to reduce

future populations (48).
* Use sprays:
- A preparation of the leaves of Calotropis procera boiled with
soap (36).
- Garlic (125), p. 89
- Neem (36, 52), p. 94
- Preparations containing rotenone such as derris, lonchocarpus
and tephrosia (161), p. 86
- Tobacco both in spray and dust form (36), p. Ill
- Soap solution, p. 140
Because eggs and pupae in the ground are not affected by

sprays it is recommended that the treatment should be repeated
when infestations are heavy.
61
WHITE FLY
Bemisia tabaci, Fam. Aleyrodidae
Host Plants
Tobacco, beans, cucurbits, potatoes, eggplants, sunflowers,

okra, cotton.
Distribution
Widely distributed throughout the tropics, subtropics and also in

the temperate zones.
Life-Cycle
Tiny pear-shaped eggs hang vertically from the underside of the

leaf. After about seven days the nymphs (larvae) hatch and begin
to imbibe sap. They go through several nymphal stages all of
which are greenish white and oval. In 2-4 weeks the adult fly
emerges, about 1 mm long with white wings and a body powdered
with a white floury secretion. Each female lays about 100 eggs.
Damage Pattern
An indescriminate feeder which above all likes dry conditions

and appears in the dry season. With the onset of rain it largely
disappears. It is also a widely prevalent greenhouse pest. Since
the introduction of synthetic insecticides the white fly has deve
loped into a major secondary pest.
The host plant suffers in several ways:

* It weakens due to the removal of sap.
* The insects exude honeydew resulting in the development of a
black fungus which inhibits photosynthesis.
* White flies are carriers of virus infections, e.g. cassava mosaic
and cotton leaf curl. These result in deformed twisted leaves
with a yellow colour.
62
colony of white flies
on the underside of leaf
Control Measures
* Because of the spread of virus diseases it is important to use

infection free seeds or seedlings.
* Plant resistant varieties (20).
* Encourage natural enemies (35).
* Use traps in greenhouse, p. 129
* Use sprays:
- Garlic (35), p. 89
- Pyrethrum, p. 99
- Ryania (52, 161), p. 106
- Sabadilla (52), p. 107
- Kerosene-soap emulsion (74), p. 140
(This is not specially mentioned for white flies, but for
piercing and sucking insects in general.)
63
PESTS OF FRUITS
FALSE CODLING MOTH

Cryptophlebia leucotreta, Fam. Tortricidae
Host Plants
primary: Citrus fruits and cotton,

secondary: Maize and a variety of wild and cultivated fruits.
Distribution
In Africa from Ethiopia to Senegal and southwards to the Cape.

In Tanzania it is a very troublesome pest of citrus.
Life-Cycle
Flattish, oval and whitish eggs are laid singly on ripening

fruit, usually up to about 8 per specimen. After 3-6 days the
larvae emerge. They are whitish pink in colour and grow to about
15 mm long. At first they travel around the outside of the fruit,
but later bore their way inside and move about to feed. Towards
the end of the larva phase they make their way down to the
ground and pupate in a cocoon made of silk and earth. After 8-12
days a little brown moth emerges with a wingspan of about 16 mm.
The females live for about a week and lay 100-400 eggs.
Damage Pattern
The entrance hole which the young larvae have bored into the
fruit, leaves a yellow spot on the skin. The flesh of the fruit
where the larvae are feeding becomes contaminated with their ex
crements. Infected fruit falls prematurely. Secondary infections due
to fungus can also occur.
64
Control Measures
* Keep a careful lookout for an outbreak.
* Introduce fruit fly traps (126), p. 129
* Use botanical sprays:

- Cockroach plant (Haplophyton cimicidum) (133), p. 118
- Garlic (8), p. 89
A favourable time to spray is when the larvae wander around on

top of the fruit before they burrow their way inside.
* Fallen infested fruit should be collected twice a week,

transferred to a barrel and covered with water to which a
cupful of diesel oil is added. The fruit should remain immersed
for at least a week (some sources mention three weeks) to ensure
that none of the larvae survives (126). The fruit can then be
composted.
* Fallen infested fruit can also be buried 50-100 cm deep in the

ground (20).
65
66
damaged fruit larva pupa
Control Measures
* It is important to keep down aphids and other honeydew produ

cing insects because fruit flies are attracted by honeydew.
* Introduce fruit fly traps (126), p. 129
* Collecting and removal of prematurely fallen fruits (see false

codling moth).
* Use sprays:
- Cockroach plant (Haplophyton cimicidum) (52), p. 118
- Derris (52), p. 86
- Neem (139), p. 94
- Ryania (52), p. 106
- Sweet flag (as bait) (52), p. Ill
68
PESTS OF STORAGE
BEAN BRUCHID
Acanthoscelides obtectus, Fam. Bruchidae
Host Plants
primary: Beans of all kinds,

secondary: Other legumes
Distribution
The bean bruchid originated in Central and South America, but

is now found all over the world with the exception of Asia.
Life-Cycle
Creamy-white pointed eggs are laid on the ripe pods in the field
(about 80 per female). The larvae which are whitish or pale
yellow, are about 6 mm long, and they bore into the beans inside
the pods and feed. From here on their life-cycle is similar to that
of Callosobruchus. The larvae pupate inside the beans and the
adult bruchid emerges through the prepared exit hole. Their pre
sence is easily recognizable by the small window-like hole.
Damage Pattern
Infested beans usually exhibit several holes. One or two holes in

a bean are sufficient to prevent it from germinating. This is due
to feeding on the seed cotyledons (62).
Control Measures
See Callosobruchus
69
BEAN BRUCHID
(Acanthoscelides obtectus)
COWPEA BRUCHIDS
Callosobruchus chinensis (Adzuki Bean Beetle),
Callosobruchus maculatus (Cowpea beetle), Fam. Bruchidae
Host Plants
primary: Adzuki beans or cowpeas

secondary: Soya beans and other legumes
Distribution
Throughout the warm regions of the world.
Life-Cycle
An infestation of Callosobruchus can occur in either field or

storehouse. In the field the eggs are laid on the outside of the
pods and in store they are laid directly onto the seeds and
fastened in place with a secreted fluid. After hatching the larvae
bore into the seed cotyledons on which they feed. Hollowing them
out produces a 'window-effect'. Before to pupate in the seed the
larvae prepare the exit holes. The adult insect is a little brown
beetle which lives for 4-5 weeks.
70
Damage Pattern
The larvae bore into the seeds and hollow them out by feeding.
Infestation usually occurs in store. But as the adults can fly up
to half a mile they can also infest adjacent fields.
ADZUKI BEAN BEETLE COWPEA BEETLE

(Callosobruchus chinensis) (Callosobruchus maculatus)
Control Measures
* Susceptible crops should be planted at least half a mile from

storehouses.
* Early harvesting.
Bean weevils infest legumes in the field only when they are al
most dry. Early harvesting therefore reduces the probability of
introducing beetles into the store (86).
* The store should be dry and cool.
* Treat the beans with vegetable oils.
* Use preparations made from plants with insecticidal properties

to protect beans and other legumes in store:
- Cassia nigricans (85), p. 147
- Chilli, p. 146
- Dennettia oil (69), p. 118
- Eucalyptus (3), p. 118
- Hyptis spicigera (85), p. 147
- Neem oil (119), p. 151
- Spearmint (101), p. 157
- Sweet flag (160), p. 158
* Use wood ash, p. 165
* Use sand, p. 165
71
KHAPRA BEETLE
Trogoderma granarium, Fam. Dermestidae
Host Plants
primary: Cereals and peanuts

secondary: Legumes, herbs and spices, manufactured products of
grain, legumes, oilseeds etc.
Distribution
Almost worldwide with the exception of eastern and southern

Africa, principally in hot dry climates.
Life-Cycle
Eggs are laid in stored products and the larvae have the ability
to develop to the insect stage in as litte as two weeks if it is
warm and plenty of food is available. If however, the store is
empty they can survive in an inactive state in cracks and cre
vices for as long as a year. The adults are wingless, black-brown
beetles 2-3 mm long. Under optimum conditions the life-cycle can
last for only three weeks, although it can be of 2-3 year
duration.
Khapra beetles are mostly spread via human activities.
Damage Pattern
The larvae are the principal source of damage by boring into

and eating grain. In the absence of food they become inactive and
can survive for a year or longer.
Control Measures
* Store in cool places. At temperatures lower than 20°C the larvae

do not develop.
* Use insecticidal plants
- Neem (23), p. 151

- Sweet flag (52), p. 158
72
KHAPRA BEETLE
(Trogoderma granarium) larva
LESSER GRAIN BORER

Rhizopertha dominica, Fam. Bostrychidae
Host Plants
primary: Grain in store

secondary: Cassava, grain and flour or meal products
Distribution
Worldwide in all warm regions including southern Europe.
Life-Cycle
The eggs are laid between the grains of corn or in crevices in

the storehouse walls. Rough surfaces are preferred to smooth. The
larvae have legs and can move easily. They bore into the grains
if they have a moisture content of more then 8 % and there they
pupate. The adult beetles are 2-3 mm long and have a cylindrical
body. They are long lived.
73
Damage Pattern
Both larvae and beetles cause tremendous damage by boring

through the stored produce causing characteristic tunnels. Infesta
tion does not occur before harvest. The lesser grain borer is a
typical pest of the hot tropical areas.
(Rhizopertha dominica) larva inside grain
Control Measures
* Unripe grain should never be stored. Its softness and the loose
ness of the husk make it particularly attractive (54).
* Damaging the grain should be avoided. Larvae will take advan
tage of small cracks to bore into grain, and beetles will infest
grain which appears intact to the naked eye (54).
* Use neem powder or oil (52), p. 151
* Use Sweet flag powder or oil (52), p. 158
* Heat treatment (56), p. 140
74
MAIZE WEEVIL
Sitophilus zeamais, Fam. Curculionidae
Host Plants
primary: Maize
secondary: Sorghum, rice and other stored grains
Distribution
Throughout the tropics and subtropics as well as in southern

Europe.
Life-Cycle
The life-cycle is similar to that of the rice weevil. A female

lays between 300-400 eggs. The adult weevils live for about 5
months and are very good flyers. In the hot season one generation
can succeed another in as little as 5 weeks.
Damage Pattern
A small tunnel is bored to the centre of the maize. Typical are

the round exit holes on the grain surface.
75
Control Measures
* Storehouses should be situated as far away as possible from the.

fields where the maize is grown. Maize weevils can fly long dis
tances and will often infest a crop while it is still in the field.
* Use goat dung sprays, p. 125
* Use insecticidal plants
- Crotalaria (49, 65), p. 118

- Neem (52), p. 151
RICE WEEVIL
Sitophilus oryzae, Fam. Curculionidae
Host Plants
primary: Rice
secondary: Maize and other stored grains.
Distribution
Throughout the tropics and subtropics as well as in southern

Europe.
Life-Cycle
The female bores a small hole in the grain in which to lay her
oval white eggs and seals them in with a secretion. The larvae
hatch and make their way to the germ of the grain where they
develop further until they are about 4 mm long. Small 'windows'
in the grain are typical for an infestation. After pupation the
weevils emerge through the preprepared exit holes.
76
Damage Pattern
Damage is caused by the larvae feeding on the grain and often

leaving it completely hollow. Sometimes eggs are laid in the grain
before it is harvested and the larvae develop later in the store.
• Control Measures
* Choose resistant varieties.
* A balanced fertilization which considers the silicon demand of

rice will strengthen the plant (54).
* Careful harvesting.
Undamaged grain is much less susceptible to infestation.
* Treat grains with vegetable oils.
* Treat grains with wood ash or rice husk ash, p. 165
* Fumigate the store (10), p. 146
* Use plant products with insecticidal properties:

- Mammey, p. 92
- Neem, p. 151
- Spearmint, p. 157
- Sweet flag, p. 158
- Turmeric, p. 162
77
POTATO TUBER MOTH
Phthorimaea operculella, Fam. Gelechiidae
Host Plants
primary : Potatoes
secondary: Tobacco, tomatoes, eggplant and other members of the
Solanaceae family.
Distribution
Almost worldwide, although rarely in Asia
Life-Cycle
In the field, small oval eggs are laid on the underside of the
leaves, or in store directly on the tubers near the eyes or
sprouts. Each female lays 150-200 eggs which hatch in 3-15 days.
The larvae mine their way through the leaf veins and gradually
reach the stem to travel to the ground. There they pupate in the
earth or in heaps of organic material. In store pupation usually
takes place outside the tuber, often between sacks in a cocoon.
The adult is a small, insignificant moth with narrow fringed wings
spanning 15-20 mm. The forewings are grey-brown with dark spots;
the rear wings a dirty white.
Damage Pattern
Silvery patches appear on the leaves caused by the mining acti

vities of the larvae. The leaf-veins, side-stems and stalks are all
pitted with holes which interrupt the flow of nutrients and cause
the plant to wither. Finally the tubers are bored completely
through by the larvae which gives rise to secondary infections by
fungi and bacteria.
78
Control Measures
* Mixed cropping with onions, tomatoes, beans, soya beans and

maize reduces infestation (32).
* Use botanical repellents in store:

- Eucalyptus (34), p. 118
- Lantana camara (32), p. 148
- Muna, p. 148
* Where chemical sprays are used it is usual to repeat the appli

cations every two weeks after mining activities have been dis
covered. Plant preparations could be tried as well.
The principal sources which have been used for the description of
the forementioned pests are:
20, 26, 30, 54, 61, 67, 126, 142.
79
V. METHODS OF
CROP AND STORAGE
PROTECTION
80
F I E L D CULTIVATIONS
INSECTICIDAL PLANTS
ANNONA - Soursop (Annona muricata), Custard apple (Annona reti

culata), Sweetsop (Annona squamosa).
Fam. Annonaceae
1. General
More than 90 species of small trees and shrubs are known in the
Annonaceae family. They occur mostly in tropical America, but
some are found also in Asia and Africa. Soursop and custard apple
are widely distributed in Central America and the Caribbean,
while the sweetsop is commenest in India and Southeast Asia. They
do not require special conditions of soil or water, but thrive best
in places where there is a clear division between the rainy and
dry season, and generally prefer dry sites in which to grow (22).
The effective ingredients are in the unripe fruit, and in the
seeds, leaves and roots (107). The oil content of the seeds amounts
to 42-45 %.
Effective Range
Contact- and stomac poison

insecticidal, larvicidal, repellent, antifeedant (52).
Target Insects
Aphids general (13)

Brown rice plant hoper Nilaparvata lugens (13)
Diamondback Moth Plutella xylostella (59)
Chrysanthemum aphid Macrosiphoniella sanborni (59)
81
Grasshoppers general
Green bugs general (13)
Green rice leaf hopper Nephotettix virescens (13)
Potato aphid Macrosiphum euphorbiae (59)
Red pumpkin beetle Aulacophora foveicollis (59)
Whitebacked rice plant hopper Sogatella furcifera (13)
Annona has not proved effective against the
Saw-toothed grain beetle - Oryzaephilus surinamensis (147)
SWEETSOP
(Annona squamosa)
Observations
* The toxic effect of annona sets in slowly , 2-3 days should be

allowed.
* Laboratory trials have shown that by extracting annona seeds
with ether or petroleum ether, the toxicity can be increased
50-100 times. But since laboratory methods are impractical in the
field, other locally available and cheap solvents could be tried,
like petrol or kerosene.
* When pulverising the seeds of A. squamosa, care should be ta
ken to ensure that the powder does not come into contact with
the eyes as this causes great pain (80).
* The custard apple is the most effective of the annonas against

insects.
82
SOURSOP
(Annona muricata)
2. Methods of Use
Relatively litte information exists on the preparation and use of

annona. Wide-ranging laboratory trials have demonstrated its
highly effective insecticidal value. Experimentally-inclined farmers
could contribute much needed information about this widely distri
buted plant.
* A 10 % concentration of seed oil produces a 90 % death rate of

the bug Urentius echinus within 72 hours. A 5-7 % concentration
is still effective, but low concentrations of 1-3 % produce no
results.
* Pulverised seeds are used in China and the Philippines against

parasites, insects as well as lices, which affect humans.
* A water suspension of the seeds gives a high mortality against

Lecanium in West-Africa (68). The writer gives no details regar
ding quantities.
* An extract of the leaves with ether proves highly successful

against the red pumpkin beetle (Aulacophora foveicollis). A di
luted solution achieves a 91 % death rate (27).
83
CHILLIPEPPER - Capsicum frutescens
Fam. Solanaceae
1. General
Chillies are widely distributed in the tropics and subtropics and

originate in South America where they were early cultivated. They
were introduced to the rest of the world by the Spaniards and the
Portuguese. The ripe fruit has insecticidal properties and the ef
fective substances are highest in the skin and in the seed (47).
Effective Range
Stomac poison
insecticidal, repellent, antifeedant, fumigant, viroid (52, 130).
84
Target Organisms
Ants general (152)

Aphids general (152)
Caterpillars general (161)
Colorado beetle Leptinotarsa decemlineata (71)
Imported cabbage worm Pieris rapae (161)
Rice weevil Sitophilus oryzae (41)
Warehouse pests general (52)
Cucumber mosaic virus (161)
Cucumber ringspot virus (161)
Tobacco etch (161)
Tobacco mosaic virus (161)
Tobacco ringspot virus (161)
2. Methods of Use
* From Kenya good results are reported on the control of aphids

in home vegetable gardens.
Hot chillipeppers are finely ground, stirred in water and allo
wed to stand overnight. After filtering through a cloth the solu
tion is sprayed onto the plants, or if no syringe is available
sprinkled with a whisk of twigs or grass (152).
* A similar method is reported from Papua New Guinea where chil-

liepepper is used as a repellent.
Finely ground chillies are covered with water and soap added,
either as flakes or liquid. The mixture is well stirred and
sprayed over the affected plants (88).
* Chilli spray preparations are also well known in the Philip

pines (130):
100 g chillies, water, soap solution:
The chillies are finely pulverised in a mortar, vigorously sha
ken with 1 litre of water and filtered through a cloth. One part
of this concentrate is diluted with five parts of soapy water
before spraying. It is effective against aphids and many other
vegetable pests.
Too strong a concentrate causes burning of the leaves, so the

right strength should be found by testing.
Care should be taken because the solution irritates the skin (130).
85
Virus Inhibition
MCKEEN reports that when the young leaves of cowpeas were

rubbed with virus-infected sap expressed from chilli leaves the
colour change was markedly reduced, mostly there was even none.
(The change of colour is regarded as an indicator of a virus in
fection). When the experiment was repeated with the sap from
virus-infected tobacco leaves the cowpea leaves underwent a strong
colour change, but when the tobacco sap was mixed with 5 % of
chilli sap the number of leaves which changed colour was reduced
by 95 %.
The effectiveness of the virus inhibition depends on the host

plant. It is probable that members of the same plant family do not
work infallibly on one another as virus inhibitors. Further tests
showed that the virus-inhibiting ingredient is present in all parts
of the chilli plant. However, extracts from the leaves and flowers
showed the highest concentration and the roots the lowest.
In practice it is important that chilli sap should be applied as

a preventive measure before the virus infection affects the plant.
Once the virus has taken hold it cannot be effectively controlled.
This information is all derived from scientific sources. The

writer has no results taken from practice in the field (96).
DERRIS - Derris elliptica, D. malaccensis, D. uliginosa

Fam. Leguminoseae
1. General
Derris is a small shrub originating in the tropical rain forests

of the Malay Archipeligo. It grows in lowland areas and does not
thrive at higher altitudes. It is the roots which contain the active
substances, mainly rotenone. Grown in the shade D. malaccensis
86
requires a period of 1 1/2 - 2 years for it to produce a
worthwhile content of rotenone, but when grown in full sunlight
needs only nine months for the roots to develop sufficiently (37).
D. elliptica developed after about 26 months the maximum amount
of rotenone. Derris can be propagated vegetatively from 50 cm long
cuttings when rooting follows after about six weeks (5). The crop
is harvested by exposing the shallow roots and cutting off those
with a diameter of 2-6 cm since these have the highest rotenone
content. Derris thrives on many soils but particularly on loams
and clays.
Effective Range
Contact- and stomac poison

Insecticidal and repellent (52).
Target Organisms
Adzuki bean beetle Callosobruchus chinensis (71)

Army worms Spodoptera litura (37)
American bollworm Heliothis armigera (37)
Diamondback moth Plutella xylostella (37)
Fruit flies Dacus spp. (52)
Mediterranean fruit fly Ceratitis capitata (52)
Melon aphid Aphis gossypii (37)
Crocidolomia binotalis (37)
Margaronia indica (37)
Crysodeixes chalsites (37)
Derris is also effective against the fungus Pyricularia oryzae (52)
87
Remarks
* Derris is most effective against larvae in the young stages.

Caterpillars, aphids and beetles are very vulnerable, but it is
not effective against cockroaches.
* Derris is affected by sunlight, oxygen and temperature. After a

week in strong sunlight derris dust is no longer effective. In
the shade it retains its properties for a fortnight (141).
* Handling derris dust can also cause skin rashes and should
therefore be avoided. If derris dust or spray is inhaled over a
period it can give rise to a numb feeling in the lips, tongue
and throat (141).
* Derris is harmless to bees, but toxic to fish.
2. Methods of Use
Sprays
* Freshly cut roots from 2-6 cm diameter are washed and cut into
5 cm lengths. With a stone or pestle they are pounded together
with soap and a little water. Soap facilitates the solubility of
the rotenone. When the roots are completely shredded into fibres
the liquid is filtered off through a fine cloth. The resulting
solution is diluted to the approved strength and used at once.
The following quantities are recommended (37):
1 part soap : 4 parts roots : 225 parts water
* When finely powdered derris dust is obtainable the following

proportions should be used for an extract (5):
100 litres water : 500 g neutral soap : 1 kg derris
* A preparation which is highly effective against apple aphids

can be made by stirring 2,5 kg derris dust into 400 litres of
soap solution (5).
88
Powder preparations
* In trials pulverised derris roots containing about 5 % rotenone

were diluted with talc in the proportions of 1 : 5, 1 :10 and 1
: 20. These preparations were dusted at the rate of 30 kg/ha
over cabbage plants which were infested with the larvae of the
Imported cabbage worm and Cabbage loopers. Three applications
were given over a period of two weeks. The dilution of 1 : 5
produced the least feeding damage (109).
* In another trial the following mixture was dusted over cabbages

just as they were beginning to head:
30 % pyrethrum (1,16 % pyrethrin)

20 % derris dust (4 % rotenone)
50 % alumina as a carrying agent
Two applications were given at an interval of 7 days. A week

later the plants were examined with the following results:
- On 50 plants a total of only 4 caterpillars were discovered.

- Large numbers of flea beetles were killed and many plants
had 50-100 dead flea beetles on the outer leaves.
- The death rate among aphids was unstatisfactorily low.
- Thrips, which inhabit the underside of the outer leaves, were
not reduced (57).
GARLIC - Allium sativum

Fam. Liliaceae
1. General
Garlic is a cosmopolitan plant which grows in temperate zones as

well as in the tropics and subtropics. It probably originated in
Central Asia whence it spread to the Mediterranean, around whose
shores it still finds its greatest use in the kitchen (122).
89
It is much cultivated and is easy to grow in field, garden or
backyard. For use as an insecticide it should not be grown with
mineral fertilizers since it has been established that heavy doses
of fertilizer reduce the concentration of the effective substances.
Effective Range
Insecticidal, repellent, antifeedant, bactericidal, fungicidal,

nematocidal and effective against ticks (52).
90
Target Organisms
Aphids general (8)

Army worms Spodoptera litura
Colorado Beetle Leptinotarsa decemlineata (53)
False codling moth Cryptophlebia leucotreta (8)
Khapra beetle Trogoderma granarium (16)
Mexican bean beetle Epilachna varivestis (106)
Wire worms general (8)
Garlic has also been found to be effectiv against fungus such as

mildew and beanrust.
Remarks
* Some gardeners in Germany have long made a garlic solution in

water to use against pests. According to them it should be
applied immediately after the preparation so that the volatile
oils do not escape into the atmosphere before to exert their
effects on the plants (ILLMANN, pers.comm.).
* Laboratory trials indicated that an extract of garlic reduced

feeding by older larvae less than by younger larvae (106).
2. Methods of Use
* 100 g garlic cloves, 0,5 litres of water, 10 gm soap, 2 tea

spoons mineral oil.
Steep the finely grated garlic for 24 hours in the mineral oil.
Dissolve the soap in the water, mix with the infusion of garlic
and mineral oil., stir well together and filter through a fine
cloth. Before use this solution is diluted with 20 parts of water.
It is effective against the most common pests, but different
strengths should be experimented with regarding specific insects.
(9, 161).
* Steep 3 finely grounded garlic bulbs for 2 days in liquid para-

fin and then stir well with a large spoonful of soap flakes and
10 litres of water. This preparation is effective against a wide
range of insect pests (44).
91
* The following preparation is successful against caterpillars in
fruit trees :
2 finely grated garlic bulbs and two teaspoon chillipeppers are
stirred into 4 litres of hot water in which a nut sized piece of
soap has been dissolved (161).
MAMMEY - Mammea americana

Fam. Guttiferaceae
1. General
This tree grows to a height of 20 m and originated in the Carib

bean and in northern South America. In the meantime it is also
spread in the tropical regions of Africa and Asia. It thrives up
to 1000 m and there are two harvests a year and each tree yields
300-400 fruits.
The insecticidal plant part is above all the ripe seed. Leaves
and bark possess only a low insecticidal action.
Effective Range
Contact- and stomach poison,

insecticidal, repellent, nematicidal and effective against ticks.
Target Insects
Aphids general (70)

Cucumber beetle Diabrotica bivittata (70)
Melon worm Diaphania hyalinata (117)
Mites general
Ascia monuste (117)
Cerotoma ruficornis (117)
92
Remarks
* After 4 days of sun, wind and dew mammey powder was still an
effective poison (117).
* In the West Indies the resin of the mammey apple tree is used
against sand flies (14).
2. Methods of Use
Powder made from mammey apple seeds can be used either as a

dusting agent or in solution as a spray. Besides water solutions,
preparations may be made with kerosene which can be used effec
tively against household vermin.
* Mammey powder can be dusted onto cabbages against caterpillars

of the diamondback moth, using 8-9 gm of powder (it is best
used mixed with a carrying agent) per plant. The application
should be carried out when the dew is on the plants so that the
powder adheres well (117). Trials demonstrated that this treat
ment killed 80 % of the caterpillars in 4 days.
* A spray made from 4 kg of mammey powder dissolved in 400 lit

res of water (with added soap as a spreading and adhesive
agent) produces in 4 days a 67,9 % control of the caterpillars
of the diamondback moth and a 73,6 % control of the larvae of
Ascia monuste (117).
* A preparation made by steeping 225 gm of mammey powder in 1,2

litres of kerosene for 24 hours at room temperature and then
filtered, is poisonous to cockroaches, flies and ants (117).
93
NEEM - Azadirachta indica
Fam. Meliaceae
1. General
Neem is a fast-growing, sclerophyllous tree which is native to

the Indian subcontinent, but which is now distributed throughout
Southeast-Asia, East and Sub-sahelian Africa, Fiji, Mauritius and
parts of Central America.
It grows well in climates from semi-arid to semi-humid and will

thrive even in places with less than 500 mm of rain per year. The
soil requirements are modest and neem grows equally well on poor,
shallow, sandy or stony ground (126). The trees fruit when they
are 4-5 years old, on average giving 30-50 kg of fruit per tree.
The oil content of the seeds is 35-45 % (2). The effective ingre
dients are present in all parts of the tree but are most highly
concentrated in the seeds (136).
Effective Range
insecticidal, repellent, antifeedant, growth-inhibiting, fungicidal
94
Target Insects
Neem is effective against numerous pests. It has been shown that

it can control over 100 species of insects, mites and nematodes
(2). Some of them are:

Aphids general (52)
Brown rice plant hopper Nilaparvata lugens (52)
Cabbage worm Mamestra brassicae (137)
Cutworms Agrotis spp. (52)
Desert locust Schistocerca gregaria (51)
Fall army worm Spodoptera frugiperda (52)
Flea beetle Podagrica uniforma (163)
Green rice leaf hopper Nephotettix virescens (52)
Large cabbage worm Pieris brassicae (137)
Leaf miner Liriomyza spp.
Mediterranean fruitfly Ceratitis capitata
Migratory locust Locusta migratoria (52)
Mites general (52)
Potato jassid Empoasca fabae
Rice stalk borers general (52)
Spotted stalk borer Chilo partellus (52)
Variegated grasshopper Zonocerus variegatus (118)
White-backed rice plant hopper Sogatella furcifera (52)
White fly Bemisia tabaci
Epilachna chrysomelina (163)
Hellula undalis (118)
Papilio demodocus (163)
Different views prevail regarding the effectivemess of neem against
Cowpea beetle Callosobruchus maculatus (52)

Khapra beetle - Trogoderma granarium (52)
Lesser grain borer Rhizopertha dominica (52)
95
Remarks
* The effective substances of neem loose their potency in sunny

conditions being broken down by ultra-violet radiation. It is
therefore best to apply neem preparations in the evening (71,
140).
* So far neem preparations seem to have had no, or almost none,

negative effects on the Hymenoptera family whose members are
useful pollinators and parasites of pest insects and on bees
(137).
2. Methods of Use
There are 4 methods of using neem seed:
1. Aqueous extracts
2. Neem oil
3. Neem kernel powder
4. Neem press cake
Basic methods of preparation and some variations are given be

low.
Aqueous neem seed extract
* Fallen fruits are collected from underneath the trees. The flesh
is removed from the seeds and any remaining shreds washed
away. The seed is then carefully dried to avoid fungus forming,
and stored in airy conditions, e.g. in sacks or baskets.
When required the seeds are shelled, finely grated and steeped
overnight in a cloth suspended in a barrel of water at the rate
of 25-50 gm/litre. This solution has proved to be very effective
against vegetable pests such as cabbage caterpillars, melon
beetles and grasshoppers (137).
* KUMAR gives the following method for a water extract of neem:

5 kg of dried pulverised seed are suspended overnight in a
cloth in a bucket of water. After about 12 hours the cloth is
taken out and squeezed. About 10 gm of soap are separately
dissolved in a little water and added to the bucket. The whole
is well stirred and made up to 100 litres with water. This pre-
96
paration was used against the Corn earworm (Heliothis armigera)
infesting peas, at the rate of 500 litres per hectare. The infe
station by the caterpillars of H. armigera which had bored into
the pods was reduced to 1,1 %. An untreated control sample
showed an infestation rate of 7,45 % (82).
* According to experiences in Togo grasshoppers stopped eating

immediately after an application of aqueous neem extract. For
caterpillars it usually takes 2-3 days to die. However, because
the solution becomes less effective with time it is recommended
that a second application be given in severe cases.
Experience has also shown that neem extract can be used pre
ventively. However, this should not be allowed to develop into a
regular practice since it may also affect the natural enemies of
the pests (118).
* JACOBSON recommends an aqueous extract as repellant with 500

gm neem seed dissolved in 400 litres of water which is sufficient
for 0,4 hectares. This application will protect the crop for about
2 weeks if it is not washed away by heavy rain (71).
* 2 kg whole neem fruit and 15 litres of water.

The fruit is shredded in an electric mixer with a little water
(care should be taken not to overload the mixer). Part of the
water is added to the pulp and allowed to stand overnight be
fore sieving and making up to the full 15 litres. Sprayed weekly
this preparation inhibits feeding by the flea beetle (Podagrica
uniforma) and inhibits the development of larvae of Epilachna
chrysomelina and Papilio demodocus.
If it is kept in the dark this neem preparation will remain
effective for 3-4 days (163).
Neem oil
See page 152.
Neem kernel powder
See page 152
97
Other methods of use
* According to RADWANSKI (123) neem is effective against nema

todes. Barley seed can be steeped for 2 hours in a 1 % water
solution of ground neem seed. After sowing a 50 % reduction in
infestation by nematodes of the genus Pratylenchus was noted.
* Indian farmers in the Pune district plough in 1-2 t/ha of

pressed neem cake. This protects eggplants from borers and
tomatoes from nematodes and leaf spot disease (166).
* Some farmers spray aqueous solutions of neem press cake onto

citrus trees to protect them from leaf miners (166).
Fungicidal effects
In India trials have been carried out with different neem

preparations in efforts to control fungi affecting chickpeas,
particularly Fusarium oxysporum, Rhizictonia solani, Sclerotium
rolfsii and Sclerotinia sclerotiorum.
The following preparations were tested:
Neem oil, fruit pulp, aqueous leaf- and bark extracts.
The seeds of the chickpeas were treated before being sowed in

fungi-effected earth.
Neem oil protected the seeds most effectively against fungus attack
in the following order: Rhizoctonia solani > Sclerotium rolfsii >
Fusarium oxysporum > Sclerotinia sclerotiorum.
The pulp of neem completely prevents the development of resting

forms of R. solani. This was a very important discovery since it
is these which are responsible for the longevity of the fungus.
However, in the case of S. sclerotiorum development of the resting
forms was not impaired because they have such strong bodies
(143).
Little is known about the effectiveness of neem against fungus

diseases. These initial observations constitute the ground for fur
ther research. Possibly pressed neem cake can be similarly used to
control fungus growths in the ground. Other lines of investigation
may offer themselves.
98
PERSIAN LILAC - Melia azedarach
Fam. Meliaceae
1. General
See page 153
2. Methods of Use
* In trials water extracts of 1:10 and 1:20 caused 100 % deaths of

the pupae of the army worm (Spodoptera litura). In the larval
stage 1:10 caused 68 % deaths and 1:20 a death rate of 44 %.
In these trials water proved to be just as effective a solvent as
ethyl alcohol (145).
* A repellant against grasshoppers can be prepared by steeping

150 gm fresh or 50 gm dried leaves in a litre of cold water for
24 hours. Then it is sprayed onto the crops to be protected
(28).
PYRETHRUM - Chrysanthemum cinerariaefolium

Fam. Compositae
1. General
Pyrethrum is a daisylike perennial plant of the genus Chrysan

themum belonging to the Compositae family. The white flowerheads
possess insecticidal properties.
Pyrethrum originated in the Dalmatian Mountains of Yugoslavia and

its cultivation spread throughout the world at the turn of the cen
tury. The colonial powers introduced it into East Africa and South
America and after the First World War Japan became the principal
exporter (141).
99
The cultivation of pyrethrum takes place in mountainous regions up
to a height of 3000 m, ideally in semi-arid conditions where the
winters are cool. Rainfall of 1200 mm with a 2-3 month dry season
are best. Pyrethrum can withstand frost down to -12°C, but in
situations below about 1600 m the flowers do not set sufficiently.
The content of the active substances increases with the height and
cooler average temperatures (78).
In places with humus-rich loams and heavier rainfall the plant

grows more profusely, but the insecticidal content is less plentiful
than when it grows in poorer, drier situations. The flowers are
picked on dry, hot days when they are fully open, and left for a
short time in small heaps to warm through before being spread to
dry 3-4 cm thick on mats in an airy, shady place. The harvest
produces between 200 and 1000 kg per hectare (80). Pyrethrum
flowers are best stored air-tight and in darkness.
Effective Range
Pure contact poison

insecticidal, repellent, antifeedant (52).
Through its effect as a nerve poison, it produces erratic move

ment, excitement and finally paralysis (knock-down effect). The
insects can, however, recover from the amounts required to produce
the knock-down effect within 24 hours. Larger doses are needed to
bring about death (141).
Target Insects
Aphids - general (52)

Coffee bugs - Lygus spp. (78)
Colorado beetle - Leptinotarsa decemlineata (52)
Flea beetles - general (78)
Grasshoppers - general (78)
Imported cabbage worm - Pieris rapae (52)
Large cabbage worm - Pieris brassicae (78)
Aspodydia spp. (52)
Empoasca devastans (52)
Leucinodes orbonalis (52)
Ophiomyia reticulata (52)
100
Pyrethrum is effective against numerous caterpillars, beetles,
aphids, mites, locusts, thrips, moths etc (35).
Remarks
* .The poisonous effects of pyrethrum on warm-blooded mammals are

so slight that it is usually regarded as harmless to man. How
ever, prolonged contact with the skin can produce a rash, and
inhaling dust or spray can cause headaches and sickness (116).
* The toxicity of pyrethrum preparations is considerably increased

by the addition of small quantities of rotenone (e.g. derris,
tephrosia, lonchocarpus) or nicotine (e.g. tobacco, anabasine)
(78).
* The effectiveness of pyrethrum is quickly reduced under the in

fluence of strong sunlight (151). The addition of anti-oxidants,
e.g. tannic acid (present in annona bark) slows down this pro
cess.
* Substances known as synergists such as sesame oil or piperonyl

butoxide enhance the utilization of the toxic substances in
pyrethrum either by increasing or prolonging their effect. This
means that insects do not recover so quickly after the knock
down effect.
101
2. Methods of Use
Pyrethrum is used in two ways: as a powder or dust, and as a

spray. As a dust it can be used either pure or mixed with a
carrier such as talc, lime or diatomaceous earth. These also incre
ase the adhesiveness (78). When it is used as a spray, pyrethrum
is usually dissolved in water, soap solution or kerosene. The
kerosene spray has the advantage that the decomposition of the
active substances is slowed down (141). Soapy sprays have useful
effects on the surface action and increase the toxicity of the
pyrethrum. The spray should be applied as soon as it is prepared
(78).
* Kerosene-extract
500 gm pyrethrum flowers are steeped in 4 litres of kerosene for
half a day. After straining through a sieve or cloth the solution
is ready for use. It has been shown that kerosene dissolves
about 73 % of the Pyrethrin (the active substances) in 48 hours
(141).
* 500 gm pyrethrum powder, 3-4 litres of paraffin.

The pyrethrum is steeped in paraffin for a day, stirred occasio
nally and strained before use. This preparation has been used
in plantations in Kenya (92).
* 20 gm pyrethrum powder, 10 litres of water.

The ingredients are stirred well together and applied immediate
ly. For the best effect this mixture should be applied in the
evening (126).
* Dufour preparation
1-1,5 kg dried pyrethrum, 3 kg liquid soap and 100 litres of
water are being extracted like above mentioned. The addition of
soap is supposed to increase the effectivity four-fold (12).
102
QUASSIA - Quassia amara, Aeschrion excelsa, Picrasma excelsa
Fam. Simarubaceae
1. General
Quassia amara is a small, 4-6 m tall, tropical tree which is

distributed in Central America, Brazil and Surinam. A related
shrub, Aeschrion excelsa, which grows in the West Indies, also
contains insecticidal compounds. In India, farmers use Picrasma
excelsa, which is either closely related to or identical with A.
excelsa (70).
It is above all the wood which contains the insecticidal proper
ties, but the roots, leaves and bark all contain quassin to a
small degree (13).
Effective Range
Contact- and stomach poison

insecticidal, larvicidal, nematicidal,
Quassia also acts systemically.
103
Target Insects
Aphids general (133)

Leaf miners general (35)
Melonworm Diaphania hyalinata

Mites general (155)
Black carpet beetle Attagenus piceus
Silkworm Bombyx mori (70)
Hoplocampa spp. (70)
Phymatocera aterrima
Quassia proved not effective against:
Codling moth Cydia pomonella (70)
Peach aphid Myzus persicae (133)
Remarks
* Beneficial insects like ladybirds and honeybees are not killed

by quassia spray preparations (161).
* Because the effective substances are water-soluble, quassia

sprays are used against sap feeders. When taken up by the
roots, quassia works systemically and is transported into the
leaves where it acts as stomach poison (133).
2. Methods of Use
Spray preparations should be used immediately after making up.

Since the insecticidal contents vary from place to place as well as
methods of preparing the solution, it is advisable to experiment
locally to discover optimum quantities as well as preparation
procedures (70).
* Because quassia works systemically, plants can be kept insect-

free by applying a quassia in water solution to the ground.
This is taken up by the roots and distributed throughout the
plant (133).
104
* Quassia soap solution I
30 gm quassia chips, 1/4 litre water, 30 gm liquid soap.

The quassia chips are boiled in the water for 30 minutes, fil
tered and the liquid soap added to the filtrate. This is diluted
with 3 parts of water before use (35).
* Quassia soap solution II
500 gm quassia chips, 500 gm soap, 20 litres water.

Simmer all the ingredients together for 2 hours, then filter and
add a further 20 litres of water to the filtrate. As a spray this
preparation is effective against sap-imbibing insects, particu
larly aphids and black ants (92).
* Quassia soap solution III
Boil 500 gm quassia chips in 10 litres of water for some time

and let it stand for 24 hours, then filter. A separate solution
made from 2 kg soap and 5 litres of water is prepared, added
to the quassia decoction and made up to 100 litres with water.
Then it is ready to spray.
* Quassia-Tobacco solution
Simmer 50 gm quassia chips in a litre of water for an hour,

remove from the flame, add half a cigarette (or a number of
cigarette butts) and allow to stand for a day. Strain and add
100 gm of soft soap and 5 litres of water. This solution is
highly effective against mealy bugs (144).
Quassia sprays should not be used on plants with edible fruit or

leaves. The solution is extremely bitter and is stable and long
lasting (92).
105
RYANIA - Ryania speciosa
Fam. Flacourtiaceae
1. General
The ryanias are found in the northern parts of South America

and the Amazon basin. The most important is Ryania speciosa and
the useful parts of the plant are principally the roots and stalks.
Effective Range
Contact- and stomac poison.
It acts slowly, but is highly effective, even when the insect does
not appear to have been immediately affected. Eating, movement
and breeding gradually cease after contact (70).
Target Insects
Black carpet beetle Attagenus piceus (133)

Codling moth Cydia pomonella (133)
European corn borer Ostrinia nubilalis (133)
Oriental fruit moth Cydia molesta (133)
Squash bug Anasa tristis (133)
Ryania is not effective against:
House flies (133)

Onion thrips Thrips tabaci (116)
Pea aphid Acyrtosiphon pisum (133)
Red mites Tetranychus spp. (116)
Squash vine borer Melitta Cucurbitae (70)
Tobacco hornworm Manduca sexta (70)
Remarks
* Toxicity for vertebrates is very low (70).
106
* The active substances are more stable than those found in the
Pyrethrin and rotenone bearing plants. This quality endows
ryania with a longer during effectivity which lasts in the field
from 5-9 days (164, 116).
* Ryania works simultaneously against the maize stem borer and

corn smut (134).
2. Methods of Use
Ryania can be used as a powder or a spray. The powder is

soluble in water, alcohol, chloroform, acetone, etc. After several
extractions in a solvent there remains an amorphous, non-volatile,
very stable powder which is 700 times more effective than the ori
ginal plant material (70).
* Ryania powder
Dried roots, leaves or stalks are finely pulverised and mixed
with an inert dilutant such as talc or clay. A 40 % ryania
powder used at the rate of 42 kg per hectare is effective
against maize stem borers when dusted on the plants one week
after the moths started to emerge (134).
* Sprays
30-40 gm ryania powder dissolved in 7-8 litres of water and
filtered is recommended as a spray to combat the codling moth
(161). In fruit gardens spraying against caterpillars and
beetles every 10-14 days is recommended (35).
SABADILLA - Schoenocaulon officinale

Fam. Liliaceae
1. General
Sabadilla is a perennial, 50 cm tall, lily-like plant which

originated in Venezuela, Colombia and Mexico (116). The parts
with insecticidal properties are mainly the spikes with immature
capsule of seeds (4).
107
Effective Range
Contact- and stomach poison (116).

insecticidal, repellent, rodenticidal (4, 52).
Target insects
Aphids general (4)

Army worm Spodoptera abyssina (52)
Armyworm Spodoptera eridania (52)
Avocado lace bug Ancysta perseae (71)
Cabbage looper - Trichoplusia ni (52)
Cockroaches general (52)
European corn borer Ostrinia nubilalis (52)
Flea beetles general (4)
Grasshoppers general (4)
Green stink bug Acrosternum hilaris (71)
Hairy chinch bug Blissus hirtus (46)
Leaf bug Leptoglossus australis (4)
Leaf eating caterpillars general (4)
Potato jassid Empoasca fabae (71)
Silkworm Bombyx mori (4)
Stinkbug Bagrada spp. (4)
Thrips general (71)
Sabadilla has not proved to be effective against:
Dock aphid Aphis rumicus

Peach aphid Myzus persicae
Spittle bug Philaenus leucophthalmus
Remarks
* In contrast to freshly pulverised sabadilla seeds, seeds which

have been pulverised for a longer period have a greater insecti-
cidal action. Trials show that the toxicity of a kerosene extract
increases with the passage of time, but is must be stored in the
dark. There it will remain stable for 1-2 years. Light reduces
the effectiveness rapidly (4).
* At room temperature freshly-powdered sabadilla seeds were not

effective. By raising temperature of the extractive, however, all
inactive samples became potentially toxic. Temperature levels
below 75°C caused the initial increase in toxicity, the optimum
109
temperature being 150°C. This temperature appreared most fa
vourable for making available the toxic constituents of sabadilla
in kerosine.
* Sabadilla preparations are extremely toxic to honey bees.
2. Methods of lise
* A highly toxic preparation can be made by heating 500 gm pul

verised seed in 4 litres of kerosene for 1 hour at a temperature
of 150°C. Heating increases the effectivity (133).
* The toxicity of the powdered seeds is also raised when they are
heated without the additon of other substances (133).
* The application of heat to the powdered seed and treatment of

the powdered seed with soda ash prior to extraction also increa
sed the toxicity of inactive compounds to a considerable degree.
When using the combination of both soda ash treatment and heat
treatment a temperature of 60°C is sufficient to produce an
effective extract (4). Lime and wood ash could also be tried to
alkalize the solution (59).
* Good results were obtained with aqueous extracts of sabadilla

pretreated with soda-ash against grasshoppers and other insects.
An exact description of quantities and effectiveness against spe
cific pests was not given (4).
* A 20 % sabadilla powder effectively reduced the population of

potato jassids (Empoasca fabae). Thrips were only moderately
reduced (71).
* A 10 % sabadilla powder diluted with talc and used at the rate

of 120 kg per hectare produced a more than 90 % reduction of
hairy chinch bugs (Blissus hirtus) (46).
* Sabadilla powder in combination with derris dust successfully

controlled cabbage worms and tent caterpillars and was particu
larly effective against Tephroclystia absinthieta (4).
110
SWEET FLAG - Acorus calamus
Fam. Araceae
1. General
See page 158
2. Methods of Use
Tests with dried rhizomes in powdered form or in water solutions

have demonstrated the effectiveness of sweet flag against beetle
larvae and aphids. Water solutions benefit from the addition of a
little soap which disperses them better over the leaf and makes
them more adhesive.
A useful mixture is 30 gm rhizome powder in 4 litres of water

which is either allowed to stand cold for a day or boiled for 45
minutes and cooled before spraying (149).
TOBACCO - Nicotiana tabacum, N. rustica, N. glutinosa

Fam. Solanaceae
1. General
Tobacco is a native of South America, but today it is grown all

over the world, and its cultivation is successful under many
ecological conditions. It does not succeed on water-logged soils
and on soils with high salt content. It thrives in warm situations
and needs sufficient rain during the youth stage (47, 131).
Leaves and stalks are the plant parts used in crop protection.
The highest concentration of nicotine is present in the stalks and
leaf ribs.
Ill
Effective Range
Contact-, stomach- and respiratory poison,

insecticidal, repellent, fungicidal, acaricidal.
Remarks
* Nicotine is one of the most toxic organic poisons. The nicotine of

half a cigarette is sufficient to kill a fully-grown adult human.
Therefore it is crucial to avoid any contact with the spray
during the application. After the treatment, food plants are not
to be eaten for 3-4 days. This time is required for the nicotine
(toxic to warm-blooded mammals) to decompose (35).
* Tobacco sprays are more effective when they are used at tempe
ratures above 30°C (84).
112
Target Organisms
Aphids general (52)

Cabbage worms general (52)
Flea beetles general (52)
Grain weevils general
Leaf miners general (35)
Mites general (52)
Stem borers general (52)
Thrips general (35)
Rust in beans and wheat (6)
"Kasahui", fungus disease of potatoes (60)
Leaf curl virus (36)
2. Methods of l)se
* A spray can be prepared by soaking 1 kg of bruised tobacco

stalks and leaves in 15 litres of water for one day. A small
handful of soap flakes is added as adhesive agent. After one
day the plant parts are filtered out. The spray is applied
immediately with a sprayer, using a very fine nozzle. All uten
sils should be thoroughly cleansed after use.
* 250 g of tobacco, 30 gm liquid soap, 4 litres of water.
The mixture is simmered for 30 minutes. Then it is diluted at 1
part tobacco decoction : 4 parts water. The effectiveness is
increased when a little slaked lime is added. This solution con
trols insects like caterpillars, beetles, stem borers, leaf miners,
aphids, thrips and creatures which pass some stage of their life
cycle in the soil like cutworms. It does not affect ladybirds and
their larvae or hoverflies (35).
* In China rice is protected against stem borers by immersing to

bacco stalks in the roughly 5 cm deep water of the paddy
fields. 150-300 kg of stalks are used per hectare. This treatment
should be employed after the harvest and lasts for about 2 weeks
(55).
113
* The following tobacco solution was used successfully in the La
Paz region of Bolivia against aphids and kasahui, a fungus
disease of potatoes (60):
4 litres boiling water, 1/2 kg tobacco leaves, 1/2 tablespoon
quicklime and 1/2 tablespoon cactus juice (opuntia).
* Beans and wheat which were treated with a spray prepared from
tobacco (N. glutinosa) containing 0,01 % active compounds, were
almost completely protected against rust disease (6).
* As a preventive measure against the leaf curl virus which is

carried to green peppers by thrips, young plants in the seed
beds were dusted with tobacco powder before being planted out
in the field (36).
TURMERIC - Curcuma domestica

Fam. Zingiberaceae
1. General
Turmeric is a perennial plant with a short stem and tufted lea

ves. It originated in India and Southeast-Asia where it grows in
dedicious monsoon forest. In the meantime it has reached worldwide
distribution. It thrives up to 2000 metres in places with a rainfall
of 1000-2000 mm. It grows well on loams and alluvial soils, but
does not tolerate water logged soil conditions. It is often grown as
a successional crop to rice or sugar cane, but also in mixed
cultivation with vegetables. It is an important spice and has con
siderable commercial importance as one of the principal ingredients
of curry. Turmeric responds well to organic manures and yields
from 13.000-33.500 kg/ha of rhizomes.
The rhizome is the plant part being used in crop protection.
Effective Range
Insecticidal and repellent (52).
114
Target Insects

Cowpea beetle Callosobruchus maculatus (120)
Grain borer Sitophilus granarius (72)
Mites general
Rice flour beetle Tribolium spp. (72)
115
2. Methods of Use
There is relatively little information from practical experience

on the use of insecticidal plants and most of it refers to storage
protection:
* PERIES in Sri Lanka describes the following method (114):

- Turmeric root is shredded and cow urine added. The mixture
is diluted with water in proportions between 1 : 2 and 1 : 6
and used against insects and in particular against caterpillars.
The exact quantities are not given.
- Threads can be dipped in grated turmeric and stretched over
the fields which have then a repellent effect.
* In trials a turmeric preparation caused a 90-100 % death rate of

the army worm (Spodoptera litura) in 2 days. Dried rhizomes
were grated and extracted with acetone and the solution was di
luted with 5 parts of water (145).
116
117
FURTHER INSECTICIDAL PLANTS OF IMPORTANCE
Plant parts Effective

Name Distribution range
used
ANDEAN LUPIN Andes Seeds antifeedant

Lupinus muta- fungicidal
bilis nematicidal
BASIL Worldwide Leaves, insecticidal,

Ocimum basilicum ripe seeds, repellent,
essential oil growth inhi
biting,
against ticks
COCKROACH PLANT Central America Leaves, Contact- and

Haplophyton stems stomac poison
cimicidum insecticidal
CROTALARIA Fully ripe seeds insecticidal

Crotalaria ochro- repellent,
leuca nematicidal
CROTON OIL TREE Southeast Asia Seeds, insecticidal

Croton tiglium roots molluscicidal
fish poison
DENNETTIA Edible fruit, Contact poi-

Dennettia tripe- oil of the fruit son,
tala insecticidal
EUCALYPTUS Worldwide Leaves repellent

Eucalyptus spp.
118
Target organisms Methods of use
Unspecific insecticide The cooking water of lupines which (42)

against soft bodied derives from food preparation is (165)
insects and snails. sprayed undiluted onto affected
plants.
Aphids, Colorado beetles, A 2 % emulsion is made from the (68)

flies, maggots, mosquitos, essential oil and used as a spray,
potato tuber moth, spider
mites.
Army worms, cabbage Dried powdered leaves or an aque- (70)

worms, codling moths, co-ous extract are made with the (133)
lorado beetle, european stems. A rate of 3,3 % plant mate- (147)
corn borer, grasshoppers, rial was effective against 'flying
mexican bean beetle, insects',
mexican fruit flies,
squash bugs.
Maize weevil, A handful of fully ripe seeds are (49)

rice weevil. spread over and between each 5 (50)
sacks of beans or maize.
Aphids, army worms, A water extract is made from (7)

flies, silkworms, snails. the pulverised seeds and used
against aphids. No quantities
were given. See also p. 123
Bean bruchids, cock For storage protection see p. 164 (69)

roaches, maize weevils, The oil is not watersoluble which
variegated grasshopper. limits its use in the field. How
ever its use as an emulsion is
possible.
Bean bruchids, To protect beans in store 10-20 (3)

potato tuber moth. eucalyptus leaves should be dis- (34)
tributed per kg. Potatoes should
be stored on a bed of leaves.
119
Name Distribution Plant parts Effective
used range
HORSERADISH Worldwide Leaves bactericidal

TREE fungicidal
Moringa oleifera
MELON TREE Worldwide Leaves fungicidal

Carica papaya
THUNDERGOD VINE Rootbark larvicidal,

Tripterygium repellent
wilfordii
TOMATO Worldwide Leaves repellent,

Lycopersicon prevents egg
esculentum laying
YAM BEAN South- and Cen- Ripe seeds Contact-and

Pachyrrhizus tral America stomach poison
erosus insecticidal,
antifeedant
120
Target organisms Methods of use
Phytium debangemum, The leaves are worked into the (9)

(fungus attacking mainly soil one week before sowing. This (158)
seedlings). time is sufficient to release the
effective substances into the soil.
Principally used to protect seed
lings in seedbeds.
Coffeerust, 1 kg of finely shredded leaves (130)

powdery mildew. is shaken vigorously in 1 litre of
water and then squeezed through
a cloth. 1 litre of this liquid is
diluted with 4 litres of soap solu
tion (made by dissolving 100 gm
soap flakes in 25 litres of water)
and then used as a spray.
Aphids, cabbage worms, Powder: 2 kg root powder dissol- (15)

codling moths, cockroa ved in 400 litres of water killed (70)
ches, european corn 81-96 % of the larvae of the euro
borer. pean corn borer in 48-72 hours.
Cabbage worms, Tomato stems are finely shredded, (81)

diamondback moth. covered with the same quantity of (144)
hot water and allowed to stand for
5 hours. After sieving this solution
is sprayed onto the cabbage plants.
It is best used when the butter
flies of the forementioned pests are
beginning to fly. The spray irri
tates them and prevents them from
depositing their eggs.
Aphids, army worms, To make a spray, 2 kg pulverised (13)

cabbage worms, diamond- yam beans are stirred into 400 (33)
back moth, flea beetles, litres of water. (70)
mexican bean beetle,
stink bug, caterpillars
general.
121
MIXTURES
Effective sprays are often prepared from a mixture of different

insecticidal plants. Most of these plants we have already met, but
there are some additions of locally used ones.
Chilli - Mixture I
To control aphids a strong mixture of chillipeppers, garlic and

onions can be made. The three ingredients are finely grated,
stirred well with water and sieved. To increase the adhesive
properties of the solution liquid soap should be added (161). The
quantities used were not given by the contributor, so experiments
should be made with different concentrations on small trial plots.
Chilli - Mixture II
The following chillipepper/garlic mixture has a repellent effect

on leaf-eating pests:
A handful of finely shredded chillis and garlic is well stirred in

a litre of water, filtered and used as a spray. When no spray is
available the liquid can be distributed by means of a bundle of
grasses flicked over the plants. A spreader can also be manu
factured from a tin by perforating it at the base (146).
Chilli - Mixture III
According to a source in the Philippines a mixture of the plant

sap of chillipeppers, lemongrass and agdao leaves is very
effective against insects. It is said that even the 'worst pests' of
rice can be controlled with this preparation.
Each 5-6 tablespoons of the juice mixture from the three plants
should be stirred with 4 litres of water and shaken lightly before
use. It was stated that 87 % of pests were killed with this prepa
ration, but does not specify which (9).
122
Chilli - Mixture IV
Rice farmers is Southeast-Asia use the following preparation

against stem borers:
Tubli roots (Croton tiglium)

Dried tobacco leaves
Chillipepper
The tubli roots (no quantities given) chopped small and pounded,
are mixed with 8 litres of water and the liquid reduced to half by
boiling. 50 gm dried tobacco leaves are also mixed with 8 litres of
water and also reduced to half by boiling.
4 tablespoons of grated chillipepper are stirred in 2 glasses of
water and again reduced to half by boiling.
Finally all three liquids are strained and thoroughly stirred
together. For the application 1 glass of this mixture is diluted
with 15 litres of water (7).
Derris - Mixture
In the Philippines farmers use the following mixture against the

rice pest Leptocorisa acuta:
Derris roots (tobli)

Seeds of Jatropha curças (tuba)
Seeds of Barringtonia asiatica (botung)
The plant parts are dried and powdered. Hot water is then
poured over them and the mixture allowed to stand for 24 hours
before filtering and adding soap. No quantities were given (17).
123
ANIMAL SUBSTANCES
COW URINE
Cow urine has been used in Sri Lanka with interesting results:
Target organisms
* Insect pests
Cow urine has achieved very good results against mealy bugs
and other insects on green beans, melons, cabbages, spinach,
tomatoes, okra etc. It has also been used successfully against
thrips and mites (113).
In Zimbabwe both cow and human urine have achieved good re
sults against aphids, caterpillars and mites (127).
* Fungi
It was generally announced but not specified against which

fungi the urine is effective (115).
* Virus disease
Particularly against leaf curl in chilli peppers and mosaic virus

in chillis and tomatoes (66).
Methods of use
When cow urine is used for plant protection, adequate facilities

for its collection must be provided. In Sri Lanka the cows were
penned overnight on a concrete floor which sloped to a tank. For
3 cows a tank 0,75 m x 1,35 m proved sufficient. The collected
urine was allowed to stand for 2 weeks. Being exposed to sunlight
during this time is considered beneficial. As a general guideline
PERIES dilutes the urine with 6 parts water. But the right
proportions are to find out by the farmer. Tender garden
vegetables for example, require a less concentrated solution than
fully grown citrus trees. Too strong a solution can produce a
burning of the leaves (115).
124
In his first trials RANKIN applied sprays at 1 part urine : 2
parts of water. Aphids were killed up to 60 % and the american
bollworm (Heliothis armigera) up to 10 %. Undiluted urine killed 95
% of the aphids, 67 % of the caterpillars and 83 % of the mites.
RANKIN suggests a mixture of 1 : 1 because undiluted urine causes
slight damage to the plants (127).
Various plant ingredients can be added to the urine. PERIES has

employed assofoeitida, turmeric, neem and tobacco. Such spray
preparations can be used preventively. Thus infestation pressure
may be reduced if sprayed in regular intervals. JATRANZA suggests
2-3 sprayings of cow urine at weekly intervals against mosaic
virus disease (66).
In the case of uncertainty about the proper concentration, one

should try different dilutions at few plants. The right dilution can
also be found out by the odour - it should smell mildly.
COW DUNG
Cow dung has likewise proved useful in plant protection. 2-3

dried cowpatches are mixed with 10 litres of water in a bucket
and stirred daily for 14 days. Stone or clay dust can be sprinkled
into the bucket if the smell becomes unpleasantly strong. These
reduce the smell and add useful minerals.
After a 2 weeks fermentation time the mixture is diluted from 3-5

times with water, and can then be used as a spray. It is
described as extremely effective and can be applied to all green
parts of vegetables and fruit. Although the contributor does not
make any specific claims about its results, it seems to be a
method worth investigating. Any superfluous liquid can be usefully
employed as a fertilizer (144).
TREE PROTECTION
Newly planted saplings are often damaged by wild or farm ani

mals. These can be protected by using the animals' own dung or
urine.
125
* In Ghana fresh dung of the animal to be kept away is mixed
with water into a 'soupy' consistancy. This 'soup' is allowed to
stand for 3 days and then applied to the saplings (38).
* A farmer on one of the East Indian Ocean islands has protected

young trees from goats with a mixture of goat, cow and hen
manure, clay dust and diluted urine. With that he painted the
woody parts of the sapling at monthly intervals.
126
ASHES
Following several application methods of woodash are presented:
WOOD ASH I
1/2 cup wood ash, 1/2 cup lime, 4 litres of water.
Mix all together, allow to stand for some hours and then strain.
This spray is effective against pests of the cucurbits such as
maggots and cucumber beetles (9). Quantities used and timing of
application were not indicated by the contributor.
WOOD ASH II
Mix 6 teaspoons of kerosene with 1 kg of wood ash. Dust vegeta

bles early in the morning, twice a week. It is quite effective
against sucking type of insects.
Note: Avoid coconut shells or husks ashes, which is quite harmful
for vegetable leaves.
This method is recommended as a preventive measure. It is no
longer effective once the plants are heavily infested (128).
WOOD ASH III
Wood ash preparations are also effective against fungus diseases

such as mildew (125), oidium and rust (34). RANKIN describes the
following preparation which is used in Zimbabwe.
A heaped tablespoon of wood ash is stirred vigorously into a litre

of water, left to stand overnight, strained and mixed with a cup
of sour milk or buttermilk. Before spraying, this mixture is dilu
ted 3 times with water, but the strength of the solution should be
checked by a trial on a small area of plants to discover the most
effective dilution (126).
127
WOODASH IV
Wood ash is used in the highlands of Ecuador and Peru in dust

form. The ash usually derives from the cooking fire. It consists of
twigs and logs, particularly of the eucalyptus tree. According to
the harvest season ash from straw, maize cobs and quinua is also
used so that there is no strict composition (65).
Against the leaf miner (Liriomyza huidobrensis) wood ash is em

ployed successfully. It is applied either as dust or diluted in
water (129).
128
BAITS AND TRAPS
CUTWORM BAITS
Two different preparations of cutworm-baits could be identified:
Cutworm-Bait I
Mix together equal parts of hardwood sawdust, bran, a 'good'

portion of molasses and enough water to make the mixture sticky.
Of this preparation a handful is distributed over the endangered
crop at evening twilight. The molasses attracts the cutworms and
as they pass through it, it will stick to their bodies and harden
towards the morning. Thus they cannot bore their way back into
the earth and are rendered vulnerable to birds or they dry out in
the sun. This method is of course not 100 % effective, but it does
eliminate very considerable numbers of cutworms (161).
Cutworm Bait II
100 g bran, 10 g sugar, 10 cc pyrethrum powder, 200 cc water.
Mix the ingredients thoroughly together and set out in the garden
near to endangered plants. Cutworms are attracted by this mix
ture, eat it readily and die (81).
FRUIT FLY TRAPS
Traps for fruit flies are baited with a mixture of protein and
sugar. Fruit flies need protein during their egg laying period.
The traps are so constructed that once the flies have entered to
take the bait, they can no longer escape (126).
It is best to bait the traps 6-8 weeks before the fruit ripens.
129
Baits
* 1 litre of water
1/2 cup urine
1 1/2 teaspoons vanilla essence
100 gm sugar
10 gm pyrethrum
All the ingredients are well mixed together. Small jars each hol
ding 50 cc are hung at 3 metre intervals throughout the garden
(126).
* The peel of an orange or cucumber or their fruitpulp.

100 ml ammonia or urine
1/2 litre of water
All mixed well together and allowed to stand overnight. The

mixture is diluted with 15 litres of water and poured into Type
I traps (126).
* 1 teaspoon pyrethrum
1 cup honey
1 teaspoon vanilla essence
1 cup fruit pulp of cucumber etc.
10 litres of water
These ingredients are well mixed and 1/2 cupfuls poured into
Type II traps (126).
* 6 cc yeast extract, e.g. Marmite or Vegemite

0,5 gm sodium sulphide (Na2S)
1 litre of water
This bait has been used in Type II traps with success by an

Australian farmer (166).
130
Traps
Simple traps can be made from plastic water bottles:
Type I Wire loop for Type II
Source:(35) Source:(35)
Type III
An old plastic bottle is cut around a line below the shoulders

(see Fig.l) and separated into sections A and B. The lower section
(A) is fittet with a simple wire suspension hook, slipped over the
shoulders of the bottle (see Fig.2) and sealed with a white, yellow
or red rubber band (C) which should not be more than 2 cm wide
(see Fig.3).
The liquid bait is poured in through the neck of B so that when

the trap is inverted and suspended it settles round the shoulders
as illustrated (Fig.3).
131
Source: (156)
The bait attracts the fruit flies. But in its immediate vicinity the
smell is so strong that the flies loose orientation. It is the rubber
band that gives orientation to the fruit flies in the last few me
ters. They will try to crawl under it and happen to enter through
the bottle neck from where they cannot escape. If the band is too
wide they will tend to settle on it and will not enter the bottle. .
Once they have been tempted up through the neck the flies attempt
to escape through the transparent sides of the bottle, which
appear to offer an obvious exit. After a time they become confused
and fall into the liquid and drown.
Thus the trap is constantly renewed with protein and water hardly
evaporates due the the construction. This type of trap has a long
effective life and rarely needs to be replaced (156).
132
LIGHT TRAPS
Light traps can provide useful information about the population

dynamic and the development of pest populations (monitoring).
They also serve to catch night flying insects. The highest catches
are obtained by lamps like U.V. or Petromax (24). RANKIN found
200 watt electric lamps to be successful for moths, mosquitoes,
chaffer beetles and the american bollworm (126). Other sources use
simple kerosene lamps (39).
Light traps are made als follows:
A wooden framework, usually a tripod, is anchored firmly in the

ground. A light source, which can be either an oil lamp or an
electric bulb, is mounted on the frame and a shallow bowl of
water is placed immediately underneath (5 cm away). A couple of
spoonfuls of oil can be added to the water so that when the moths
fall in after being attracted by the light, the oil sticks to their
wings and they cannot fly away again. The whole construction
must be very stably built so that it cannot be blown down or
knocked over by animals (39, 126).
Examples of light traps:
A simple tripod of wooden poles (e.g.

bamboo) with a lantern (kerosene)
suspended over a bowl of water. The
construction must be securely built
and anchored so that it does not
collapse, and cannot be blown or
knocked down. Fire risk must be
born in mind and the lamp must be
so hung that the wood does not catch
fire (39).
(Source: 39)
133
The lamp can be situated at different
heights above the ground. If the
light intensity is varied, a greater
variety of insects or more insects
will be attracted. The lantern can
stand directly in the water, but care
should be taken to weight it down
because when it becomes lighter as
the oil burns away, it may float and
overturn (39).
(Source: 39)
If electricity is used it must be en

sured that neither the cable nor the
bulb can come into contact with the
water. These would constitute a fire
risk (39).
134
The following species can be caught with light traps:

Army worms Spodoptera spp. (67)
Brown rice plant hopper Nilaparvata lugens (67)
Cutworms Agrotis spp. (67)
Green rice leaf hopper Nephotettix nigropictus (67)
Rice black bugs - (67)
Rice gall midge Orseolia oryzae (67)
Rice stem borers general (67)
Tomato hornworm Manduca quinquemaculata (124)
The optimum timing for placing light traps depends on the life
cycle of the insect and the development stage of the crop. The
best time is of course, soon after the adult moths have emerged,
but before they have laid their eggs.
The optimum distance between 200 watt lamps is 100 m according

to RANKIN, because each such lamp has an effective working range
of 50 m. He places them around a garden or field (126).
ARMY WORM TRAPS
For army worms and other marching caterpillars a trap of the

following kind can be constructed. It is mainly suitable for tree
nurseries and seed beds.
A trench about 60 cm wide and 45 cm deep is dug along the side

of the garden. The army worms can be destroyed by rolling a log
backwards and forwards over them, or the trench can be filled
with straw or similar materials and set alight (74).
135
LEAF MINER FLY TRAP
The CIP (International Potato Center) in Lima has tested the

following traps for catching the leaf miner fly (Liriomyza huido-
brensis).
Yellow painted boards, about 30 cm x 30 cm, coated with adhesive,

are erected vertically at a height of 60 cm above the ground. In 3
days each board caught between 16.000 and 18.000 flies, which on
average mean a significant reduction from 9 to 2 individuals per
growing plant (32).
WHITE FLY TRAP
White flies are attracted optically by yellow surfaces. A 20 cm x

35 cm yellow-orange painted board, coated with oil or other ad
hesive substance, can be very effective when hung in a greenhouse
(161).
TRAPS FOR RATS AND MICE
136
Rats and mice in corn fields, house gardens or the vicinity of
grain stores can be caught by sinking a 20 litre metal drum in
the ground. 3-5 cm should protrude above the surface. 5 litres of
water are poured into the drum and a few peanuts added. Round
the inside of the drum, at a depth of 3 cm a generous ring of
peanut butter is smeared. This is very attractive to rats and
mice, but when they attempt to eat it they overbalance and fall
into the water. It is impossible for them to jump out and they
soon exhaust themselves and drown. It has been observed that
such traps can catch over 50 rats and mice in 2 days (125).
137
OTHER METHODS
BAKULO-VIRUS
Some caterpillars are highly susceptible to a particular virus

disease. To combate such caterpillars one can promote this lethal
disease with a spray prepared from diseased specimen.
The raw material for the spray are virus-infected caterpillars

that can be found in the field. They can easily be recognized with
a practised eye. Infected caterpillars of cabbage loopers (Tricho-
plusia ni) become when first affected white and inactive and tend
to move to the upper parts of the plant where they hang from the
underside of the leaves. In the last stages they turn black and
erupt into liquid.
8-10 of the infected whitish caterpillars are homogenized in a

mixer with water and diluted to a volume sufficient to spray over
about half a hectare. The quantity of water needed for the avail
able spraying technique is not decisive but the amount of infected
caterpillars. After 3-4 days the infected caterpillars get sick and
die. It is crucial to apply this spray as early as possible to
avoid the caterpillars causing enormous damage before they die.
This requires a thorough observation in endangered regions and
immediate action.
Another way of spreading the virus disease among caterpillars is

by using the dormant forms of the virus which are very resistant
against external influences. These are gained by allowing chopped
virus-infected, dead caterpillars (the type that is used above) to
ferment for several days in an open pot filled with water at room
temperature. The dormant forms sediment as a whitish layer at the
ground. The watery fraction above can be poured away. Dormant
forms can be kept in a deep freezer for up to 15 years (167, 168).
138
Positive experiences with bakulo-virus are known from:
American bollworm Heliothis armigera

Armyworms Spodoptera litura
Cabbage looper Trichoplusia ni
Corn earworm Heliothis zea
Imported cabbage worm Pieris rapae
Large cabbage worm Pieris brassicae
Lucerne butterfly Colias philodice
FLOUR PREPARATION I
A spray made from 2 cups of fine white flour well stirred into
5-10 litres of water is very effective against mites and aphids.
It should be applied in the morning. As the heat of the sun
increases the mixture dries out and the insects are left encrusted
in flour, shrivel and die. The coating of flour subsequently falls
off the leaves so that their ability to photosynthesise is not
essentially affected (125).
FLOUR PREPARATION II
Stir together vigorously 1 cup of buttermilk with 8 cups of fine

white flour and 50 litres of water. Spray this onto the affected
crop taking care to treat the underside of the leaves. This mixture
destroys eggs, larvae and adult mites. 4 applications have been
shown to kill 95 % of red mite infestations (126).
MILK PREPARATION
Dilute 1 litre of milk with 9 litres of water.
Sprayed every 10 days this preparation helps to prevent mosaic

virus in tomatoes, tobacco and sugar cane (155).
139
KEROSENE-SOAP-EMULSION
500 gm soap, 8 litres kerosene, 4 litres water.
Boil the soap in water until all is dissolved. While boiling hot,
remove it from the fire, add the kerosene and churn the mixture
thoroughly for about 5 minutes. This is best done by the use of a
syringe or force pump spraying the liquid back on to itself. The
result should be a smooth, creamy emulsion, without any free oil.
If properly made it will adhere to the surface of glass without
any free oil. When cool, it becomes a thick, jelly-like mass. This
is the concentrated stock solution and must be diluted before use.
For trees or plants in foliage dilute 1 part with 10-15 parts of

water.
Acts as contact insecticide for piercing and sucking insects (74).

Another source mentions it as useful against scale insects, bugs,
mites, aphids and leaf miners (155).
SOAP SOLUTION
30 cc liquid soap and 5 litres of water.
Stir together and use as a spray. A small test area should be

treated first to ensure that the soap preparation does not damage
the crop plant. It is used against aphids and thrips (74).
ARMY WORM REPELLENT
In the Philippines (Cordillera Central) army worms are controlled

by using the plant Murraya paniculata. A bunch of cut branches
is put in one corner of the rice field in such a way that the
smell of the plant spreads over a wide area. This will repell the
army worms and suppress their activity (10).
140
STORAGE PROTECTION
PF^ÇIPLE^^MPREVENTIVE
STORAGE PROTECTION«
The protection of farm crops in store, as for field crops takes

many forms and includes indirect methods aimed at preventing
pests. It is very important to be quite clear which measures are
fundamental and which are most suited to a particular situation.
In general it can be said that a fanner can influence the

occurance of pests in his crops by carefully choosing certain
resistant varieties, planting or sowing and harvesting at the
optimum seasons, proper treatment of the crop before storing,
siting the store at a favourable place and keeping it scrupulously
clean.
1. Choice of Variety
When he chooses the seed varieties a farmer is already

influencing the susceptibility of his crop for storage pests. Careful
observation and lively exchange of information help to establish
which varieties are pest resistant. To some extent resistance de
pends on factors such as the following:
* Hard intact teguments or tightly closed husks act as a physical

barrier to larvae which die before they are able to bore their
way through to the germ (43, 26).
* Egg laying sites can be reduced by choosing seed with particu

lar features. Adzuki bean beetles for instance, avoid laying
eggs on rough surfaces (26).
141
* Seeds or germs can themselves contain ingredients which prevent
or hinder the growth of larvae. Such varieties of cowpeas are
known (26). At UTA in Ibadan/Nigeria, resistant varieties of
cowpeas have been developed.
* Modern hybrid maize varieties often possess open cob husks

which assist infestation by maize beetles. Traditional varieties
are naturally better protected because the husks are more closed
(56).
2. Choosing Harvest Time
* If planting and sowing is arranged so that harvest falls in the

dry season there are no particular problems with drying the
crop. Cultivating the new high yielding and early ripening
varieties often means that the harvest falls in the wetter part
of the year and this creates new problems of storage.
* Adzuki bean beetles infest beans in the field only when the
pods are almost dry. Timely harvesting can therefore ensure
that the weevils are not carried into the store along with the
beans (86).
3. Drying
Drying is an important procedure in storage protection. It pre

vents the germination of the seed, the growth of bacteria and
fungi, and worsens conditions for the development of pests. A
moisture content of not more than 12-13 % - depending on air
humidity - is essential before seeds can be safely stored.
The method of drying a farmer chooses depends on the local cli

mate, the season, the volume of the crop and his financial
situation.
Maximum use should be made of sun and wind and suitable mea
sures should be taken to see that crops which are dry do not be
come wet again through dew or rain.
The following drying methods are possible:
* Maize can be dried by hanging over a kitchen fire (152).
142
* Maize cobs can be spread in the sun on the ground, on the roof
or on frames through which the wind can blow. The corn should
be covered at night to protect it from dew (56).
* Simple dryers.
Below two simple dryers will be presented:
Bush Dryer
A bush dryer is made from an empty oil drum which is mounted

horizontally and fitted with an outlet pipe. A fire of wood or
charcoal is lit underneath and the corn to be dried is spread on
a grid over the drum to a depth of 20 cm. The heated air, which
passes through the oil drum radiates into the grid and dries the
grains.
The disadvantage of this system is that it allows no regulation

of the heat. As the heat may reduce the germination power it is
advisable not to apply this drying method for seed corn (56).
143
Solar Dryer
Solar energy can be used more effectively by means of a half

round tube constructed from tin and painted black. The grain is
laid in a rack which can be moved into the tube. Ventilation on
both ends is so arranged that there is an equal circulation of air
within the tube. Cool dry air enters at the bottom and warm moist
air is expelled at the top. The temperature can be regulated by
means of simple valves or flaps. Tests have shown that in the dry
season the moisture content of the corn can be reduced from 25 %
to 15 % in 6 days. In the rainy season 21 days are required.
When the corn is simply dried on the ground, it still takes only 6
days in the dry season, but in the rainy season 45 days are
required. If the corn is dried in a maize silo the corresponding
times are 10 days and 80 days (56).
144
4. Storage Hygiene
"...the most important piece of equipment for storage hygiene is

the broom" (56).
The first step towards good storage hygiene is the choice of a

suitable site for the store. It should be airy, shady, cool and
dry. Temperature variations should be as small as possible be
cause these encourage condensation water, which in turn gives rise
to fungus development.
Crops in store should be protected against dampness rising from

the ground, and the site should be safe from flooding in the rainy
season. The roof, of course, should be leak proof.
Before newly-harvested crops are introduced, the store should be

carefully prepared. Old stored products should be removed and the
room thoroughly cleansed. The walls and roof should be watertight
and rat proof, and small holes and cracks, which are potential
breeding places (especially for khapra beetles) sealed. The whole
building should be well aired and opened to the sun, and if
possible fumigated (p. 146)
These measures should prevent the recolonisation of new crops by

carried-over insects. The surroundings should also be cleared to
discourage easy re-infestation by insects and rodents.
145
INSECTICIDAL PLANTS
Many insecticidal plants are useful for field crops as well as

for stored products. According to their main use the general des
cription is found either in the chapter field crops or storage con
trol.
CHILLI PEPPER - Capsicum frutescens

Fam. Solanaceae
1. General
See page 84
2. Methods of Use
* In Benin beans are mixed with dry finely milled earth and
chillis before storage. The farmers do not claim 100 % success
for this method, but the beans can be kept for several months
without suffering greatly from pests. Quantities are not given
(56).
* Fumigation
Fires in which pulverised chilli peppers are burnt should be

lit monthly underneath the store. The source does not mention
the quantities of chillipepper necessary to protect a given
volume of stored goods.
Farmers in the Philippines also use this method and vouch for
its effectiveness. One disadvantage is that the smoke is very
sharp and uncomfortable for eyes and respiratory system (10).
146
HYPTIS SPICIGERA, CASSIA NIGRICANS
In Burkina Faso farmers use the leaves of Hyptis spicigera and

Cassia nigricans to control the bean weevil (Acanthoscelides ob-
tectus). The leaves of these two plants are laid whole between the
beans which are stored in their pods. No details are given regar
ding quantities.
Trials have been conducted with dried leaves and ether extracts
to see if these plants show effects on egg laying and the hatching
of larvae. It was shown the ether extracts of both plants reduced
egg deposits. Hyptis was more effective at higher concentrations (3
ml/kg), whereas Cassia seems to be more effective at lower con
centrations. Dried Hyptis leaf powder alone, however, affected the
hatching of larvae in proportion to the quantity used, and at 3
gm per kg of beans hatching was reduced by 78 %. Hyptis leaves
from Sierra Leone appeared to be less effective.
Powder made from dried Cassia leaves reduced hatching by 91,8 %

at 3 gm per kg.
For practical purposes this means that:
* Both H. spicigera and C. nigricans are useful in protecting

beans from the bean weevil A. obtectus.
* Beans treated at the rate of 3 gm per kg with dried leaf powder

are much less prone to damage from newly hatched larvae.
* There are some differences in the insecticidal properties of the

two plants. These might be due to differences in growing sites,
harvest time etc. More informations on the factors influencing
the content of insecticidal compounds can make their use more
predictable.
* Under laboratory conditions extracts with ether demonstrated a

reduction in egg deposits, but such methods are hardly transfer
able to the field. Since, however, both plants undoubtedly have
good insecticidal properties it would be worth conducting farm
trials using easily available solvents such as kerosene, petrol,
local alcohols etc. (85).
* Millet in store is protected against termites by scattering dried

Hyptis leaf powder throughout it (68).
147
MUNA - Minthostachys glabrescens, M. mollis
Fam. Labiatae
1. General
Muna is a perennial, shrublike plant and includes the genera

Minthostachys and Satureja. Of the Minthostachys twelve species
are known from Venezuela to Argentina. These are found at heights
of 2000 to 3800 m all over the Andes (108).
Muna is harvested mainly in May and June since at this season

the plant contains its highest concentration of the essential oils
(60).
Effective Range
Repellent, larvicidal, reducing the depositing of eggs, inhibiting

germination in store.
Target Insects
Aphids general (32)

Potato tuber moth Phthorimaea operculella (32)
Bothynus maimon (60)
Capitarsia curbata (60)
Ludius spp. (60)
Premnotrypes solani (60)
Scrobipalpula spp. (60)
Remarks
Trials were conducted to investigate traditional methods of pro

tecting potatoes against the potato tuber moth. The following re
sults were obtained:
148
Germination losses (%) Rotten tubers (%)
rea men Storage time (days) after 120 days
60 120
Lantana spp. 11 24 11
Minthostachys spp. 14 36 14
Cymbopogan citratus 32 46 14
Rice straw 32 45 20
Wood ash 33 54 19
Lime 34 60 11
Control 54 74 32
2. Methods of Use
Farmers of the high Andes near Cuzco and on the Altiplano near
Puno use muna to protect potatoes in store (108):
* Storage indoor
In a corner an area of a suitable size is boxed in with planks.

Immediately before the potatoes are poured in the floor and
sides of the box are lined with muna twigs. When the box is
full the potatoes are completely covered with muna twigs. There
are variations of this basic method according to local uses, size
etc.
149
* Storage outside the house
1. The potatoes are heaped on a bed of muna twigs and

chillihua and covered over with twigs. The operation is
somewhat easier if the potatoes are heaped against a wall.
2. Some farmers construct a simple silo of earth which includes

a small door at one side through which the potatoes can be
taken out. The interior is lined with muna and chillihua and
the silo is then filled through the still open top and covered
with muna twigs and a good layer of straw. Finally a layer of
clay about 3 cm thick is smoothed over the surface to keep out
the rain.
Straw-
Muna-
Potatoe;
Muna
Chillihua-
* Potato pit
A pit of the requisite size is dug and lined first with straw
and chillihua and then with muna twigs, care be taken to build
up the sides properly. The pit is then filled and coverd with
muna, then straw and finally a 3 cm thick layer of clay.
150
* Storage in a cylinder
A cylinder is constructed out of straw mats with the help of

rope or wire and stood on a layer of muna twigs. The cylinder
can be used as a container for potatoes, maize or oca. When it
is full it is covered with a layer of muna twigs (108).
In trials to examine the infestation by aphids of stored potatoes a

repellent consisting of lantana leaves and ashes of Ochroma la-
gopus distributed amongst the tubers, was found to be effective
(32).
NEEM - Azadirachta indica

Fam. Meliaceae
1. General
See page 94
2. Methods of Use
There are two methods to apply neem in storage protection:
1. Powder
2. Oil
151
Powder
* The Indian Research Institute (IARI) in New Delhi has tested the
effectiveness of neem seed powder in storage protection against
rice weevils, lesser grain borers and khapra beetles. Neem seed
powder was mixed with wheat at the rate of 0.5 %, 1.0 % and
2.0 % by volume. The results showed that the 1.0 % and 2.0 %
admixture protected the seed against rice weevils, lesser grain
borers and khapra beetles for 269, 321 and 379 days re
spectively. This method should be of interest to village farmers
storing grain in smaller quantities (76).
Seeds from legumes were similarly treated and were shown to

suffer no deterioration in germination properties (71).
* In another test the IARI examined the effect of neem powder

against the khapra beetle and the lesser grain borer when
mixed with wheat at the rate of 0.5 %, 1.0 %, 2.0 % and 4.0 %.
This showed that the khapra beetles were more vulnerable to
neem. After 240 days 24 % of the wheat was found to have
suffered khapra damage when treated with 0.5 % neem, but only
8 7o in the case of the 4.0 % admixture. On the other hand,
neem powder had no effect on the lesser grain borers, for even
with the 4.0 % treatment, 92 % of the wheat suffered insect da
mage. This result contradicts the foregoing one obtained by the
same research institute (23).
Neem Oil
* To produce neem oil by hand, use the dried kernels. These

firstly have to be decorticated. In a mortar they are lightly
cracked so that the outer husks are freed from the inner seed.
The husks are then removed by winnowing. The decorticated
seeds are returned to the mortar where they are pounded until
they form a brown, slightly sticky mass. A little water is added
so as to form a workable paste which forms an almost solid
ball. This ball is kneaded for several minutes over a bowl until
oil collects on the surface; then press it firmly. Oil will come
out in drops. Alternate kneading and squeezing will separate
the oil. With this method 100-150 ml of oil can be extracted from
one kg of neem kernels. This is about half the oil content
(119).
152
If machines are available these can also be used for oil extrac
tion. Heating of oil is said to not affect the insecticidal proper
ties.
* To protect beans in store from infestation by bruchids, each kg

of beans should be mixed with 2-3 ml of neem oil. Thus a 50 kg
sack of beans needs 150 ml of oil at the most. It is important
to ensure that the oil is well mixed so that each bean is com
pletely coated. This treatment protects the beans for six months.
* To remove the bitter taste of oil from the beans before eating
they should be covered with hot water for a few minutes and
drained after (119).
PERSIAN LILAC - Melia azedarach

Fam. Meliaceae
1. General
This tree is closely related to neem. It is a native of the

Indian Himalayas, but today is widely distributed throughout the
tropics and subtropics. As an ornamental tree it is often used for
shade in gardens and for avenues (64).
The dried leaves and twigs have been used for centuries to pro
tect cloth, books and leather (13). The seeds possess insecticidal
properties as well.
Effective Range
Contact- and stomac poison.

Insecticidal, repellent, antifeedant, growth inhibiting, effective
against ticks (52, 145).
153
Target Insects
Army worms - Spodoptera spp. (52)

Asian corn borer - Ostrinia furnacalis (52)
Brown rice plant hopper - Nilaparvata lugens (52)
Cabbage aphid - Brevicoryne brassicae (52)
Citrus red mite - Panonychus citri (139)
Corn ear worm - Heliothis zea (52)
Grain weevils - general (52)
Green rice leaf hopper - Nephotettix virescens (52)
Imported cabbage worm - Pieris rapae (52)
Large cabbage worm - Pieris brassicae (52)
Migratory grasshopper - Locusta migratoria (52)
Peach aphid - Myzus persicae (52)
Rice gall midge - Orseolia oryzae (139)
The persian lilac proved not effective against
154
Remarks
* There are few reports about the use of persian lilac under farm
conditions, but some scientific results are given here in the
hope that they can be adopted to field conditions. Because this
tree is widely distributed it could make a worthwhile contribu
tion to natural crop protection methods both in field and store.
* Most of the information about persian lilac is related to storage

protection, whereas it can also be usefully employed against
pests in the field.
* The germination power of stored wheat which has been treated

with persian lilac has not been affected (150).
* The insecticidal and repellent substances present in persian

lilac are easily soluble in alcohol, but hardly at all in water
(13).
2. Methods of Use
In a trial, ripe seeds were shade dried and finely pulverised

in a mortar, then passed through a fine meshed sieve. The resul
tant powder was thoroughly mixed with undamaged wheat at the
rate of 0.5 %, 1.0 % and 2.0 % by weight. In the same way a
powder was made from dried leaves and also mixed with unda
maged wheat, but at the rates of 1.0 %, 4.0 % and 8.0 %. To 100
gm of each of the treated samples 20 grain weevils were
introduced.
The effect of persian lilac preparation on wheat in store was

examined with regard to:
1. Undamaged seed (Table 1).

2. Population development of the weevils (Table 2).
155
Table 1: Average damage of wheat by the grain weevil Sitotroga
cerealella when treated with seed and leaf powder of
Persian lilac.
Average damage after (days)

Treatment
45 90 135
Seed powder 0.0 8.99 49.99 99.59

per 100 parts 0.5 0.22 8.45 57.75
wheat 1.0 0.09 0.31 0.44
2.0 0.00 0.04 0.13
leaf powder 0.0 9.40 57.65 98.19
per 100 parts 0.5 0.48 11.49 83.31
wheat 4.0 0.08 0.22 0.45
8.0 0.00 0.00 0.04
Thus treatment with 1-2 % seed powder or 4-8 % leaf powder

good protection for 135 days.
Table 2: Average numbers of grain weevils (Sitotroga cerealella)

developing from the original 20 in wheat treated with
seed and leaf powder of persian lilac.
Average weevil population after

Treatment (days)
45 90 135
Seed powder 0.0 66.0 100.00 223.75

per 100 parts 0.5 0.0 22.00 45.50
wheat 1.0 0.0 0.25 2.00
2.0 0.0 0.00 0.25
Leaf powder 0.0 80.75 111.25 296.50
per 100 parts 1.0 2.25 30.25 43.50
4.0 0.00 2.00 3.75
8.0 0.00 0.00 0.00
Thus treatment with 1-2 % seed powder and 4-8 % leaf powder
showed the lowest grain weevil population after 135 days. This
agrees with the results of table 1, which indicates the lowest corn
damage for the same treatments.
156
SPEARMINT - Mentha spicata
Fam. Labiatae
1. General
Spearmint is a well-known aromatic plant of the temperate zones

and the subtropics. It is widely cultivated, particularly in the
USA, in Northern India and in Southern Africa.
In storage protection it is the leaves to be used.
Target Insects

Rice flour beelte Tribolium castaneum (79)
2. Methods of Use
There are two principal ways in which spearmint can be used to

protect crops in store:
1. powder, made from dried leaves

2. essential oil
157
Powder
* In trials, shade-dried spearmint leaves were powdered in a

pestle and mortar and thoroughly mixed with chick peas in pro
portions by weight of 0.25 %, 0.5 % and 1.0 %. Adult adzuki
bean beetles were introduced and within 48 hours the death rate
was 88.8 %, 88.8 % and 96,3 % respectively (101).
* In another trial with rice weevils, spearmint powder at the rate

of 0.5 %, 1.0 % and 2.0 % by weight was thoroughly mixed with
wheat. In all three cases all the introduced weevils were dead
in 15 days. The first weevil died after one day, and in the
case of the 1.0 7o and 2.0 % admixtures, all the weevils were
dead in 96 hours (79).
Essential Oil
* The effect of essential oils of spearmint on the adzuki bean

beetle was tested by emulsifying 0.25 %, 0.5 % and 1.0 % by
volume with water. A specific number of egg-infested seeds were
dipped into these emulsions and dried in the shade.
The 1.0 % emulsion completely suppressed the hatching of the

eggs, but in the case of the 0.5 % emulsion, 29.3 % of the seeds
still • hatched the eggs they contained (101).
SWEET FLAG - Acorus calamus

Fam. Araceae
1. General
Sweet flag is a perennial plant native to India which has achie

ved worldwide distribution because of its high medical value.
Swamps and still waters are its typical habitats where it can de
velop considerable stands. It will grow in situations up to 2000
metres. At these elevations it develops its greatest essential oil
content (71).
158
Sweet flag is easy to cultivate. Due to its site requirements it
does not compete with other crops. In India crver 4000 kg of dried
rhizomes per hectare can be harvested annually (149). Even though
its cultivation is easy and the possibilities as insecticidal plant
in field and store are promising its practical importance is still
minimal. Scientific investigation started about 1939.
Effective Range
Insecticidal, repellent, antifeedant, antifertile (94).
159
Target Insects

Fleas general (52)
Khapra beetle Trogoderma granarium (52)
Large cabbage worm Pieris brassicae (13)
Mediterannean fruitfly Ceratitis capitata (52)
Melonfly Dacus Cucurbitae (52)
Oriental fruitfly Dacus dorsalis (52)
Remarks
* It has been established that sweet flag is not poisonous to
hu-mans and warm blooded animals (100). No harmful results
have been experienced while handling the essential oil except
for a slight uneasiness and itching of the eyes when the treated
seeds were looked at constantly for a considerable length of
time. (160).
* When used against pests in the field, the crop itself suffers no
damage (149).
* When used on crops in store, the germination power is not har

med and the food quality does not suffer (160).
2. Methods of Use
Sweet flag as an insecticide can be used both in field and

store. Most of the available information concerns the latter.
Practitioners interested in experimenting could contribute a great
deal to enhance its practical use.
Published results about the use of sweet flag to protect crops in

store are mostly based on scientific work. When transferring scien
tific results to practical work, data on quantities used are to be
considered as a guideline. They have to be adapted to local re
quirements, as the influences in field conditions are more complex
than under laboratory conditions.
160
Rhizomes of sweet flag are used in two ways:
1. Powder
2. Essential oil
* Before grain is stored it should be well mixed with dried, pow

dered sweet flag rhizome at the rate of 50 kg grain : 1 kg
sweet flag (149).
Another source recommends a rate of 100 kg rice : 1 kg sweet

flag rhizome (71).
* The effect of the essential oils of sweet flag rhizome on the

Adzuki bean beetle (Callosobruchus chinensis) has been investi
gated by YADAVA (160) with the following results:
5 different formulations were tested with reference to knock-down

effect (50 % and 100 %) and mortality (50 % and 100 %). The
essential oils were obtained from the rhizomes by steam destil-
lation.
No. *"ss° Kerosene (ml) Water (ml) Alcohol (ml)

Oil (ml)
1 2 2 100
2 2 - 100
3 4 2 100
4 4 - 100
5 4 - 100
Chickpeas were thoroughly coated with each of the above formu

lations. About 250 gm of so treated seeds were then put into
jars. Into each were then introduced 50 adult weevils.
All formulations were found to be effective. None of the weevils

survived and the seed was not affected. Increased concentrations
brought about an earlier onset of the knock-down effect and a
quicker death, particularly in the case of kerosene prepara
tions. The protection appears to last longer when the treated
seed is not exposed to sunlight.
161
Conclusion:
The dried seeds should be dressed with 2 % or 4 % its solution

in alcohol or 2 % or 4 % emulsion in water before taking them
to godown. This treatment will keep the storage free of pest for
at least 4 months. After that, if necessary, seeds may be re
dressed or a light spray with its alcoholic formulation on the
heap will suffice to ensure the store to be free of beetles for at
least another 6 months.
As its 2 % solution or emulsion may become weak within a short

time, the 4 % may preferably be used for a long term storage.
The seeds dressed with its water-emulsion should by all means
be dried before taking them to store. The mixture of essential
oil and water should be vigorously shaken before use (160).
TURMERIC - Curcuma domestica

Fam. Zingiberaceae
1. General
See page 114
2. Method of Use
* Dried pulverised rhizome is added at 2 % to the stored produce.
This treatment was found to be highly repellent against grain

weevils (Sitophilus granarius) and the lesser grain borer (Rhizo-
pertha dominica) (75).
162
VEGETABLE OILS
The protection of stored produce such as rice, wheat, maize or

beans with vegetable oils is a cheap and simple method. Numerous
oils are suitable and their application poses no problems. Tested
and successfully used in practice are the oils of peanut, coconut,
safflower, mustard, castor bean, cottonseed, soyabean and maize.
Sunflower seed oil proves not to be very effective (104, 110).
How do vegetable oils work? The mechanism is not completely

clear, but it appears that they affect egg laying, embryo and
larva development on the surface of the seed. Vegetable oils cause
the eggs and larvae to die before they can bore into the seed. If,
however, the larvae do manage to penetrate into the seed, be
cause, for instance, it has not been sufficiently coated with oil,
then the treatment produces no further effect and the larvae will
develop normally (97).
As time passes after a treatment, two factors change:
1. Adult females tend to avoid stronger laying eggs on seed which

has been treated with oil at least 7 days previously. Very few
eggs indeed are laid on seed which was treated 60 days before
being newly infested with beetles.
2. The toxic effect on eggs and young larvae decreases with time.
In practice this means that the protective coating of oil must
be renewed periodically (97). However, it may be that the
microclimate of the storehouse may influence also the duration
of the protective properties of the oil.
The germination power of oil-treated seeds is judged differently.

PANDEY et al. state that Mung beans suffer no damage in germi
nation (110). On the other hand YUN-TAI-QI notes a diminishing
germination capability in wheat as the percentage of oil used in
the treatment increases. Thus at 1 ml oil per kg of wheat, 82-90 %
of the wheat remains capable of germination, but this drops to
between 32.5 and 42.4 % at 5 ml per kg and to between 27.5 and
52.5 % at 10 ml per kg. Therefore he recommends that wheat which
163
is intended for seed should be treated in some other way and that
vegetable oils should only be used to protect cereals which are
intended for food. Germination appears to be most inhibited by
cottonseed and soya bean oil (162).
* Peanut oil mixed at the rate of 5 ml per kg with cowpeas pro

tects it for about 180 days from the cowpea beetle (Callosobru-
chus maculatus). It does not prevent the females from laying
their eggs, but prevents the hatching of the larvae. Oil' enter-
ring the eggs causes the death of the embryos by suffocation
(72).
* In tests conducted on mung beans with cottonseed oil and rice

husk oil, concentrations of 0.3 and 0.5 % were used. With 0.6 %
cottonseed oil only minimal infestation had occurred after 3
months, and after 6 months only 3,57 % of the seeds were dama
ged. Rice husk oil at 0.5. % prevented infestation for 4 months
and after 6 months only 5,78 % of the seeds had been damaged
(110).
* Dennettia oil (Dennettia tripelata - Annonaceae) used at the rate

of 1 ml per kg protected cowpeas against the cowpea beetle for
more than 14 weeks. It protected maize for the same period when
used at the rate of 1 ml per 1.5 kg (69).
* To protect beans in store from the cowpea beetle, neem oil at

the rate of 2-3 ml per kg was used. When well mixed this
amount should be sufficient to coat the entire surface of the
beans with oil. A 50 kg sack requires 150 ml of oil and the
protection lasts for about 6 months (119).
164
MINERAL SUBSTANCES AND ASHES
Ash, sand and similar fine substances easily fill the spaces bet
ween grains and beans. This means that newly hatched weevils are
hindered in their activities. They experience more difficulty in
finding partners and they are also forced to deposit their entire
stock of eggs on relatively few beans. By these means an
explosive population built-up is prevented and storehouse losses
limited. Such factors as crystal size and shape seem to have an
influence on egg laying and development because the activities of
adult beetles seem to be little influenced by substances such as
ash (159).
Mineral substances work in various ways on the different weevils

and require specialised knowledge and careful observation. Locally
available mineral dusts should be tested for their suitability.
* Grain weevils (Sitophilus granarius) are extremely sensitive to

hard, abrasive mineral dusts like quartz.
*. Rice weevils (Sitophilus oryzae) are likewise extremely sensitive

to activated coal, heat-activated clay dust and the ashes of rice
husks (56).
Wood Ash
Wood ash is a very suitable material for use by small farmers.

It is just as effective as chemical pesticides, but has the great
advantage that it is harmless to health and cheap. Farmers need
only to make the necessary provisions to collect the ash from their
cooking fires.
* Wood ash mixed with an equal quantity of beans offers good

protection against the cowpea beetle (Callosobruchus maculatus).
Trials in Togo demonstrated that ashes from the wood of Afzelia
africana, Ceiba pentranda and Parkia africana are very effec
tive, cheap and hygienic for protecting cowpeas in store.
165
* In Jamaica the effect of dusts on the adzuki bean beetle (Callo-
sobruchus chinensis) in cowpeas was tested. Red loam, wood ash
clay and slaked lime (Ca(OH)2) were thoroughly and evenly
mixed into the peas at rates of 0.1 %, 0.2 % and 0.3 %. Wood
ash and slaked lime at 0.3 % (3 parts per 1000) showed the best
results (73).
* A 10 litre bucket of fine sand mixed with each 100 kg of stored

grain or peas gives some protection (40).
* Ashes from the leaves of lantana and Ochroma logopur were very
effective against aphids attacking the sprouts of stored potato
(32).
Sand
In districts where it is easily obtainable sand can be employed

as a means of store protection. It is best used with seeds which
are bigger than the sand particles. The intension is that the spa
ces between the seeds are completely filled and that it can easily
be removed again by sieving. Seed and sand should be thoroughly
mixed in at least equal proportions, but the more sand which can
be used, the better. The top is covered by a layer of sand (166).
166
OTHER METHODS
Goats' Dung Spray
In southern Togo, traditional maize silos, in which the outer

walls are made of maize cobs, are sprayed with goats' dung solu
tion. Probably the strong smell deters insect pests as well as the
goats themselves from attempting to eat the stored grain (56).
Heat Treatment
The lesser grain borer (Rhizopertha dominica) can be killed if

the grain which it is infesting is heated to 65°C for 5 minutes
(56). This process can also be tried in a solar dryer.
167
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70 JACOBSON, M. und D.G. CROSBY (1971)
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72 JACOBSON, M. (1984)
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73 JAYASINCH, D.B. ( no year )
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74 JEX-BLAKE, A.J. (1950)
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76 JOTWANI, M.G. and P. SCIRCAR (1965)
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77 JOTWANI, M.G. and P. SCIRCAR, (1967)
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78 JUNG, K. (1938)
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121 PROGRAMMA ALIMENTARIO NICARAGUENSE (Ed.), (no year)
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122 PUTTARUDRIAH, M.S. and K.L. BHATTA (1955)
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127 RANKIN, J. (1986)
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128 RATTANABAD SOCIAL & AGRICULTURAL EXTENSION CENTRE (Ed.)
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130 REBOLDAD, M. (1986)
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143 SINGH U.P., H.B. SINGH and R.B. SINGH (1980)
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144 SNOEK, H. (1984)
Naturgemäße Pflanzenschutzmittel. - Pietsch Verlag
145 SOMBATSIRI K. and W. PATHUMCHARTPAT (1979)
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156 VAN DER WERF, E. (1986)
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178
INDEX
Acanthoscelides obtectus, 69, 70, 147 Bemisia tabaci, 62, 6 3 , 95
acaricidal, 112 black carpet beetle, 103, 104, 106, 133
Acorus calamus, 111, 158 f f . , 159 black maize beetle, 39 f f .
Acrosternum h i l a r i s , 109 Blissus h i r t u s , 109, 110
Acyrtosiphon pisum, 106 Bombyx l a o r i , 1 0 4 , 109
adzuki bean beetle, 70, 71, 87, 141, 142, 157, Bothynus maimon, 140
158. 160, 162, 166 Brevicoryne brassicae, 154
adzuki beans, 70 brown r i c e plant hopper, 21, 29, 30, 32, 33,
Aeschrion excelsa, 103 f f . 81, 95, 135, 154
a f r i c a n army w o r n , 3 6 , 38 bush dryer, 143
a g r o - e c o s y s t e m s , 16 Busseola fusca, 17, 2 1 , 4 1 , 4 2 , 43
agrotis, 95, 135
A g r o t i s s e g e t u m , 5 2 , 54 cabbage aphid, 154
A g r o t i s y p s i l o n , 5 2 , 53 cabbage looper, 56, 109 138, 139
Allium sativum, 89 f f . , 35, 43, 48, 51, 59, cabbages, 56
61, 63, 65 cabbage worm, 95, 110, 113, 119, 121
american bollworm, 34, 35, 87, 95, 106, 125, Callosobruchus chinensis, 70, 71, 87, 157, 160,
135, 139 161, 166
Anasa t r i s t i s , 1 0 6 Callosobruchus maculatus, 70, 71, 95, 115, 164,
Ancysta perseae, 109 165
andean lupine, 118 Calotropis procera, 61
annona, 81 f f . , 51, 58, Capitarsia curbata, 148
Annona m u r i c a t a , 8 1 f f . , 8 3 Capsicum frutescens, 84 f f . , 146
Annona r e t i c u l a t a , 8 1 f f . Carica papaya, 120
Annona s q u a m o s a , 8 1 f f . , 82 cassava, 58, 73
antifeedant, 01, 84, 90f 94, 100, 118, 120, Cassia nigricans, 71, 147
153, 159 caterpillars, 85, 92, 104, 113, 115, 116, 121,
a n t i f e r t i l e , 159 124, 125
ants, 85, 93, 105 Ceratitis capitata, 66, 68, 87, 95, 160
Aphididae, 50, 51 C e r a t i t i s c o s y r a , 6 6 , 67
aphids, 50 f f . , 81, 85, 91, 92, 95, 100, 104, Ceratitis rosa, 66, 67
105,109, 111, 113, 114, 119, 121 c e r e a l s , 3 9 , 72
A p h i s g o s s y p i i , 87 Cerotoma r u f i c o r n i s , 92
Aphis rumicus, 109 c h i l l i , 51, 71, 84 f f . , 146
army w o r m s , 3 6 f f . , 8 7 , 9 1 , 9 9 , 1 0 9 , , 1 1 5 , 1 1 6 , c h i l l i - m i x t u r e , 122, 123
119, 121, 135, 139, 154, 160 Chilo p a r t e l l u s , 41, 42, 95
army worm r e p e l l e n t , 3 9 , 140 Chilo polychrysus, 25
army worm t r a p s , 3 9 , 1 3 5 Chilo suppressalis, 2 5 , 27
Ascya monuste, 92, 93 chrysanthemum aphid, 81
ashes, 127 f f . Chrysanthemum cinerariaefolium, 99 f f . ,
Aspodydia, 100 C h r y s o d e i x e s c h a l s i t e s , 87
asian corn borer, 154 c i t r u s , 38, 50, 58, 64, 66
Attagenus piceus, 104, 106, 133 c i t r u s red mite, 154
Aulacophora f o v e i c o l l i s , 82, 83 cockroaches, 93, 109, 119, 121
avocado, 60, 63 cockroach plant,-65, 68, 118
avocado lace bug, 109 codling moth, 104, 106, 119, 121
Azadirachta indica, 94 f f . , 151 f f . coffee, 52, 60, 66
coffee bugs, 100
bactericidal, 90 coffeerust, 121
Bagrada, 109 Colias philodice, 139
baits, 129, ff. collards, 60
bakulo-virus, 138 Colorado beetle, 85, 91, 95, 100, 104, 119
bananas, 66 contact poison, 81, 87, 92, 110, 103, 106, 108,
Barringtonia asiatica, 123 118, 120, 153
b a s i l , 118 corn earworm, 139, 154
bean bruchids, 69, 70, 119 cotton, 34, 38, 56, 62, 64
b e a n f l y , 2 0 , 2 1 , 4 4 , 45 cotton leafworm, 37, 38
beans, 34, 44, 48, 60, 62, 69 cowpea b e e t l e , 7 0 , 7 1 , 9 5 , 1 1 5 , 1 6 4 , 1 6 5
bean t h r i p s , 60 cowpeas, 46
beetle larvae, 111 cow u r i n e , 2 8 , 4 3 , 1 2 4
179
Crocidoloaia b i n o t a l i s , 87 fuaigant, 84
crop rotation, 18 fungi, 124, 127
crotalaria, 76, 118 fungicidal, 90, 94, 112, 118, 120
Crotalaria ochroleuca, 118 Fusariua oxysporua, 98
croton o i l tree, 118 136
Croton t i g l i u a , 118, 123 garlic, 35, 43, 48, 51, 59, 60, 61, 63, 65,
CryptopHlebia leucotreta, 64, 91 89 f f . , 90
cucuaber beetle, 92, 127 goat dung, 76,
cucurbits, 46, 48, 50, 56, 58, 62, 66 grain, 72, 73, 75, 76
Curcuma d o a e s t i c a , 1 1 4 f f . , 1 1 5 , 1 6 2 grain borer, 115
custard apple, 81 f f . grain weevil, 113, 154, 156, 162, 165
cutwora b a i t , 54, 129 grasshoppers, 82, 96, 99, 100, 109, 110, 119
cutworas, 18, 52 f f . , 95, 135 greasy cutwora, 52, 53
Cydia aolesta, 133 green bugs, 82
Cydia poaonella, 104, 106 green rice leaf hopper, 29, 30, 32, 82, 95,
135, 154
dacus, 87 green stink bug, 109
Oacus Cucurbitae, 66, 67, 160 growth-inhibiting, 94, 118, 153
Dacus d o r s a l i s , 6 6 , 1 6 0 guavas, 66
darkheaded r i c e stea borer, 25
dead-heart-effect, 28, 40, 42 hairy chinch bug, 109, 110
dennettia, 118 Kaplophyton cisicidua, 65, 68, 118
dennettia o i l , 71, 164 heafc-treataent, 74, 166
Dennettia t r i p e t a l a , 118 Heliothis araigera, 34, 35, 87, 95, 106, 125,
derris, 33, 35, 48, 49, 51, 54, 58, 61, 68, 135, 139
86 f f . , Heliothis virescens, 34
Derris e l l i p t i c a , 86 f f . , Heliothis zea, 34, 139, 154
Derris aalaccensis, 86 f f . Hellula undalis, 95
Derris uliginosa, 86 f f . H e t e r o n y c h u s , 39 f f .
derris-mixture, 123 Heteronychus arator, 39, 40
desert locust, 95 Heteronychus c o n s i a i l i s , 39, 40
D i a b r o t i c a b i v i t t a t a , 92 Heteronychus l i c a s , 39, 40
dianondback aoth, 17, 55, 56, 58, 81, 87, 92, Hoplocaapa, 104
93, 95, 104, 121 hopperburn, 31
Diaphania hyalinata, 92, 104, 106, 109 horse-radish tree, 120
Diatraea lineolata, 20 houseflies, 106
d i v e r s i f i c a t i o n , 17 Hyptis spicigera, 71, 147
dock aphid, 109
drying,. 142 f f . insecticidal, 81, 84, 87, 90, 92, 94, 100, 103,
e g g p l a n t s , 4 6 , 6 2 , 78 108, 112, 114, 118, 120, 153, 157 159
egyptian cotton leafworm, 37, 36 insecticidal plants, 81 f f . , 146 f f .
Enpoasca devastans, 100 iaported cabbage wora, 85, 91, 92, 100, 106,
Eapasca fabae, 48, 49, 95, 109, 110 139, 154
Epilachna chrysoaelina, 95
Epilachna varivestis, 46, 47, 91, 95, 104, jassids, 19, 20, 21
eucalyptus, 71, 79, 119 Jatropha curcas, 123
E p i t r i x , 17
european corn borer, 106, 109, 119, 121 kasahui, 113, 114
kerosene, 33
f a l l araywora, 17, 20, 95 kerosene-soap-eaulsion, 59, 63, 140
false codling Both, 64, 91 khapra beetle, 72, 73, 91, 95, 145, 152, 160
f i e l d hygiene, 21
f i s h poison, 88, 118 land formation, 18
flea beetle, 95, 100, 109, 113, 121 Lantana canara, 79
fleas, 160 large cabbage worn, 55, 56, 95, 100, 139, 154,
f l o u r preparation, 51, 59, 139 160
f r u i t f l i e s , 66 f f . l a r v i c i d a l , 81, 103, 148
f r u i t f l y traps, 65, 68, 129 f f . , 131, 132 leaf bug, 109
f r u i t s , 64 f f . leaf-eating c a t e r p i l l a r s , 55 f f . , 109
180
leaf miner, 95, 90, 104, 113, 129, 136 milk-preparation, 139
leaf miner f l y , see leaf miner millet, 25, 30, 41
leaf miner f l y trap, 136 Minthostachys glabrescens, 148 f f .
Lecanium , 63 Hinthostachys mollis, 148 f f .
leeks, 60 mites, 58 f f . , 92, 95, 104, 106, 113, 115, 124,
legumes, 34, 30, 44, f f . , 56, 50, 69, 70 125, 139
Leptinotarsa decenlineata, 65, 91, 95, 100, mixed farming, 17
104 mixtures, 122 f f .
leptocorisa acuta, 123
molluscicidal, 118
Leptoglossus australis, 109
Moringa oleifera, 120
lesser grain borer, 73, 74, 95, 115, 152, 154,
mosaic virus, see virus
160, 162 mosquitos, 119
Leucinodes orbonalis, 100 »una, 79, 148 f f .
l i g h t traps, 28, 33, 35, 39, 40, 43, 54, 133 Murraya paniculata, 140
f f . 143 Myzus p e r s i c a e , 1 0 4 , 1 0 9 , 1 5 4
liriomyza 95, 128
l i r i o m y z a h u i d o b r e n s i s , 1 2 8 , 136 natal f r u i t f l y , 66, 67
Locusta migratoria, 95, 154 natural rhythms, 19
lonchocarpus, 61 neem, 2 8 , 3 3 , 3 5 , 3 9 , 4 3 , 4 8 , 5 1 , 5 8 , 5 9 , 6 1 ,
lucerne b u t t e r f l y , 139 6 8 , 7 1 , 7 2 , 7 4 , 7 6 , 7 7 , 94 f f . , 1 5 1 f f .
Ludius, 148 nematicidal, 90, 92, 94, 103, 118
Lupinus mutabilis, 118 nematodes, 18, 98
Lycopersicon esculentum, 120 Nephotettix nigropictus, 29, 32, 135
lycosa, 17 Nephotettix virescens, 32, 82, 95, 154
Lygus, 100 Nicotiana glutinosa, 111 f f .
Nicotiana rustica, 111 f f .
Macrosiphoniella sanborni, 81 Nicotiana tabacum, 111 f f . ,
Macrosiphum euphorbiae, 82 Nilaparvata lugens, 2 9 , 3 2 , 8 1 , 95., 1 3 5 , 1 5 4
m a i z e , 2 5 , 3 0 , 3 4 f f . , 4 6 , 5 2 , 6 4 , 7 5 , 76
maize stalk borer, 17, 21, 41 Ocimum b a s i l i c u m , 1 1 8
maize stem borers, 22, 41 f f . Oidium 127
'maize weevil, 75, 119 o i l s e e d s , 72
mangoes, 66 o k r a , 4 8 , 62
manuring, 19 onions, 60
Maaeea a m e r i c a n a , 9 2 f f . onion thrips, 60, 61, 106
Mammestra b r a s s i c a e , 9 5 Ophiomyia r e t i c u l a t a , 100
mamney, 5 8 , 7 7 , 9 2 f f . oriental f r u i t f l y , 66, 160
Handuca quinquemaculata, 135 oriental f r u i t moth, 106
Manduca s e x t a , 1 0 6 Orseolia oryzae, 135, 154
mango f r u i t f l y , 6 6 , 6 7 Oryzaephilus surinamensis, 82
Margaronia indica, 87 Ostrinia furnacalis, 154
mealy bugs, 105, 124, 125 Ostrinia n u b i l a l i s , 106, 109
mediteranean f r u i t f l y , 66, 68, 87, 95, 160
H e l a n a g r o m y z a p h a s e o l i , 4 4 , 45 Pachyrrhizus erosus, 120
He 1i a a z e d a r a c h , 9 9 , 1 5 3 f f . , Panonychus c i t r i , 154
Melitta Cucurbitae, 106 papayas, 60, see also melon tree
melon aphid, 87 Papilio demodocus, 95, 97
melon beetles, 96 p a s s i o n f r u i t , 66
melon f r u i t f l y , 66, 67, 160 pea aphid, 106
melon tree, 120 peach aphid, 104, 109, 154
melons, 66 peaches, 66
m e l o n worm, 9 2 , 1 0 4 , 1 0 6 , 1 0 9 p e a n u t s , 3 8 , 6 0 , 72
Mentha spicata, 157 f f . peas, 60
mexican bean beetle, 46, 47, 91, 95, 104, 119, Persian l i l a c , 28, 99, 153 f f , , 154
121 Philaenus leucophthalmus, 109
mexican f r u i t f l i e s , 119 Phthorimaea operculella, 17, 78, 148
nice (trap for . . . ) , 136 f f . Phymatocera aterrima, 104
migratory locust, 95, 154 P h y t i u m debangemum, 1 2 1
mildew, 121, 127 Picrasma excelsa, 103 f f .
181
Picris brassicae, 55, 56, 95, 100, 139, 154, Scrobipalpula, 148
160 S e s a a i a c a l a m i t i s , 1 7 , 2 1 , 4 1 , 4 2 , 43
Pieris rapae, 56, 91, 92, 100, 106, 139, 154 Sesamia inferens, 25, 26
pink stalk borer, 41, 42 silkworm, 104, 109, 119
Plutella xylostella, 17, 55, 56, 58, 81, 87, Si tophilus granarius, 115, 162, 165
92, 95, 104 Sitophilus oryzae, 76, 77, 85, 92, 95, 115, 157,
Podagrica uniforma, 95 160, 165
potato aphid, 82 Sitophilus zeamais, 75
potatoes, 46, 48, 62, 78, 149 f f . Sitotroga cerealella, 156
p o t a t o f l e a b e e t l e , 17 snails, 119
potato jassids, 48, 49, 95, 109, 110 soap-solution, 33, 51, 59, 61, 140
potato p i t , 150 Sogatella f u r c i f e r a , 29, 82, 95
potato tuber moth, 17, 78, 119, 148 s o i l t i l l a g e , 20
Pratylenchus, 98 solar dryer, 144
Premnotrypes solarti, 148 s o r g h u m , 3 4 , 3 8 , 4 1 , 75
purple stalk borer, 25, 26 sorghum shootfly, 21
pyrethrum, 33, 35, 39, 43, 48, 49, 54, 58, 59, soursop, 81 f f . , 83
61, 63, 65, 99 f f . , 101 soya beans, 70
Pyricularia oryzae, 87 spearmint, 71, 77, 157 f f .
s p i c e s , 72
quassia, 51, 58, 103 f f . spider mites, 119
Quassia anara, 103 f f . s p i t t l e bug, 109
S p o d o p t e r a , 36 f f . , 1 3 5 , 1 5 4
rats, {trap for . . . J , 136 f f . Spodoptera abyssina, 109
R e c i l i a d o r s a l i s , 2 9 , 32 Spodoptera eridania, 109
red mites, 106, 139 Spodoptera exempta, 36, 38
red pumpkin beetle, 82, 83, Spodoptera frugiperda, 17, 2 0 , 3 9 , 95
repellent, 81, 94, 87, 90, 92, 94, 100, 108, 112, S p o d o p t e r a l i t t o r a l i s , 3 7 , 38
114, 118, 120, 148, 153, 157, 159 Spodoptera l i t u r a , 37, 38, 87, 91, 99, 115, 116,
resistance, 21 139, 160
respiratory poison, 112 s p o t t e d s t a l k b o r e r , 4 1 , 4 2 , 95
Rhizoctonia solani, 98 squash bug, 106, 119
Rhizopertha dominica, 73, 74, 95, 115, 154, 160, squash vine borer, 106
162 s t a l k b o r e r s , 1 9 , 2 0 , 2 1 , 25 f f . , 4 1 f f . , 1 1 3 , 1 2 3
r i c e , 25 f f . , 3 8 , 4 1 , 7 5 , 7 6 stem borers, see stalk borers
r i c e black bugs, 135 stink bug, 109, 121
r i c e flour beetle, 115, 157 stomac poison, 81, 84, 87, 92, 103, 106, 108, 118
r i c e g a l l nidge, 135, 154 120, 153
r i c e h o p p e r s , 29 f f . storage, 69 f f .
r i c e stalk borers, see r i c e stem borers storage protection, 141 f f .
r i c e stem borers, 19, 25 f f . , 95, 135 striped r i c e stem borer, 25, 2 7
rice weevil, 76, 77, 85, 92, 95, 115, 119, 152, sugar-cane, 25, 39, 41
157, 158, 160, 165 sunflowers, 34, 62, 66
rotendicidal, 108 sweet f l a g , 68, 71, 72, 74, 77, 111, 158 f f . , 159
rotenone, 61 sweet potatoes, 48, 56, 58
r u s t , 113, 114, 121, 127 sweetsop, 81 f f . , 82
ryania, 35, 43, 63, 68, 106 f f .
Ryania speciosa, 106 f f . taro, 58
tent caterpillars, 110
sabadilla, 49, 63, 107 f f . , 108 Tephroclystia absinthieta, 110
salad, 66 Tephrosia, 61
sand, 71 Tetranychus, 58, 59, 106
saw-toothed grain beetle, 82 t h r i p s , 20, 60 f f . , 109, 113
Schistocerca gregaria, 95 Thrips tabaci, 60, 61, 106, 110
Schoenocaulon o f f i c i n a l e , 107 f f . , 108 thundergod vine, 120
Scirpophaga incertulas, 25 t i c k s , 90, 92, 118, 153
Scirpophaga innotata, 25 tobacco, 28, 33, 34, 38, 39, 40, 43, 46, 49,
Sclerotina sclerotiorum, 98 51, 52, 54, 58, 61, 62, 63, 65, 78, 111 f f . ,
S c l e r o t i u m r o l f s i i , 98 t o b a c c o h o r n worm, 1 0 6
182
tomatoes, 34, 38, 48, 60, 66, 78, 120
tonato hornworm, 135
traps, 129 f f .
Triboliun, 115
Triboliu# castaneunt, 157
Trichoplusia n i , 56, 109, 138, 139
Tripterygium w i l f o r d i i , 120
Trogoderma granarium, 72, 73, 91, 95, 160
turmeric, 77, 114 f f . , 162
turnip moth, 52, 54
Urentinus echinus, 83
u r i n e , 5 1 , 5 9 , ( s e e a l s o cow u r i n e )
variegated grasshopper, 22, 95, 119

vegetable o i l s , 71
vegetables, 34, 38, 39, 50 f f .
v i r o i d , 84
virus, 31, 50, 54, 60, 62, 85, 113, 114, 124, 125,
138, 139
yam b e a n , 4 8 , 5 1 , 5 8 , 1 2 0
yans, 39
yellow paddy stem borer, 25
z i g z a g r i c e l e a f h o p p e r , 2 9 , 32
Zonocerus variegatus, 22, 95
184
CURRENT ACTIVITIES
Prospects for the further developments of "according to nature-met

hods" and current activities:
At the present time research and development is proceeding along a

number of different lines from universities and international re
search institutions to groups of farmers and local education cen
tres. Each has a different approach and emphasis. As set out be
low, some international organisations are principally concerned
with natural methods of plant protection at the small farmer or
village level. Those who seek contacts in specific tropical and
subtropical countries or require information about particular prob
lems can approach the AGRECOL INFORMATION CENTRE in CH-4438
LANGENBRUCK/Switzerland.
1. EWC (East-West Center), 1777, East West Road, HONOLULU, Ha

waii, 96848, USA. Within the framework of the Botanical Pest Con
trol Programme, a comprehensive programme of research into insec-
ticidal plants is being carried out. EWC is interested in coopera
ting with individuals or groups who want to make investigations in
the practical field.
Contact Saleem Ahmed.
2. GATE (German Appropriate Technology Exchange), Postfach 5180

D-6236 ESCHBORN, W-Germany. In 1985 GATE began a programme of
investigating insecticidal plants which would be suitable for use
by small farmers. GATE is interested in cooperating with similarly-
interested bodies and farming groups. Thus, results can be ex
changed and evaluated.
Contact Klaus Rudolph.
3. ENDA-PRONAT, B.P. 3370, DAKAR/Senegal. Pronat has carried out

research into the effect of pesticides in Senegal. It is also working
for the introduction of non-chemical methods of plant protection.
Contact: Paul Germain.
185
4. AGRECOL (AGRibusiness and ECOLogy), P.O. Box 168, AD-2040
ZANDVOORT/The Netherlands, is an active member of the Stichting
Mondiaal Alternatif/MA. The main aims are to explain and
distribute informations about the consequences of the increasing use
of chemical pesticides and to built up an international co-operation
to develop alternatives.
5. VFLU (Verein zur Förderung von Landwirtschaft und Umwelt

schutz in der Dritten Welt - Organisation for the Promotion of
Agriculture and Environmental Protection in the Third World),
Mainzer Str. 14, D-6501 STADECKEN-ELSHEIM 2/W-Germany. The
association supports an organic crop protection project in Nicara
gua where the bacillus thuringensis and neem are investigated for
local use.
Contact Carsten Hellpapp or Volker Stabel.
6. ELC (Environment Liaison Centre), P.O. Box 72 461, NAIROBI/-

Kenya. A member of PAN (Pesticide Action Network) and concerned
with questions of environmentally sound agriculture. Luis Malaret
has published an NGO guide book "Safe ways to fight pests" which
deals with safer methods of chemical pest control and contains a
reference list of relevant literature and contacts. It can be pur
chased at the ELC for US$ 7.
7. ILEIA (Information Centre about Low External Input Agriculture)

P.O. Box 64, 3830 AB LEUSDEN/The Netherlands, issues a quarterly
newsletter and has considerable informations on Integrated Pest
Management.
An important address for further information on storage protection

is:
8. TPI (Tropical Products Institute), 56/62 Gray's Inn Road,

LONDON WC1X8LU/England, is an important source of information
about the protection of crops in store. It has published a report
entitled "The Use of Plants and Minerals as Traditional Protectants
of Stored Products", report of the TPI G 138, vi+32 pp. by P.
Golob and D.J. Webley (1980). TPI answers queries gladly and
runs a series of instruction courses.
186
9. VITA, Suite 200, 1815, North Lynn Street, P.O. Box 12438,
ARLINGTON, Virg. 22209-8438/USA. Carl Linblad and Laurel Drüben
have issued a three part publication "Preserving Grain for Sto
rage" which deals comprehensively with pests encountered in sto
rage and basic methods of protection. It gives very worthwhile
technical information on silo construction and hygiene, but has
little to say about alternatives to chemicals.
187
REQUEST FOR INFORMATION
Please send us information about natural methods of crop protec

tion not included in this book with which you are familiar, and
which have proved to be successful in your experience.
Kindly: * Give as many details as possible, always including

weights and/or volumes.
* Send line drawings and/or good photographs.
* When known, give the scientific name of plants

and insects in addition to the common or local
name, or send preserved specimens (flowers, fruits
and leaves).
* Send your contributions to:

Gaby Stoll, Bühlengasse 2, 7609 HOHBERG,
West-Germany.
With your help it could be possible to expand this book gradually

to make it a comprehensive guide to natural crop protection. We
shall, of course, acknowledge all contributions in future editions.
Please accept our grateful thanks in advance.
188

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AGRECOL An information center within the network for

sustainable agriculture in third world countries

based on Local Farm Resources

Leaf and fruits of a Neem tree

Twig of a Neem tree

Preparation of herbal insecticides

Idea and text:

Illustrations and layout:

Printing and binding:

© Margraf Verlag, 1986, 1987, 1988, 1992, 1995, 1996

P.O. Box 105

The book is also available in French, German, Spanish and Thai.

How to use this book 10

Principles of preventive crop protection 14

Pests in field and store 23

Methods of crop and storage protection 80

Current activities 185

Request for information 188

I should like to express my grateful thanks to all those persons

Above all these are my colleagues Almut Hahn and Mathias

Further I should like to express my deepest thanks to all those

Last, but not least, I want to heartily thank Jürgen Trautner

Langenbruck, January 1987 Gaby Stoll

Three years experience at AGRECOL (1983-86) have shown that fre­

This book attempts at least partially, to overcome these obstacles to

We extend great thanks to Gaby Stoll who, after working at AGR­

The finances were contributed by individuals and institutions with

Mr. Gunnar Videgard, Grasse, France

AGKED: Association of the Churches Development Services, FR Ger­

CTA, Technical Centre for Agricultural and Rural Co-operation,

IFOAM: International Federation of Organic Agriculture Movements

MISEREOR: Catholic Church Aid, FR Germany

PROJECT-CONSULT: Frankfurt, FR Germany (due to an information

Protestant Church Congregation, Schwanden GL, Switzerland

John Coates, a friend of the Centre for Appropriate Technology in

Thanks to all of them!

Langenbruck, December 1988

Natural methods of plant protection have assumed a new impor­

The aid programmes of the international development organisa­

Nature herself has offered us a profusion of plants for use in

Langenbruck and Hohberg

In chapter IV some important pests are presented. The choice for

All methods of control which are described in chapter V receive

* Information gathered by an inquiry among contacts of the AGRE-

* These two categories contain much information drawn from prac­

* Research after about 1980 which was again concerned with

Scientific results which contribute directly to the practical work

The informations for the actual measures are to be considered as

CALL FOR COLLABORATION

Thus, the process of cooperation could be enhanced and the pre­

Please write to the following address:

Crop protection is a complex process which requires an under­

It is not the function of plant protection to ensure maximum pro­

It is important to recognize that a natural crop protection mea­

* diminish the risk of pests building up a resistance to treatment.

* have a less destructive effect on the natural enemies of pests.

* diminish the risk of secondary outbreaks.

* are less harmful to the health of either humans or farm animals

* cause no damage to the environment or to water supplies.

* can cost much less.

Subsequently, the essential principles of preventive crop protec­

1. Knowledge of Agricultural Ecosystems

A knowledge of the way in which cultivated fields and the sur­

Three years experience at AGRECOL (1983-86) have shown that fre

We extend great thanks to Gaby Stoll who, after working at AGR

AGKED: Association of the Churches Development Services, FR Ger

Natural methods of plant protection have assumed a new impor

The aid programmes of the international development organisa

* These two categories contain much information drawn from prac

Thus, the process of cooperation could be enhanced and the pre

Crop protection is a complex process which requires an under

It is not the function of plant protection to ensure maximum pro

It is important to recognize that a natural crop protection mea

Subsequently, the essential principles of preventive crop protec

A knowledge of the way in which cultivated fields and the sur

* There is a greater availability of small habitats and a multi

The basic principle of crop rotation lies in separating a parti

* Insect will not accept a plant as a food source, a place to de

2. Availability of information about Natural Crop Protection meth