Social Psychology

Individual in Society
Research, methods and techniques in
social psychology
Roberto Muelas Lobato
Week 2
Agenda

● Quick summary
● The scientific method
● Correlations
● Experiments
● Unethical studies
 What is Social Psychology?

The scientific study of the way in which

individuals’ thoughts, feelings and behaviours are
influenced by the real or imagined presence of
other people
What is Social Psychology?
The scientific method

Social psychology primarily uses the scientific method, why?

● Increases our fundamental knowledge

● Creates new technology
● Dreams up new applications
● A pathway to share ideas
● Gives us a better world view
The scientific method
 1. Ask a question

The scientific method We identify a problem

and ask questions

7. Draw conclusions
2. Review of literature

We test whether our

We reviewed related
hypotheses are fulfilled
literature and looked for
and draw conclusions
theories that could
from the results obtained
explain the question

6. Data analysis 3. Hypothesis formulation

We analyse the data We transform the question

using statistical into a hypothesis that can
techniques be tested

5. Collection of data 4. Research design

We conduct sampling We design an experiment

and administer data by which we can test the
collection instruments hypothesis and identify
the population and the
variables
The scientific method
● Step 1. Ask questions
● Step 2. Review of literature
● Step 3. Formulating testable hypothesis
● Step 4. Selecting a research approach
● Step 5. Data collection
● Step 6. Analysing the data and drawing conclusions
● Step 7. Sharing the results with the scientific community
The scientific method

What is the scientific attitude?

Curiosity
Vestibulum congue

Critical
thinking

Skepticism
Vestibulum congue Humility
Vestibulum congue
The scientific method
Psychologists arm their scientific attitude with the scientific method

Psychological science evaluates competing ideas with careful observation and rigorous analysis

In its attempt to describe and explain human nature, it welcomes hunches and
plausible-sounding theories

And it puts them to the test

If a theory works—if the data support its predictions—so much the better for that theory

If the predictions fail, the theory will be revised or rejected

The scientific method
The scientific method
Theory: an explanation using an integrated set of principles that organizes observations
and predicts behaviors or events

Hypothesis: a testable prediction, often implied by a theory

Operational definition: a statement of the procedures (operations) used to define

research variables

Replication: repeating the essence of a research study, usually with different participants
in different situations, to see whether the basic finding extends to other participants and
circumstances
The scientific method
How do psychologists observe and describe behavior?

● Case studies
● Surveys
● Naturalistic observation
Correlations

Does a correlation imply causation?

● Yes
● No
● Undecided
Correlations
 Pastafarian Sparrowism
Vibrant religion that seeks to bring the Flying Spaghetti Monster’s fleeting affection to all of us,
through the life of His Prophet, Captain Jack Sparrow
 Correlations

Pirates caused global warming!

Illusory correlation: the perception

of a relationship where none exists
Correlation scatterplots
Correlations
 Wilkinson & Pickett (2009)

Correlation scatterplots
 Wilkinson & Pickett (2009)

Correlation scatterplots
Correlations

Correlations allow us to predict but not whether changing one

variable will cause changes in another
Correlation vs. causation

Correlation tells us that two variables are related and how they “move”
Causation means X causes Y or Y causes X (causal relationship)

In order to imply causation a true experiment must be performed where subjects are
randomly assigned to different conditions
Correlation vs. causation

‘‘The correlation between workers’ education levels and wages is strongly positive”

➔ Does this mean education “causes” higher wages?

We don’t know for sure!

Correlation vs. causation
‘‘The correlation between workers’ education levels and wages is strongly positive”
➔ Does this mean education “causes” higher wages?
Possibility 1
● Education improves skills and skilled workers get better paying jobs
● Education causes wages to be higher
Possibility 2
● Individuals are born with quality X which is relevant for success in education and
on the job
● Quality (NOT education) causes wages to be higher
Correlation vs. causation
Correlation vs. causation

A study reported in the British Medical Journal found that youths who identify with the
goth subculture attempt, more often than other young people, to harm or kill
themselves (Young et al., 2006)

Can you imagine multiple possible explanations for this association?

Correlation vs. causation

A New York Times writer reported a massive survey showing that “adolescents whose
parents smoked were 50 percent more likely than children of nonsmokers to report
having had sex”

He concluded (would you agree?) that the survey indicated a causal effect—that “to
reduce the chances that their children will become sexually active at an early age”
parents might “quit smoking” (O’Neil, 2002)
Experimental research
An experiment is a research method in which an investigator manipulates one or more factors
(independent variables) to observe the effect on some behavior or mental process (the
dependent variable)

By random assignment of participants, the experimenter aims to control other relevant factors

Experiments aim to manipulate an independent variable, measure the dependent variable and
control all other variables

An experiment has at least two different groups: an experimental group and a comparison or
control group

Random assignment works to equate the groups before any treatment effects
Experimental research

● Independent variable: the experimental factor that is manipulated; the variable

whose effect is being studied
● Dependent variable: the outcome factor; the variable that may change in response
to manipulations of the independent variable
● Random assignment: assigning participants to experimental and control groups by
chance, thus minimizing preexisting differences between those assigned to the
different groups
Experimental research
Dependent vs. independent variables
In a psychology experiment, researchers want to discover if listening to classical music helps students earn
better grades on a math exam. In this example, the scores on the math exams are __________ and the
classical music is __________

Researchers are interested in seeing how long it takes people to respond to different sounds. In this example,
the length of time it takes participants to respond to a sound is the __________, while the sounds are the
__________

Researchers want to know whether first-born children learn to speak at a younger age than second-born
children. In this example, the __________ is the age at which the child learns to speak and the __________ is
whether the child is first- or second-born

Researchers are interested in looking at how alcohol use influences reaction times while driving. The amount
of alcohol a participant ingests is the __________, while their performance on the driving test is the
__________
Dependent vs. independent variables
In a psychology experiment, researchers want to discover if listening to classical music helps students earn
better grades on a math exam. In this example, the scores on the math exams are the dependent variable and
the classical music is the independent variable

Researchers are interested in seeing how long it takes people to respond to different sounds. In this example,
the length of time it takes participants to respond to a sound is the dependent variable, while the sounds are
the independent variable

Researchers want to know whether first-born children learn to speak at a younger age than second-born
children. In this example, the dependent variable is the age at which the child learns to speak and the
independent variable is whether the child is first- or second-born

Researchers are interested in looking at how alcohol use influences reaction times while driving. The amount
of alcohol a participant ingests is the independent variable, while their performance on the driving test is the
dependent variable
 The scientific method
Research method Basic purpose How conducted What is manipulated Weaknesses

Descriptive To observe and record Do case studies, surveys, Nothing No control of variables;
behavior or naturalistic observations single record behavior
cases may be misleading

Correlational To detect naturally Compute statistical Nothing Does not specify cause
occurring relationships; to association, sometimes and effect
assess how well one among survey responses
variable predicts another

Experimental To explore cause and Manipulate one or more The independent Sometimes not feasible;
effect factors; use random variable(s) results may not generalize
assignment to other contexts; not
ethical to manipulate
certain variables
From research questions to experiments
Think about a really interesting question regarding your society

How can you create a study to understand this problem better?

 Obedience to authority
Justifications for acts of genocide offered by those accused at the World War II during Nuremberg War Criminal trials were
based on obedience
Stanley Milgram (1933-1984)
They were just following orders from their superiors

Milgram wondered if “banality of evil” could

be demonstrated in the lab.

He recruited 40 male volunteers for a lab

experiment investigating “learning”
 Obedience to authority
Role assignation “teacher” and “learner”

Teacher is told to administer an electric shock every time the

Learner makes a mistake, increasing the level of shock each
time
Obedience to authority

Contradicting the predictions of every expert he polled, Milgram found that:

● All the participants continued to 300 volts

● Almost 70% administered what they thought might be fatal shocks (450
volts) to an innocent stranger
Milgram experiments - The heist
Obedience to authority

● Please identify: hypothesis, IV, DV

● Do you think this experiment meets current ethical standards? Why or why
not?
● What would you change in this experiment?
● Do you think if this experiment is run in other contexts/cultures the results
would be different?
● Did Milgram’s experiment demonstrate that humans have a universal
propensity to destructive obedience or that they are merely products of their
cultural moment?
 Tuskegee Syphilis experiment
The purpose of the study was to observe the
effects of the disease when untreated, though by
the end of the study it was entirely treatable

The men were not informed of the nature of the

experiment, and more than 100 died as a result
Tuskegee Syphilis experiment
Unethical studies
There are 6 main points which are regarded as highly unethical in the study:

1. There was no informed consent

2. The participants were not informed of all the known dangers
3. The participants had to agree to an autopsy after their death, in order to have their funeral costs
covered
4. Scientists denied treatment to some patients, in order to observe the individual dangers and fatal
progression of the disease
5. Participants were not given the cure, even when it was widely known and easily available
6. The designers used a misleading advertisement: The researchers advertised for participants with the
slogan; "Last Chance for Special Free Treatment". The subjects were NOT given a treatment, instead
being recruited for a very risky spinal tap-diagnostic
How can it be done differently?
Important checklist before running an
experiment
● Why to do it?
● Hypothesis – expected outcomes
● Previous findings
● Operational definitions: DV, IV
● Ethical considerations