UST College of Science 1st Term, AY 2023-2024

Department of Biological Sciences BIO421L General Botany Laboratory

BIO421L General Botany Laboratory

Exercise 9
Introduction to Fungi

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Members: ____________________________*owner Date: ___________________

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Introduction:

With over 5 million species of mushrooms, rusts, smuts, mildews, molds, stinkhorns,
puffballs and truffles, fungi is one of the most important organisms on earth to break down
organic materials to be made available for natural recycling. As fungi grow, they develop hyphae
(s. hypha) which are intertwined masses of delicate threads that branch and sometimes fuse
together. The hypha may be separated by walls known as septa. The collective term for a mass
of hyphae is mycelium. Unlike members of the Kingdom Protista, no fungus has chlorophyll. True
fungi have large nitrogenous polysaccharide in their cell walls which is chitin. They are
heterotrophs and most of the time, they absorb food in solution through their cell walls and have
glycogen as their storage product instead of starch. Some are saprophytic, parasitic, predatory,
and some are mutualistic (lichens). Fungi are united by the following morphological and
physiological features, eukaryotic, spore bearing organisms that reproduce asexually and
sexually. Sexual reproduction does not include male and females; instead, they develop mating
types (+ and -).

They were once considered to be a member of the Kingdom Plantae because they share
features like definite cell walls, sedentary, and reproduction through spores. However, they were
later found to be more alike to animals than plants. Some protists exhibit fungal-like properties
like myxomycetes and oomycetes; however, in this exercise, we will only focus on organisms
officially classified under the Kingdom Fungi. The Kingdom are classified into 5 divisions
Chydridiomycota (chytrids), Zycomycota (coenocytic fungi), Ascomycota (sac fungi),
Deuteromycota (imperfect fungi), and Basidiomycota (club fungi). All are filamentous except for

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UST College of Science 1st Term, AY 2023-2024
Department of Biological Sciences BIO421L General Botany Laboratory
some chytrids and all yeasts. Modes of sexual reproduction vary among the different groups and
are an important source of distinction.

Objectives:
Following this exercise, the students should be able to:
1. Recognize the major differences between the various groups of fungi.
2. Explain the sexual and asexual reproduction of representative species.
3. Discuss the different phases in the life cycle of a common mushroom.
4. Describe the features of the three basic forms of lichens.
General Instructions:
1. Make sure that prior to the lab, all required samples and personal materials (lab gown,
gloves, dissecting kit) are ready for each group.
2. Prepare your working station before starting the exercise. Disinfect the table using
alcohol and place the plastic cover on top.
3. Borrow the microscopes from the laboratory technician. Handle the microscope
carefully.
4. Observe the specimens under scanner, LPO and then HPO. Take specimen photographs
as needed (by the designated photographer per group). Specify the magnification used
in each figure.
5. Identify and label the required parts.
6. Answer the questions listed below.

1.1. Phylum Zygomycota

Rhizopus stolonifer or black bread molds are the best known members of Zygomycota are
true mycelial fungi. They are common in terrestrial habitats as saprophytes. They can also be
found as mutualistic symbionts with roots of vascular plants (mycorrhizal), or as parasites of
arthropods. The mycelium in most species (Mucorales) is fast-growing and cottony which is
referred to as “mold.” A good example would be the profuse growth of Rhizopus on stale bread.
The hyphal filaments are generally coenocytic and are multinucleate. In its growth, the absorptive
hyphae penetrate the substratum while the aerial hyphae is observed to form a stolon. The
collective term for a stolon and a sporangium is called a sporangiophore. Each sporangiophore
forms a globose sporangium at each tips and within the sporangium are numerous asexual spores
that turn black when mature.

A. Observe the prepared slide of Rhizopus. Make a drawing of two clusters of sporangiophores.
Draw and label the Rhizopus showing the stolon or hypha connecting the two clusters of
sporangiophores, the rhizoids, sporangium, sporangiospore, columella (7 pts).

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UST College of Science 1st Term, AY 2023-2024
Department of Biological Sciences BIO421L General Botany Laboratory

Scanner/LPO HPO

B. How are spores produced in Rhizopus. (2pts)

C. Explain the asexual and sexual reproduction by a black bread mold (4pts).

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UST College of Science 1st Term, AY 2023-2024
Department of Biological Sciences BIO421L General Botany Laboratory

1.2. Phylum Ascomycota and Deuteromycota

Ascomycetes are the largest group of fungi. Ascomycetous fungi are known by their asci
(s. ascus), which are sac containing haploid ascospores. Ascomycetous yeasts may have thallus
that are unicellular or pseudomycelial, the asci is the result of the fusion of cell between two
isogametangia and the diploid nucleus in the ascus directly undergoes meiosis to form
ascospores. In septate-mycelial forms, the hyphae are homokaryotic. The sac fungi get their
names from their sexual reproduction stage. When hyphae of two different “sexes” become
closely associated, the male antheridia may be formed on one and female ascogonia on the
other. Hyphae grow and connect them together and the make nucleus migrates into the
ascogonium. The result is an ascogenous hyphae with cells containing one male and one female
nucleus. The cells will continue to divide in a unique way to contain one of each kind of nucleus
in the tip of an ascogenous hypha that will form a hook called a crozier. For Deuteromycota, they
are termed as imperfect fungi because the structures for their sexual reproduction is unknown,
asexual reproduction is by means of conidia (s. conidium) which are spores that are produced
externally outside of a sporangium at the tips of conidiophores. In yeasts, asexual reproduction
is by budding.

There is a very wide range of lifestyles for this phylum, Some ascomycetes are
saprotrophs, others necrotrophic or biotrophic parasites of plants and animals, including
humans. Some are mutualistic symbionts, lichens are dual organisms consisting of a fungus
(usually an ascomycete) and a photosynthetic alga or cyanobacterium living in close association.

A. Observe the prepared slide of Saccharomyces cerevisiae (Yeast). In your drawing show a single
cell and a chain of cells that shows the process of budding. Label the nucleus, vacuole, and cell
wall (5pts).

LPO HPO

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UST College of Science 1st Term, AY 2023-2024
Department of Biological Sciences BIO421L General Botany Laboratory
B. What is the purpose of being heterothallic in sexual reproduction? (3pts)

C. How many ascospores are usually produced in each ascus? Account for it. (2pts)

D. Observe the prepared slide of Penicilium (blue or green mold). Draw and label the
conidiophore, conidia, hyphae, phialide (5pts).

LPO HPO

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UST College of Science 1st Term, AY 2023-2024
Department of Biological Sciences BIO421L General Botany Laboratory
E. Observe the prepared slide of Aspergillus (yellow mold). Draw and label the conidiophore,
conidia, hyphae, sterigmata (5pts).

LPO HPO

F. Differentiate the conidiophore of Aspergillus and Penicillium. (3spts)

1.3 Basidiomycota

Basidiomycetes include many familiar mushrooms including bracket fungi, puffballs,

earth balls, earth stars, stinkhorns, false truffles, jelly fungi and some uncommon forms. Also
classified here are the known pathogens of higher plants that cause serious crop diseases, rust
and smut fungi. Most members of Basidiomycota are terrestrial with wind-dispersed spores,
but some grow in freshwater or marine habitats. For this phylum, the mycelium are known to
be very long-lived. This group is commonly called club fungi because of their elaborate fruiting
bodies that produces sexual spores at the tips of swollen hyphae. The septate-mycelial fruiting
bodies are called basidiocarps which mainly function to bear the basidiospores, they come in
different shapes which are correlated to the many adaptations each species have developed.
The swollen hyphal tips are called basidia (s. basidium). Asexual reproduction is less frequent in

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UST College of Science 1st Term, AY 2023-2024
Department of Biological Sciences BIO421L General Botany Laboratory
basidiomycetes but occurs mainly through the conidia. For sexual reproduction commonly, the
hyphae of a mycelium are divided into cells that contain single haploid nucleus or
monokaryotic, if the growth of compatible mating types happen to unite mycelium with two
nuclei, they are termed as dikaryotic. Aside from the mycelial form, some basidiomycetes grow
yeast-like and others are dimorphic.

A. Agaricus or button mushrooms. Members of this genus are characterized by having a fleshy
cap or pileus, from the underside of which grow a number of radiating plates or gills on which
are produced the naked spores. They are distinguished from other members of their family,
Agaricaceae, by their chocolate-brown spores. Members also have a stem or stipe, which
elevates it above the object on which the mushroom grows, or substrate, and a partial veil,
which protects the developing gills and later forms a ring or annulus on the stalk. Make two
drawings of a side view of the sporophore of Agaricus. Label the rhizoids, stipe, lamellae or
gills, annulus, and pileus (7pts).

B. Ganoderma or shelf mushrooms, bracket Fungi, or also known as the Artist's Conk, are
characterized by basidiocarps that are large, perennial, woody brackets also called "conks".
They are lignicolous and leathery either with or without a stem. The fruit bodies typically grow
in a fan-like or hoof-like form on the trunks of living or dead trees. They have double-walled,
truncate spores with yellow to brown ornamented inner layers. Study and sketch the side view
of the sporophore, label the substratum, pores or openings (5pts).

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UST College of Science 1st Term, AY 2023-2024
Department of Biological Sciences BIO421L General Botany Laboratory

B . Describe the basidiocarp of Ganoderma (2pts).

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C. Lycoperdon or Puffball Mushroom, chiefly saprophytic, obtaining their food from dead
leaves, animal wastes, decomposing bark and wood and other organic material in the soil. The
vegetative hyphae grow extensively through the soil or other substratum, later forming
sporophores which when young are fleshy. The sporophore is usually globose like a ball or
ovoid with conspicuous layers of peridium. The basidia or basidiospores develop within a
peridium as a powdery mass. At maturity, the peridium ruptures or opens by a pore liberating
the basidiospores. The fungus got its name from the fact that sporophore is in the form of a ball
and the spores puff out in clouds when pressure is applied on the side of the sporophore. Make
a habit sketch of the sporophore of Lycoperdon and label the peridium and rhizoids (5pts)

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UST College of Science 1st Term, AY 2023-2024
Department of Biological Sciences BIO421L General Botany Laboratory
Describe briefly the plant body. What is a peridium? What is this substrate calvacin? (5pts)

D. Auricularia or Jew's ear, Wood ear, Jelly ear, Tainga ng Daga. Most Auricularia species are
edible and are grown commercially. The fruit body of Auricularia is either resupinate or pileate
and then either ear-to shell-shaped or forming narrow, imbricate brackets, flabby elastic or
tough gelatinous; hymenial surface smooth, wrinkled or veined, often purplish. The basidia is
cylindrical, with 1-3 transeverse septa. Spores narrowly ellipsoid to allantoid, hyaline, smooth.
Make a habit sketch of the sporophore showing its characteristics, label the ear-shaped
sporophore give its habitat or occurrence. (5 pts)

E. Puccinia graminis or wheat rust is the cause of black stem rust on wheat and other cereals.
This species is a good example of a long cycled organism that produces various spores: haploid
basidiospores, binucleate aeciospores, binucleate uredospores, and binucleate teliospores. It
requires two host species to complete its life cycle which is termed as heteroecious. Study the
demonstration slide for Puccinia graminis. Draw and label the aecium, uredinium, and telium
(5pts).

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UST College of Science 1st Term, AY 2023-2024
Department of Biological Sciences BIO421L General Botany Laboratory

B. Why are rusts fungi classified under Basidiomycetes? (3pts)

C. Explain briefly the five (5) different stages of the Puccinia life cycle. (5pts)
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UST College of Science 1st Term, AY 2023-2024
Department of Biological Sciences BIO421L General Botany Laboratory
1.4 Lichens

Lichens are defined as a ‘self-supporting association of a fungus (mycobiont) and a green

alga or cyanobacterium (photobiont), resulting in a stable thallus of specific structure. The fungal
partner usually contributes most of the biomass to this symbiosis, including the external surface.
It is thus termed the exhabitant, whereas the unicellular or filamentous photobiont cells are
collectively called the inhabitant because they are located inside the lichen thallus. Phycobiont
belong to the chlorophytes and cyanobacteria. Since the alga is provided with necessary
pigments for photosynthesis, it may exist alone. On the other hand the mycobiont in nature, has
never been observed to live independent of the algal partner because of its nutritional needs. It
may be difficult to recognize the phycobiont because of its distortion within the fungal tissues.

There are three types of lichens, crustose, which occurs as incrustation on rocks and barks,
foliose, which is flat and leaf-like, and fruticose, which is branching and hang from trees or grow
on ground. Lichens are common on rocks, leaves, tree trunks, and certain types of soils, shingles,
and other wooden objects. Study the various forms of lichens and draw their habit. Classify their
form (9pts)

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UST College of Science 1st Term, AY 2023-2024
Department of Biological Sciences BIO421L General Botany Laboratory

References:
Mauseth, J. & Snook, A. (2021). Botany: A Lab Manual, 7th Edition. ISBN:9781284157390. Jones
and Bartlett Learning.
Mauseth, J. (2021). Botany: An Introduction to Plant Biology, 7th Edition. ISBN:9781284157352.
Jones and Bartlett Learning.
Stern, K. R., Jansky, S., & Bidlack, J. E. (2003). Introductory plant biology (Vol. 8). New York:
McGraw-Hill.

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