Planetary Motion: a central force problem

central forces –

depend on r only
Conservative
 no torque  angular momentum is conserved 
planar orbits  use plane polar coordinates


L angular momentum, is a constant of motion

magnitude L  mr  2
 Total Energy E (Hamiltonian H) is another
integral of the motion (i.e. constant of motion)
(for conservative forces and hence for central forces)

1 1
E  H  T  V  mr  mr 2 2  V ( r )
2

2 2
eliminate (d/dt) from the equations and write in terms of L

Formulate the problem in terms of the constants of motion, E and L

2
1 2 1 2 L 
E  mr  mr  2   V (r )  T  Veffective
2 2  mr 

L2
effective potential Veff (r )  V (r )  2
2mr
2
central forces
dr 2  L 
2

Velocity = r    E  V (r )  2
dt m 2mr 

L2
Veff ( r )  V ( r )  1
mr 2
2 mr 2 2
E
region 1 : r < r1 Veff

V>E, K.E. is negative, v is imaginary

motion is forbidden 1 2 3 4

region 2 : r between r1 and r2 r1 r2 r3

particle is confined between r1 and r2 region 4 : r  r3

(turning points); oscillatory motion
region 3 : r between r2 and r3 ;
K.E. is negative, v is imaginary
motion is forbidden
only one turning point, at r3 ,
any particle approaching from the
left gets turned back
r1 and r2 are called the apsidal distances
(turning points)
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inverse square law forces
Motion in inverse-square force field
force exerted by one particle on another varies inversely
with the square of the distance, potential varies as (1/r)

The value of proportionality constant depends on the

nature of the physical problem

For gravitational force between two spherical bodies

−Gm1m2/r2 where G = 6.67x10-11 Nm2/kg2

Fundamental forces, infinite range

1 2 L 2 1 2 L2 k
mr 
  V (r )  E mr  2
 E
2 2mr 2 2 2mr r
in general for inverse square forces
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inverse square law forces

L2/ (2mr2)

Veff
Plot of
effective potential
E1

k L2 1
Veff   m r 2
r 2mr 2 2 E2 = 0
r
k<0 O
E3
r1 r2
E4
r0

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inverse square law orbits

2
k L
Veff   2
where k=−GmM
r 2 mr
a quadratic equation in (1/r)

r always lies between the two roots of the equation,

namely, r1 and r2. (for closed orbits)

r1 is the minimum value of r

(perihelion for a solar orbit and perigee for the earth’s orbit).

r2 is the largest value of r (aphelion or apogee)

r1 , r2 are the turning points for the orbit where Veff = E

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inverse square law orbits

Equation of the orbit

d 2u m 1
u   2 2 f  
d 2
Lu u
When force field is inverse square law force
k
f (r )  2  ku 2
r
d 2u m d 2u m
 u   ku 2
u   2 k
d 2 L2u 2 d 2
L

Introduce a variable mk d2y

yu 2 y0
L
d 2

y  A cos  A is a constant of integration

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inverse square law orbits
Substituting back for u

mk mk
u  y 2 or
u  A cos   2
L L
1 mk
  2  A cos( )
r L
1 mk  L A 2

  2 1  cos  
r L  mk 
define r0 = −L2/(mk)
and e = Ar0 1 1
then  [1  e cos  ]
Meaning of r0: r r0
r = r0 when e = 0 8
inverse square law orbits

1 1
 [1  e cos( )]
r r0
where ‘e’ is the eccentricity of the orbit

equation of conic sections with origin at the focus

e < 1: ellipse
shape of orbits e = 0 : circle
e = 1 : parabola
e > 1 : hyperbola
Meaning of r0:
r = r0 when e = 0
radius of circular orbit
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inverse square law forces

conic sections

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inverse square law orbits

effective potential
r always lies between
the two roots of the

Veff
equation,
namely, r1 and r2.

r1 r2
r1 is the minimum value of the radius O r
(perihelion for a solar orbit and
E
perigee for the earth’s orbit).

r2 is the largest radius (aphelion or

apogee)
L2
r1 , r2 are the turning points for the Veff (r )  V (r ) 
orbit where Veff = E
2mr2

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inverse square law orbits

Now consider the equation of conic sections

1 1
 [1  e cos  ].
r r0
In general, r can take values between a maximum
and a minimum given by the extrema of the cos funtion .
1 1 1 1
Then  [1  e] and  [1  e]
r1 r0 r2 r0

Of course, for e = 0, the two roots merge at r0 , as expected for a circle.

Comparing with the earlier 2 EL2

expression, we get e  1 2
1 2
mr 
L2 k
 E
mk
2
2 2mr r
for inverse square forces
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 Nature of the Orbits
The nature of the orbit is entirely determined by the value of
the eccentricity e , which depends on L and E
2
2 EL
e  1 2
mk
Value of energy Value of Nature of the
eccentricity orbit
E>0 e>1 hyperbola
E=0 e=1 parabola
(Veff)min < E < 0 0<e<1 ellipse
E = (Veff)min e=0 circle
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inverse square law orbits

2 EL2
e  1 2
Veff mk
special cases:
E>0
(i) E >0, e>1
hyperbola
E=0 (ii) E=0 , e=1,
r r2 becomes infinity
O
parabola
r1 r2 E<0
(iii) E < 0 , e<1
r0 E=Vmin two turning points,
ellipse

(iv) E= −mk2 / (2L2), e=0,

circle

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Kepler’s laws

Kepler’s laws

Johannes Kepler
1571-1630
Planetary orbits are ellipses with the sun at one focus
(The law of elliptical orbits)

Areas swept out by the radius vector from the sun to a planet in equal times
are equal ( The law of equal areas in equal times)

The square of a planets period is proportional to the cube of the

semimajor axis of its orbit (T2  a3)

First law follows directly from Newton’s law of Universal Gravitation

Based on detailed Astronomical data taken by Tycho Brahe

Tycho Brahe : 1564 - 1601 16
Kepler’s laws

A diagram showing the elliptical orbits of the inner, terrestrial planets,

Icarus (an asteroid), and Halley's comet. 17
Kepler’s laws

Plot of a3 versus T2

Actual experimental data

http://www.windows.ucar.edu/tour/link=/the_universe/uts/kepler2.html
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Ellipse at washington DC

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