Scientific research in the

preparatory phase.
Irine Sakhelashvili
Tbilisi
2017
What is the Research?!

 A systematic, controlled, empiric and critical investigation of hypothetic

statements on supposed relationships among phenomenon.

Features of research:
 Systematic solving of scientific problems
 using scientific methods
 System of interconnecting phases and steps
Process of the research
 Ongoing planning, searching, discovery, reflection, synthesis,
revision, and learning.

Figure 1. Research process model

Steps of research
Ask Question

Do
Background
Research
Construct
Hypothesis Hypothesis is
true
Test with
Think! Try Experiments
Again!
Analyze
Results

Report
Results

Hypothesis is False
or Partially true
Phase of conception:

 Formulation of research problem or research questions, set bounds

of them, determine the purpose of the study
 Searching and review the literature relating to the regarding
research problem and develop a framework
 Development of the theoretical construction of the future
research
 Creation of hypothesis which should be verified/ phalsified in
future research
Formulation of research problem and set bounds of
it:

 the most difficult and the most important part of research project.

 Scientific problem is frequently stated in form of a question:

 think about possible causes of observed new, up to now
unknown phenomenon,
 create of hypothesis,
 think on whether defined scientific problem is solvable,
 think about methods suitable for solving the defined scientific
problem.
Example of the Scientific Question:

 If you are interested in finding out about the epidemic of

obesity in the American population, you might pose the
question "What are the causes of obesity in America ?"
 By posing your subject as a question you can more easily
identify the main concepts or keywords to be used in your
research.
Review of Literature

 To identify related research, to set the current research project

within a conceptual and theoretical context.
 To concentrate on the scientific literature, start with the most
valuable research journals in your topical area, use a blind or juried
review system on the research journals and do the review early in the
research process.
 To find and select appropriate measurement instruments;
 To anticipate common problems in your research context;
 to avoid common traps.
The aims of literature review

 To get an insight and to get a view work of others.

 To compare different authors views on an issue;
 Put those with similar conclusions in groups,
 Note the disagreement areas and conclude by summarising what the
literature says.

The certain aim of this step is to find the current

information related to the recognized research problem
Which literature must be reviewed?!

 Surveys scholarly articles, books and other sources (e.g. dissertations,

conference proceedings) relevant to a particular issue, area of research,
or theory, providing a description, summary, and critical evaluation of
each work.

Find he answers to the questions:

- did anybody else formulate the same research problem in the past?
– did anybody else solve the same or similar problem in the past?
– are the results of the previous solving acceptable for us or not?
Development of the theoretical construction of the
future research

 The main aim of this step is thinking:

1. on the content of presumed research,
2.on its timing (date of beginning, duration of individual stages,
duration whole research, date of supposed finish),
3. on its structure (division to stages, phases),
4. on conditions which should be created for successful run of
research (persons, money, material, place).
Necessary conditions:

 the research problem should be clearly defined

 the technical, financial and personal conditions are potentially
available
 the social, legal and ethical views are known and are consistent with
current state (institutional) law and ethical rules and regulations

Clear framework of the way by which the research

problem will be solved.
Formulation of hypothesis

 The two types of hypotheses are scientific and working.

1. A scientific hypothesis is based on experiments and observations
from the past that cannot be explained with current theories.
2. A working hypothesis is one that is widely accepted and becomes
the basis of further experimentation.
Goal of a Hypothesis

 Regardless of the type of hypothesis, the goal of a hypothesis is to

help explain the focus and direction of the experiment or research. As
such, a hypothesis will:
1. State the purpose of the research
2. Identify what variables are used
Feature of the good Hypothesis
 It should:
1. give insight into a research question,
2. be testable with research or experimentation
3. spring logically from the experience of the staff
4. be logical
5. use precise language
Examples:
-There is a positive correlation between the availability of hours for
work and the productivity of employees. 
- Childhood obesity is tied to the amount of sugary drinks ingested daily.
Research Design

The goal is to prepare the real plan of the research;

Decision regarding:
 What;
 Where;
 When;
 How much;
 by what means concerning an inquiry ….
Parts of Construction the Research
Design (Phil Ender, 1998)
 Identification of variables
 Construction of operational definitions for variables
 Selection of design for data analysis

You have to be aware how and where will you conduct

your experiment.
Identification of Variables:
Definition: Any characteristic that varies (meaning it must
have at least two values); Any event, situation, behavior, or
individual characteristic that varies;

 Dependent variables (responses, outcome, or criterion variables)

 Independent variables (explanatory or predictor variables)
 Control variables
 Intervening variables
Variables: examples

 Height (participant or subject variable)

 Age (participant or subject variable)
 Stress (response variable)
 Score on depression test (response variable)
 Number of bystanders to an emergency (situational variable)
Variables:


Research questions and hypotheses consist of x and y variables
 Is X related to Y?
 Is studying related to school performance?
Construction of operational definitions for variables

Most of scientific variables in medicine are constructs and we have to

operationalize them in some fashion for easy and consistent
measurement.
Operational definition: defines a construct by specifying the procedures
used to measure a construct:
Two ways to do this:
1. Providing a clear definition
2. Define particular measurement instrument to represent the
concept
Examples of definition:

Is intelligence related to the happiness?!

Conceptual
Intelligence: The capacity for abstract thought, understanding,
communication, reasoning, learning, planning and problem solving.

Operational
Intelligence: The score resulting from performing the Raven’s Progressive
Matrices Test.
Note…

 Operational definitions aren’t always good… they may not accurately

capture the intended construct (i.e., lack validity)
 An operational definition is simply how a researcher decides to
measure (and thus define) a construct
 For example, intelligence is more than a score on a test…
Selection of design for data analysis
 selection of patients, animals, other objects used for research to solve the
defined scientific problem (representative sample should be created)
 selection the methods which are planned to be used in proposed research
 Selection of technology
 protocol of research should be constructed
 the control methods should be stated: to control whether the research
procedures are correct or not
 to define the statistical methods used for evaluation of the obtained results
 to define the financial, material and personal needs to secure success in the
research
Types of research design:
 Case Study Design
 Causal Design
 Cohort Design
 Cross-Sectional Design
 Descriptive Design
 Experimental Design
 Exploratory Design
 Longitudinal Design
 Meta-Analysis Design
 Mixed-Method Design
 Observational Design
 Etc…
Case study
 An in-depth study of a particular research problem rather than a
sweeping statistical survey or comprehensive comparative inquiry.
 It is often used to narrow down a very broad field of research into
one or a few easily researchable examples.
 The case study research design is also useful for testing whether a
specific theory and model actually applies to phenomena in the real
world. It is a useful design when not much is known about an issue or
phenomenon.
Causal design

 Causality studies may be thought of as understanding a phenomenon in terms

of conditional statements in the form, “If X, then Y.”
 This type of research is used to measure what impact a specific change will
have on existing norms and assumptions.
 Most social scientists seek causal explanations that reflect tests of
hypotheses.
 Causal effect (nomothetic perspective) occurs when variation in one
phenomenon, an independent variable, leads to or results, on average, in
variation in another phenomenon, the dependent variable.
Cohort design

 Often used in the medical sciences, but also found in the applied social
sciences, a cohort study generally refers to a study conducted over a period
of time involving members of a population which the subject or
representative member comes from, and who are united by some
commonality or similarity.
 Using a quantitative framework, a cohort study makes note of statistical
occurrence within a specialized subgroup, united by same or similar
characteristics that are relevant to the research problem being investigated,
rather than studying statistical occurrence within the general population.
 Using a qualitative framework, cohort studies generally gather data using
methods of observation.
Cross-sectional research designs

 have three distinctive features:

1. no time dimension;
2. a reliance on existing differences rather than change following
intervention; and,
3. groups are selected based on existing differences rather than
random allocation.
The cross-sectional design can only measure differences between or
from among a variety of people, subjects, or phenomena rather than a
process of change. As such, researchers using this design can only
employ a relatively passive approach to making causal inferences based
on findings.
Descriptive research designs

 Help provide answers to the questions of who, what, when, where,

and how associated with a particular research problem;
 A descriptive study cannot conclusively ascertain answers to why...
Descriptive research is used to obtain information concerning the
current status of the phenomena and to describe "what exists" with
respect to variables or conditions in a situation.
Experimental Design
 A blueprint of the procedure that enables the researcher to maintain
control over all factors that may affect the result of an experiment. In
doing this, the researcher attempts to determine or predict what may
occur.
 Experimental research is often used where there is time priority in a
causal relationship (cause precedes effect), there is consistency in a causal
relationship (a cause will always lead to the same effect), and the
magnitude of the correlation is great.
 The classic experimental design specifies an experimental group and a
control group. The independent variable is administered to the
experimental group and not to the control group, and both groups are
measured on the same dependent variable. Subsequent experimental
designs have used more groups and more measurements over longer
periods.
Exploratory Design

 Is conducted about a research problem when there are few or no

earlier studies to refer to or rely upon to predict an outcome.
 The focus is on gaining insights and familiarity for later investigation
or undertaken when research problems are in a preliminary stage of
investigation.
 Exploratory designs are often used to establish an understanding of
how best to proceed in studying an issue or what methodology would
effectively apply to gathering information about the issue.
Longitudinal Design

 A longitudinal study follows the same sample over time and makes repeated
observations. For example, with longitudinal surveys, the same group of
people is interviewed at regular intervals, enabling researchers to track
changes over time and to relate them to variables that might explain why the
changes occur.
 Longitudinal research designs describe patterns of change and help establish
the direction and magnitude of causal relationships. Measurements are taken
on each variable over two or more distinct time periods.
 This allows the researcher to measure change in variables over time. It is a
type of observational study sometimes referred to as a panel study.
Observational Design

 This type of research design draws a conclusion by comparing subjects against

a control group, in cases where the researcher has no control over the
experiment.
 There are two general types of observational designs. In direct observations,
people know that you are watching them. Unobtrusive measures involve any
method for studying behavior where individuals do not know they are being
observed.
 An observational study allows a useful insight into a phenomenon and avoids
the ethical and practical difficulties of setting up a large and cumbersome
research project.
Research Critique -- Four key aspects of Critique:

1. Understanding the purpose and problems, while determining if the

design and methodology are consistent with purpose.
2. Determining if the methodology is properly applied.
3. Assessing if outcomes and conclusions are believable and supported
by findings.
4. Reflecting on overall quality, strength and limitation

(Holder, 2003)
Research questions - example for
critiquing a research study
Elements Questions

Writing style Is the research plan well written - concise, grammatically

correct, avoid the use of jargon? Is it well laid out and
organized?

Author Do the researcher(s') qualifications/position indicate a

degree of knowledge in this particular field?

Title Is the title clear, accurate and unambiguous?

Abstract Does the abstract offer a clear overview of the study

including the research problem, sample, methodology,
finding and recommendations?