MMPC – 008

Information Systems
for Managers
Indira Gandhi National Open University
School of Management Studies

Block

3
SYSTEM ANALYSIS AND COMPUTER
LANGUAGES
UNIT 9
Building Information Systems 145
UNIT 10
System Analysis and Design 172
UNIT 11
Computer Programming and Languages 187
BLOCK 3: SYSTEM ANALYSIS & COMPUTER
LANGUAGES
Till now you have read about the hardware, software, and networking
technologies. You have also learned about the information systems in
general and applications of information systems in functional areas in
particular. This block tries to perceive you in the hat of a programmer or a
system developer.
Unit 9: Building Information Systems make an effort to enlighten you with
different types of Information system and their impact on doing business.
You would be on familiar terms with planned organizational charge. You
will understand the business values of Information System and appreciate
the advantages and disadvantages of outsourcing Information System. You
would also learn about how IS can be used to ensure quality.
Unit 10: System Analysis and Design strive to acquaint with traditional
systems life cycles. You will identify different phases of system life cycle
and understand system analysis. It will enable you to empathize with the
different types of system design. This Unit also makes you aware of the
latest concepts in systems design. You will also know about issues in
implementation and maintenance of software.
Unit 11: Computer Programming & Languages highlights the concept,
fundamentals and vocabulary of programming languages. You will grasp
the important features of Visual Basic, Java, HTML & XML, and Excel,
and would be able to write programs in higher-level language.
UNIT 9: BUILDING INFORMATION
SYSTEMS
Structure
9.1 Introduction
9.2 Objectives
9.3 Computer Based information systems and its classification
9.3.1 Office Automation Systems
9.3.2 Communication Systems
9.3.3 Transaction Processing systems

9.3.4 Enterprise Information Systems

9.3.5 Decision Support Systems
9.3.6 Execution Systems
9.3.7 Going beyond the information system categories
9.4 Redesigning the organisation with information systems
9.5 Business values of information systems
9.6 Outsourcing information system
9.6.1 Advantages and Disadvantages of Outsourcing
9.6.2 When to Use Outsourcing
9.7 Ensuring quality with information system
9.8 Summary
9.9 Unit End Exercises
9.10 References & Suggested Further Reading

9.1 INTRODUCTION
An Information System is a set of people, procedures, and resources that
collects, transforms, and disseminates information in an organization. In the
world over, today’s end users rely on many types of Information Systems
(IS). Automation has penetrated everywhere and in every field of life. In
this unit, we will concentrate on computer-based information systems that
use hardware, software, communication technology, and other forms of
Information Technology (IT) to transform data resources into a variety of
information products. Four kinds of organizational changes are enabled by
Information systems. These are automation, rationalization, re-engineering
and paradigm shift. When an organization does not use its internal resources
to build and operate information system it takes help of other organizations
to provide these services. This is called outsourcing. There are advantages
and disadvantages of using outsourcing. Quality programs differ greatly
from company to company. Some are merely generalized “sales” campaigns
intended to sensitize employees to the need to strive for more quality in
their daily work. At the opposite extreme, quality programs can result in

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System Analysis and Computer fundamental changes in the way a company does its business. Companies
Languages also follow different routes in achieving quality. Whatever route a company
selects, the more it tries to achieve with its quality programs, the more
information systems can contribute the success of those programs.

9.2 OBJECTIVES
After reading this unit, you should be able to
●● Identify different types of Information Systems;
●● Explain the impact of Information System on doing business;
●● Describe about planned organizational change;
●● Understand the business values of Information System;
●● Enumerate the advantages and disadvantages of outsourcing
Information System; and
●● Discuss how IS can be used to ensure quality.

9.3 COMPUTER BASED INFORMATION

SYSTEMS AND ITS CLASSIFICATION
A computer based information system uses the resources of people (end
users and IS specialists), hardware (machines and media), and software
(programs and procedures), to perform input, processing, output, storage,
and control activities that convert data resources into information products
as shown in Figure 9.1.

People Resources: End Users & IS Specialists

Software Resources: Programs & Procedures

Hardware Resources: Machines & Media

Control of System Performance

Input of Processing Output of

Data Data into Information
Resources Information Products

Storage of Data Resources

Data Resources: Data, Model & Knowledge Bases

Figure 9.1: The components of an Information System

Source: James A, O’Brien, Introduction to Information System

Before going into the details of Computer based Information System, let us
first discuss about a system. A system is a group of interrelated components
working together toward a common goal by accepting inputs and producing
outputs through an organized transformation process.
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Such a system (sometimes called a dynamic system) has three basic Building Information Systems
interacting components or functions:
●● Input involves capturing and assembling elements that enter the
system to be processed. For example, raw materials, energy, data, and
human effort must be secured and organized for processing.
●● Processing involves transformation processes that convert input
into output. Examples are a manufacturing process or mathematical
calculations.
●● Output involves transferring elements that have been produced by
a transformation process to their ultimate destination. For example,
finished products, human services, and management information
must be transmitted to their human users.
The systems concept can be made even more useful by including two
additional components: feedback and control. A system with feedback and
control components is sometimes called a cybernetic system, that is, a self-
monitoring, self-regulating system.
●● Feedback is data about the performance of a system. For example,
data about sales performance is feedback to a sales manager.
●● Control involves monitoring and evaluating feedback to determine
whether a system is moving toward the achievement of its goal. The
control function then makes necessary adjustments to a system’s
input and processing components to ensure that it produces proper
output. For example, a sales manager exercises control when he or
she reassigns salespersons to new territories after evaluating feedback
about their sales performance.
This information system model highlights the relationships among the
components and activities of information systems. It provides a framework
that emphasizes four major concepts that can be applied to all types of
information systems:
●● People, hardware, software, and data are the four basic resources of
information systems.
●● People resources include end users and IS specialists (like
programmers, systems analysts, system and network experts etc),
hardware resources consist of machines and media, software resources
include both programs and procedures, and data resources can include
data, model, and knowledge bases.
●● Data resources are transformed by information processing activities
into a variety of information products for end users.
●● Information processing consists of input, processing, output, storage,
and control activities.
Basic IS model shown in the given in Table 9.1. The table indicates that
a computer based information system consists of four major resources:
people, hardware, software, and data.

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System Analysis and Computer Table 9.1: Different resources of information systems
Languages
People Resources
Specialists – systems analysts, programmers, system and network experts/
operators.
End users – anyone else who uses information systems.
Hardware Resources
Machines – computers, monitors, printers, optical scanners, switches, routers,
hubs .
Media – magnetic tape, optical disks, hard disk drives, USB drives, smart cards,
and paper forms, cables etc.
Software Resources
Programs – operating system programs, worksheet programs, word processing
programs, payroll programs, financial management program, integrated software
programs (like ERP, CRM, SCM etc.) etc.
Procedures – data entry procedures, error correction procedures, and paycheck
distribution procedures etc.
Data Resources
Product descriptions, customer records, employee files, web sites, and databases
etc.
Information Products
Management reports and business documents using text and graphics displays,
audio & video responses, and paper forms etc.
There are many kinds of information systems in the real world. All of them
use hardware, software, and people resources to transform data resources
into information products.
It is important not to confuse information systems with the concept of
computer systems. A computer system is a group of interconnected hardware
components that may take the form of a microcomputer, minicomputer, or
large mainframe computer system. However, whether it sits on a desk or
is one of many computers in the internet or intranet network, a computer
system still represents only the hardware resources component of a
computer-based information system. As we have just seen, an information
system also consists of people, software, and data resources.
Types of Information System
Although people often think of information systems as tools for decision-
making, each type of information system supports both communication and
decision-making in a number of ways.
Table 9.2: Typical ways each type of information system supports
communication and decision making
System type Typical user Impact on Impact on decision
communication making
Office automation • Anyone • Provide tools • Provides
system: provides who stores for creating spreadsheets
individuals effective personal documents and and other tools
ways to process data, creates presentations, for analyzing
personal and documents, such as work information
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organizational business or performs processors and Building Information Systems
• Communication
data, to perform calculation. presentation tools also help
calculations, and to systems. in implementing
create documents decisions.
Communication • Anyone who • Telephones and • Telephones and
system: communicates teleconferencing teleconferencing
Helps people work with others, for for decision
together by sharing including communication making
information in many office • Virtual • Virtual
different forms workers, conferencing conferencing and
managers, and and meetings meetings
professions
• E-mail, v-mail, • E-mail, v-mail,
use of social social media, other
media for tools for obtaining
communicating information
using messages • Supports sharing
and documents information related
• Access to to making joint
memos and decisions
other shared
information
• Scheduling
meetings
• Controlling flow
of work
Transaction Processing • People whose • Creates a • Gives immediate
System (TPS): collects work involves database that feedback on
and stores information performing can be accessed decisions made
about transactions; transactions directly, while processing
controls some aspects thereby making transactions
of transactions some person- • Provides
to-person information for
communication planning and
unnecessary management
decisions
Management • Managers, • Provides a basis • Provides summary
Information System executives, of facts rather information and
(MIS) and Executive and people than opinions measures of
Information System who receive for explaining performance for
(EIS): converts TPS feedback problems and monitoring results
data into information about their their solutions • May provide
for monitoring work • May incorporate easy ways to
performance and
e-mail and other analyze the types
managing an
communication of information
organization; provides
methods with provided in less
executives information
presentation of flexible form by
in a readily accessible
computerized older MIS
interactive format
data
Decision Support • Analysis • Analysis using • Provides tools for
System (DSS): managers DSS helps analyzing data and
Helps people make and other provide a clear building models
decisions by providing professionals rationale for • Analysis using a
information, models, or explaining a DSS helps define
analysis tools decision and evaluate
alternatives

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System Analysis and Computer Execution system: • People • May support • May provide tools,
Languages directly supports the who do an communication information, or
organization’s value organization’s or information structured methods
added work (e.g., value added sharing between for making
helps sales people work, people doing decisions
sell, helps doctors especially different parts • May store and
practice medicine, or if that work of the task provide expert
helps architects design involves • May help knowledge to
buildings) special skills explain the support decisions
or knowledge result of the task in specific areas
to customers
One of the reasons the various categories are mentioned frequently is that
each is used in every functional area of business.
Table 9.3: Examples of each type of information system in three
functional areas of business
System Sales Manufacturing Finance
Type Examples Examples Examples
Office • Spreadsheet to • Spreadsheet • Spreadsheet to
automation analyze different to analyze a compare several
systems possible prices production loan arrangements.
• Word processor schedule • Word processor
to create sales • Word processor to write a memo
contract to write a memo about new financial
about how to fix procedures
a machine
Communication • E-mail and use of • E-mail and use • V-mail and use of
systems social media to of social media social media to
contact customer to discuss a communicate with
• Video conference problem with a bank about loan
and use of social new machine arrangements
media to present • Video- • Video conference
new sales materials conference to to explain effect
to sales force coordinate, of financing on
• Work flow system manufacturing factory investments
to make sure all and sales efforts • Work flow system
sales steps are • Work flow to make sure
completed system to make invoice approval
• System to sure engineering precedes payment
coordinate all work changes are • System for
on a complex sales approved exchanging the
contract latest information
related to lawsuit
Transaction • Point of sale • Tracking • Processing credit
Processing system for sales movement of card payments
System (TPS) transactions work in process • Payment of stock
• Keeping track of in a factory dividends and bond
customer contacts • Tracking receipts interest
during a sales cycle of materials from
suppliers
Management • Weekly sales report • Weekly Receivables report
information by product and production report showing invoices and
system (MIS) region by production payments
and Executive and operation

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Information Building Information Systems
• Consolidation of • Determination • Monthly financial
System (EIS) sales projections by of planned plan consolidation
product and region purchases based • Flexible access to
• Flexible access on a production corporate financial
to sales data by schedule plan by line item
product and region • Flexible access
to production
data by product
and operation
Decision • System helping • System • System analyzing
Support System insurance displaying characteristics of
(DSS) salespeople test current priorities customers who pay
alternatives for machine bills promptly
• Marketing data and operator • Stock database and
models to analyze • Production data models to help in
sales and models selecting stocks to
to analyze buy or sell
production
results
• Use of a GDSS
to identify
production
problems
Execution • System to generate • System to • System to support
system competitive bids diagnose a loan approval
• System to help machine failures process
salespeople suggest • System to • System to find price
the best choice for transfer customer inconsistencies
the customer requirements to between different
an automated equity markets.
machine cell
Activity A
List down the major business activities of your organization. Describe what
kind of information systems are already being used for these activities. Also
suggest some applications of information systems in the activities that are
still done manually.
……………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………
9.3.1 Office Automation Systems
An office automation system (OAS) facilitates everyday information
processing tasks in offices and business organizations. These systems
include a wide range of tools such as spreadsheets, word processors, and
presentation packages. Although telephones, e-mail, v-mail, and social
media can be included in this category, we will treat communication systems
as a separate category.
OASs help people perform personal record keeping, writing, and calculation
chores efficiently. Of all the system types, OASs and communication
systems are the most familiar to students. Tools generally grouped within
the OAS category include:
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System Analysis and Computer Spreadsheets are an efficient method for performing calculations that can
Languages be visualized in terms of the cells of a spreadsheet. Although spreadsheet
programs seem second nature today, the first spreadsheet program was
VisiCalc, which helped create the demand for the first personal computers
in the late 1970s.
Text and image processing systems store, revise, and print documents
containing text or image data. These systems started with simple work
processor but have evolved to include desktop publishing systems for
creating complex documents ranging from brochures to book chapters.
Presentation packages help managers develop presentations independently,
instead of working with typists and technical artists. These products
automatically convert outlines into printed pages containing appropriately
spaced titles and subtitles. These pages can be copied directly onto
transparencies or slides used in presentations.
Personal database systems and note-taking systems help people keep track
of their own personal data (rather than the organization’s shared data.)
Typical applications include an appointment book and calendar, a to-do list,
and a notepad.
When using these tools for personal productivity purposes, users can apply
any approach they want because the work is unstructured. In these situations,
some individuals use them extensively and enjoy major efficiency benefits,
whereas others do not use them at all. The same tools can also be used
for broader purposes; however, in which they are incorporated into larger
systems that organizations use to structure and routinize tasks. For example,
a corporate planning system may require each department manager to fill
in and forward a pre-formatted spreadsheet whose uniformity will facilitate
the corporations planning process.
9.3.2 Communication Systems
Electronic communication systems help people work together by exchanging
or sharing information in many different forms. Every day we come across lot
of communications through social media too such as WhatsApp, Facebook,
Messenger, Twitter, Linkedin etc. New communication capabilities have
changed the way many businesses operate by making it possible to do many
things at a distance that previously required being present in a specific
location. This section groups these tools into four general categories.
Teleconferencing systems make it possible to hold same-time, different-
place meetings. Messaging systems make it possible to transmit specific
messages to specific individuals or groups of individuals. Groupware systems
start with messaging but go further by facilitating access to documents
and controlling team-related workflow. Knowledge management systems
facilitate the sharing of knowledge rather than just information.
Teleconferencing
The use of electronic transmission to permit same-time, different-place
meetings is called teleconferencing. We can think of a traditional telephone
call as a minimal teleconference, but the term is normally applied to other
options including audio conferencing, audio graphic conferencing, and
video conferencing.
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The distinction between these approaches is related to the type of Building Information Systems
information that is shared. Audio conferencing is a single telephone call
involving three or more people participating from at least two locations.
If several people on the call are in the same office, they can all participate
using a speakerphone, which includes a high-sensitivity microphone
and a loudspeaker that can be heard by anyone in a room. Audio graphic
conferencing is an extension of audio conferencing permitting dispersed
participants to see pictures or graphical material at the same time. This is
especially useful when the purpose of the meeting is to share information
that is difficult to describe, organize, or visualize, such as a spreadsheet
or model used to perform calculations under different assumptions. Video
conferencing is an interactive meeting involving two or more groups of
people who can see each other using television screens. The least expensive
forms of video conferencing are tiny cameras and 4-inch screens add to
telephones or separate video conferencing windows displayed on computer
screens. In typical business video conferencing, remote participants appear
on a television screen.
Video conferencing simulates a face-to-face meeting without requiring
unnecessary travel, which absorbs time and energy, not to speak of the cost
of airplane and hotel bills. However, the effectiveness of videoconferences
decreases if the participants lack a prior social bond. For example, doing
sales calls via videoconference might seem tempting but might not foster
the personal relationship needed to succeed in many sales situations. On
the other hand, many banks have begun to experiment with stripped-down
branch offices that have no tellers but permit customers to open accounts
by video conferencing with multilingual staffers in another state. This
is happening in other fields too like getting driving licenses and similar
business activities through online portals and Apps.
Messaging Systems
Different-time, different-place communication has been used for centuries
in the form of books and letters. Messaging system make it possible to
transmit specific messages to specific individuals or groups of individuals.
They use technologies such as electronic mail, voice mail, and fax to make
different-time, different-place communication more effective.
The use of computers to send and retrieve text messages or document
addressed to individual people or locations is called electronic mail (e-mail).
Each user is identified by is usually based on the person’s name and also
serves as the person’s e-mail address. The sender uses a word processor to
create a message and then addresses it to a distribution list. The distribution
list might be an individual account name or a group of names, such as those
for the sales department or everyone working on a particular project. The
recipient can read the message immediately or can wait until it is convenient.
The recipient e-mail message can save it, print it, erase it, or forward it to
someone else. The recipient can also edit the message to extract parts to be
saved, printed, or passed on.
E-mail is effective in many situations, such as permitting you to leave a
message without going through an additional person who might garble
it. With e-mail you can send a message to a person traveling away from
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System Analysis and Computer the office who can log onto a network using a laptop computer. If you are
Languages working on a memo or other document and want to get feedback from
someone before you distribute it, you can use e-mail to send it to the person
for a quick response. E-mail also allows you to send the same message to
many individuals without having to contact them individually. For example,
a product designer can responds with a good idea, the minimal effort of
distributing the request is worth it.
There have been many innovative uses of e-mail to improve communication.
People in large organizations have used it to bypass bureaucratic structures.
For example, top managers sometimes bypass intermediate management
levels by obtaining specific information directly from people throughout
the organization. Some organizations have replaced the majority of their
formal memos with informal e-mail that gets to the point directly. E-mail
removes accents and permits non-fluent speakers to read a message several
times that otherwise might be misunderstood in a phone conversation. It
also helps them express their ideas more effectively than they might by
using a telephone.
Groupware
Groupware helps teams work together by sharing information and by
controlling internal workflows. Coined in the late 1980s the term groupware
has attained wide recognition due to the increasing need for groups to work
together more effectively at a distance as a result of downsizing and rapid
organizational change. Products viewed as groupware are still new enough
that their long-term direction is unclear even though the competitive need to
work effectively in dispersed teams is greater than ever. This is being used
in all fields like education, hospitals, agriculture, industries, offices etc.
Groupware goes beyond messaging by facilitative access to documents and
controlling team-related workflow. Many groupware products are related
to specific group related tasks such as project management, scheduling
meetings (“calendaring”), and retrieving data from shared databases. Lotus
Notes, a prominent product in this category, is designed for sharing text and
images and contains a data structure that is a cross between a table-oriented
database and an outline. For example, a law firm in Seattle uses Lotus
Notes to permit everyone working on a particular case to have access to
the most current memos and other information about that case, even if they
are traveling. Other companies use Lotus Notes to store and revise product
information for salespeople selling industrial products, thereby replacing
the massive three-ring binders they formerly lugged around. In similar way,
many such products are available today with Google and other prominent
IT service providers.
Yet other groupware functions are performed through computer
conferencing, the exchange of text messages typed into computers from
various locations to discuss a particular issue. When done through the
Internet this is sometimes called a newsgroup. A computer conference
permits people in dispersed locations to combine their ideas in useful ways
even though they cannot speak to each other face-to-face. Any conference
participant may be able to add new ideas, attach comments to existing
messages, or direct comments to specific individuals or groups. Proponents
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of computer conferencing recognize some disadvantages or working through Building Information Systems
computers but emphasize major advantages, such as preventing a single
forceful individual from dominating a meeting. Also, because everything is
done through a computer, a record of how ideas developed is automatically
generated.
A different type of groupware product focuses primarily on the flow of work
in office settings. These products provide tools for structuring the process by
which information for a particular multi-step task is managed, transferred,
and routed. A typical example is the approval of travel expenditure. In
this case, one person must propose the expenditure and someone else
must approve it. The workflow application is set up to make the approval
process simple and complete. In effect, groupware is being used as a small
transaction processing system for multistep transaction.
Intranets and Extranets
The widespread use of the World Wide Web has led many firms to apply
the information sharing concepts of groupware on a much larger scale by
creating an additional type of communication system, intranets and extranets.
Intranets are private communication networks that use the type of interface
popularized by the Web but are accessible only by authorized employees,
contractors, and customers. They are typically used to communicate non-
sensitive but broadly useful information such as recent corporate news,
general product information, employee manuals, corporate policies,
telephone directories, details of health insurance and other employee
benefits, and calendars. In some cases employees can use intranets to
access and change their personal choices regarding health insurance and
other benefits. Once security issues are addressed adequately, intranets for
accessing general-purpose corporate data may lead to widespread use of
intranets as a front end to transaction processing systems and management
information systems described in the following sections.
Extranets are private networks that operate similarly to intranets but are
directed at customers rather than at employees. Extranets provide information
customers’ need, such as detailed product descriptions, frequently asked
questions about different products, maintenance information, warranties, and
how to contact customer service and sales offices. Much of this information
was formerly difficult for customers to access because paper versions of
it at the customer site became scattered and outdated. By using extranets,
companies are making this type of information increasingly available at a
single interactive site that is easy to navigate.
Knowledge Management
A final type of communication system is very different from systems
that support real time communication or provide access to information.
Today’s leading businesses are increasingly aware that their employees’
knowledge is one of their primary assets. In consulting companies and
other organizations that rely heavily on unique competencies and methods,
knowledge has more competitive significance than physical assets because
the physical assets can be replaced or replenished more easily.
Knowledge management systems are communication systems designed to
facilitate the sharing of knowledge rather than just information. As with
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System Analysis and Computer groupware, the idea of knowledge management is still emerging and is
Languages applied in many different ways in different firms. The computer applications
underlying knowledge management systems are often built on technologies
such as intranets, electronic mail, groupware, databases, and search engines.
Functions supported by these technologies include codifying knowledge
(such as best practices), organizing it in repositories for later access, finding
knowledge (using search engines and other schemes), and providing
organized ways to find people who have needed knowledge.
The human element is paramount in knowledge management. The
companies with the best results to date stitch technologies together into
a system that operates effectively and that is genuinely supported by the
culture. For example, employee reviews in many consulting companies
give significant weight to demonstrated contribution to internal knowledge
management systems. This type of recognition is especially important if the
firm’s culture otherwise encourages hoarding of knowledge for personal
advancement. In many cases, the most effective use of knowledge requires
involvement of the person who is the expert. When a British Petroleum
drilling ship in the North Sea encountered an equipment failure, it put the
equipment in front of a video camera and used a satellite link to contact a
drilling expert in Scotland. His rapid diagnosis of the problem prevented
delays and a possible shutdown.
9.3.3 Transaction Processing systems
A transaction processing system (TPS) collects and stores data about
transactions and sometimes controls decisions made as part of a transaction.
A transaction is a business event that generates or modifies data stores in an
information system. TPSs were the first computerized information systems.
We encounter computerized TPSs frequently, including every time we write
a cheque, use a credit card, or pay a bill sent by a company. A TPS used to
record a sale and generate a receipt is primarily concerned with collecting
and storing data. If the TPS validates a credit card or helps a clerk determine
whether to accept a personal check, it also controls decisions made within
the transaction.
TPSs are designed based on detailed specifications for how the transaction
should be performed and how to control the collection of specific data
in specific data formats and in accordance with rules, polices, and goals
of the organization. Most contain enough structure to enforce rules and
procedures for work done by clerks or customer service agents. Some TPSs
bypass clerks and totally automate transactions; such as the way ATMs
automate deposits and cash with drawls. A well-designed TPS checks each
transaction for easily detectable errors such as missing data, data values
that are obviously too high or too low, data values that are inconsistent
with other data in the database and data in the wrong format. It may check
for required authorizations for the transaction. Certain TPSs such as airline
reservation systems may automate decision-making functions such as
finding the flight that best meets the customer’s needs. Finally, when all the
information for the transaction has been collected and validated, the TPS
stores it in a standard format for later access by others.
As anyone knows who has tried to make a reservation when a computerized
reservation system is down, organizations rely heavily on their TPSs.
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Breakdowns disrupt operations and may even bring business to a complete Building Information Systems
halt. As a result, a well-designed TPS has backup and recovery procedures
that minimize disruptions resulting from computer outages.
Batch versus Real Time Processing
The two types of transaction processing are batch and real time processing.
With batch processing, information for individual transaction is gathered
and stored but isn’t processed immediately. Later, either on a schedule or
when a sufficient number of transactions have accumulated, the transactions
are processed to update the database. With real time processing, each
transaction is processed immediately. The person providing the information
is typically available to he4lp with error correction and receives confirmation
of transaction completion. Batch processing was the only feasible form of
transaction processing when data were stored only on punched cards or
tapes. Real time transaction processing requires immediate access to an
online database.
Batch processing is currently used in some situation where the transaction
data comes in on paper, such as in processing cheques and airline ticket stubs.
A batch approach is also used for generating paychecks and other forms of
paper output that will be distributed after a delay. Unfortunately time delays
inherent in batch processing may cause significant disadvantages. The central
database may never be completely current because of transactions received
while the batch was being processed. Worse yet, batching the transactions
creates built-in delays, with transactions not completed until the next day
in some cases. Even systems with interactive user interfaces may include
lengthy delays before transactions are completed. For example, weekend
deposits into many ATMs are not posted to the depositor’s account until
Monday. Even though the ATM’s user interface is interactive, the system in
a larger sense doesn’t perform real time processing.
Compared to batch processing, real time processing has more stringent
requirements for computer response and computer uptime. As is obvious
when a travel agent says “Sorry, the computer is down,” the jobs and
work methods of the people in the real time TPS are designed under the
assumption that the system will be up and available.
9.3.4 Enterprise Information Systems
Many firms have tried to take transaction processing to a higher level by
creating enterprise information systems that encompass the transaction
processing done in the various functional silos. The idea of these efforts
is to create unified databases that permit any authorized individual to
obtain whatever information would be helpful in making decisions across
the organization. In theory at least, having all this information in a unified
database should improve decision-making. Enterprise information systems
are quite controversial because the effort to create them is enormous. They
involve much more than changing the format of databases. Often it is
necessary to change business processes to suit the needs of the information
system instead of vice versa. Nonetheless, many organizations have
found that the integration resulting from this large investment seems to be
worthwhile. The last part of this discussion explains why these information
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System Analysis and Computer
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systems are usually called Enterprise Resource Planning (ERP) systems
even though planning is not their main focus.
Management and Executive Information Systems:
A management information system (MIS) provides information for an
organization’s managers. The idea of MIS predates the computer age. For
example, as long ago as the middle 1500s, the Fogger family in Augsberg,
Germany, had business interests throughout Europe and even into China
and Peru. To keep in touch, they set up a worldwide news reporting
service through which their agents wrote letters about critical political
and economic events in their areas of responsibility. These letters were
collected, interpreted, analyzed, and summarized in Augsberg and answered
through instructions sent to the family’s agents. This paper-based system
encompassing planning, execution, and control helped the family move
more rapidly in the mercantile world than their rivals. Instructions went out
to the agents; the agents executed their work’ and the agents reported their
results.
Computerized MIS generates information for monitoring performance,
maintaining coordination, and providing background information about the
organization’s operation. Users include both managers and the employees
who receive feedback about performance indicators such as productivity.
The concept of MIS emerged partly as a response to the shortcomings of the
first computerized TPSs, which often improved transaction processing but
provided little information for management. Computerized MISs typically
extract and summarize data from TPSs to allow managers to monitor and
direct the organization and to provide employees accurate feedback about
easily measured aspects of their work. For example, a listing of every sale
during a day or week would be extremely difficult to use in monitoring a
hardware store’s performance. However, the same data could be summarized
in measures of performance, such as total sales for each type of item, for
each salesperson, and for each hour of the day. The transaction data remains
indispensable, and the MIS focuses it for management.
As part of an organization’s formal control mechanisms, an MIS provides
some structure for the comparatively unstructured task of management by
identifying important measures of performance. The fact that everyone
knows how performance is measured helps in making decisions and helps
managers motivate workers.
From MIS to EIS
An executive information system (EIS) is a highly interactive system
that provides managers and executives’ flexible access to information for
monitoring operating results and general business conditions. These systems
are sometimes called executive support systems (ESS). EIS attempts to take
over where the traditional MIS approach falls short. Although sometimes
acceptable for monitoring the same indicators over time, the traditional
MIS approach of providing prespecified reports on a scheduled basis is
too inflexible for many questions executives really care about, such as
understanding problems and new situations.

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EISs provide executives with internal and competitive information Building Information Systems
through user-friendly interfaces that can be used by someone with little
computer-related knowledge. EISs are designed to help executives find the
information they need whenever they need it and in whatever form is most
useful. Typically, users can choose among numerous tabilar or graphical
formats. They can also control the level of detail, the triggers for exception
conditions, and other aspects of the information displayed. Most EISs focus
on providing executives with the background information they need, as well
as help in understanding the causes of exceptions and surprises. This leaves
executives better prepared to discuss issues with their subordinates.
9.3.5 Decision Support Systems:
A decision support system (DSS) is an interactive information system
that provides information, models and data manipulation tools to help
make decisions in semi structured and unstructured situations where
no one knows exactly how the decision should be made. The traditional
DSS approach includes interactive problem solving direct use of models,
and user-controllable methods for displaying and analyzing data and in
formulating and evaluating alternative decisions. This approach grew out of
dissatisfaction with the traditional limitations of TPS and MIS. TPS focused
on record keeping and control of repetitive clerical processes. MIS provided
reports for management but were often inflexible and unable to produce the
information in a form in which managers could use it effectively. In contrast,
DSSs were intended to support managers and professionals doing largely
analytical work in less structured situation with unclear criteria for success.
DSSs are typically designed to solve the structured parts of the problem and
help isolate places where judgment and experience are required.
DSSs may report repetitive or non-repetitive decision-making. They support
repetitive decision making by defining procedures and formats, but they still
permit the users to decide how and when to use the system’s capabilities.
They support non-repetitive decision making by providing data, models
and interface methods that can be used however the user wants. The broad
spectrum of information systems with the DSS label range from general
tools such as spreadsheets, data analysis, and graphics packages to highly
customized simulation or optimization models focusing on a specific
business situation.
OLAP and Data Mining
The use of online data analysis tools to explore large databases of transaction
data is called online analytical processing (OLAP). The idea of OLAP grew
out of difficulties analyzing the data in databases that were being updated
continually by online transaction processing systems. When the analytical
processes accessed large slices of the transaction database, they slowed down
transaction processing critical to customer relationships. The salutation was
periodic downloads of data from the active transaction processing database
into a separate database designed specifically to support analysis work. The
separate database often resides on a different computer, which together with
its specialized software is called a data warehouse. Downloading data to a
data warehouse makes it possible to perform both transaction processing
and analytical processing efficiently without mutual interference.
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System Analysis and Computer Data mining is the use of data analysis tools to try to find the patterns in
Languages large transaction databases such as the customer receipts generated in a
large sample of grocery stores across the United States. Careful analysis of
this data might reveal patterns that could be used for marketing promotions,
such as a correlation between diaper sales and beer sales during the evening
hours.
9.3.6 Execution Systems
The information system categories discussed so far are primarily oriented
toward planning and control activities or toward general office and
communication activities. What about systems designed to directly support
people doing the value added work that customers care about, such as
practicing medicine, designing buildings, or selling investments? Some
people call these systems “functional area systems”. Because there is
no generally accepted term form information systems that support value
added work, we will call them execution systems. These systems have
become much more important in the last decade as advances in computer
speed, memory capacity, and portability made it increasingly possible to
use computerized systems directly while doing value added work. Such
systems help plastic surgeons design operation and show the likely results
to their patients help lawyers find precedents relevant to lawsuits, and help
maintenance engineers keep machines running.
Expert systems are a type of execution system that has received attention as
an offshoot of artificial intelligence research. An expert system supports the
intellectual work of professionals engaged in design, diagnosis, or evaluation
of complex situations requiring expert knowledge in a well-defined area.
Expert systems have been used to diagnose diseases, configure computers,
analyze chemicals, interpret geological data, and support many other
problem solving processes. This type of work requires expert knowledge of
the process of performing particular tasks. Although these tasks may have
some repetitive elements, many situations have unique characteristics that
must be considered based on expert knowledge. Intellectual work even in
narrowly defined areas is typically much less repetitive than transaction
processing general office work.
9.3.7 Going beyond the information system categories
The field of IT moves so rapidly that terminology often fails to keep
pace with innovation. The same problem occurs with information system
classification. People identify a new type of system, such as DSS or EIS,
and describe its characteristics are no longer as important or have become
commonplace. Eventually many information systems contain characteristics
from several system categories. Furthermore a system that fits in a category
today may not fit once new features are added. Information systems that
contain characteristics of several different categories can be called hybrid
information systems.
In the mid-1990s the widespread adoption of a form of hybrid information
system called an Enterprise Resource Planning (ERP) system became highly
visible and somewhat controversial. As with many IT terms, the term ERP
evolved out of an early form of DSS called Material Requirements Planning
(MRP). These systems provide an integrated view necessary to coordinate
purchasing and production scheduling activities.
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ERP systems try to create an integrated database that spans the major Building Information Systems
activities in a company. Ideally, having production, sales, human resources,
and finances data in the same database should make it easier to analyze the
business and to coordinate decision-making. Software vendors such as SAP,
Microsoft, Oracle and other such popular IT service providers currently
sell ERP software. These facilities are also available today through web in
Cloud technology. These vendors analyzed basic business processes such
as purchasing and of the process variations they found. This design strategy
makes their products enormously complicated. Just figuring out which of
the many options to use often takes several hundred person-months of time.
In many situations, departments must give up existing customized systems
that address their unique problems in order to use the more general software
and its integrated database.

9.4 REDESIGNING THE ORGANIZATION WITH

INFORMATION SYSTEMS
One of the most important things to know about building a new information
system is that this process is one kind of planned organizational change.
Frequently, new systems mean new ways of doing business and working
together. The nature of tasks, the speed with which they must be completed,
the nature of supervision (its frequency and intensity), and who has what
information about whom will all be decided in the process of building
an information system. This is especially true in contemporary systems,
which deeply affect many parts of the organization. System builders must
understand how a system will affect the organization as a whole, focusing
particularly on organizational conflict and changes in the locus of decision-
making. Builders must also consider how the nature of work groups will
change under the impact of the new system. Builders determine how much
change is needed.
New information systems can be powerful instruments for organizational
change; Figure 9.2 shows that there are four kinds of structural organizational
change which are enabled by information technology: automation,
rationalization, re-engineering, and paradigm shifts. Each carries different
rewards and risks.

High

Paradigm Shifts

Risk
Re-engineering

Rationalization
Low

Automation
Low Return High

Figure 9.2: Organizational Change carries Risk & Rewards

Source: Kenneth C Laudon, Jane P Laudon, Prentice Hall India
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System Analysis and Computer The most common form of IT-enabled organizational change is automation.
Languages The first applications of information technology involved assisting
employees perform their tasks more efficiently and effectively. Calculating
paychecks and payroll registers, giving bank teller’s instant access to
customer deposit records, and developing a nationwide network of airline
reservation terminals for airline reservation agents are all examples of early
automation. Automation is akin to putting a larger motor in an existing
automobile.
A deeper form of organizational change – one that follows quickly from
early automation – is rationalization procedure. Automation frequently
reveals new bottlenecks in production, and makes the existing arrangement
of procedures and structures painfully cumbersome. Rationalization of
procedures is the streamlining of standard operating procedures, eliminating
obvious bottlenecks, so that automation can make operating procedures
more efficient.
A more powerful type of organization change is business re-engineering,
in which business processes are analyzed, simplified, and redesigned. Re-
engineering involves radically rethinking the flow of work; the business
procedures used to produce products and services with a mind of radically
reduce the costs of business. A business process is a set of logically related
tasks performed to achieve a defined business outcome. Some examples of
business processes are developing a new product, ordering goods from a
supplier, or processing and paying an insurance claim. Using information
technology, organizations can rethink and streamline their business processes
to improve speed, service and quality. Business re-engineering reorganizes
workflows, combining steps to cut waste and eliminating repetitive, paper-
intensive tasks (sometimes the new design eliminates jobs as well). It is
much more ambitious than rationalization of procedures, requiring a new
vision of how the process is to be organized. Rationalizing procedures and
redesigning business processes are limited to specific parts of a business.
New information systems can ultimately affect the design of the entire
organization by actually transforming how the organization carries out its
business or even the nature of the business itself.
This still more radical form of business change is called a paradigm shift. A
paradigm shift involves rethinking the nature of the business and the nature
of the organization itself. Banks, for instance, may decide not to automate,
rationalize, or reengineering the jobs of tellers. Instead they may decide to
eliminate branch banking altogether and seek less expensive source of funds,
like international borrowing. Retail customers may be forced to use the
Internet to conduct all their business, or a proprietary network. A paradigm
shift is akin to rethinking not just the automobile, but transportation itself.
Of course nothing is free. Paradigm shifts and re-engineering often fail
because extensive organization change is so difficult to orchestrate. Some
experts believe that 70% of the time they fail. Why then do so many
corporation entertain such radical change, because the rewards are equally
high. In many instances firms seeking paradigm shifts and pursuing re-
engineering strategies achieve stunning, order-of-magnitude increases in
their returns on investment (or productivity).
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 Building Information Systems
9.5 BUSINESS VALUES OF INFORMATION
SYSTEM
Another important fact about information systems is shown in Figure 9.3.
No matter how they may be classified, information systems have following
business values in an organization by supporting business operations,
decision-making, and strategic management:
●● Support of business operations.
●● Support of managerial decision-making.
●● Support of strategic competitive advantage.

Information Systems

Support of
Strategic
Advantage

Support of
Managerial
Decision Making

Support of Business
Operations

Figure 9.3: Business Values of Information System

Let’s take a retail store as an example to illustrate this important first point.
As a consumer, you have to deal regularly with information systems used
to support business operations at the many retail stores where you shop.
For example, most department stores use computer-based information
systems to help them record customer purchases, keep track of inventory,
pay employees, buy new merchandise, and evaluate sales trends. Store
operations would grind to a halt without the support of such information
systems.
Information systems also help store managers make better decisions and
attempt to gain a strategic competitive advantage. For example, decisions
on what lines of clothing or appliances need to be added or discontinued, or
what kind of investments they require, are typically made after an analysis
provided by computer-based information systems.
This not only supports the decision making of store managers but also
helps them look for ways to gain an advantage over other retailers in the
competition for customers. For example, store managers might make a
decision to invest in a computerized touch-screen catalog ordering system
as a strategic information system. This might lure customers away from

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System Analysis and Computer other stores, based on the ease of ordering merchandise provided by
Languages such a computer-based information system. Thus, strategic information
helps provide strategic products and services that given an organization a
comparative advantage over its competitors.

9.6 OUTSOURCING INFORMATION SYSTEMS

If a firm does not want to use its own internal resources to build and operate
information systems, it can hire an external organization that specializes
in providing these services to do the work. The process of turning over an
organization’s computer central operations, telecommunications networks,
or applications development to external vendors of these services is called
outsourcing.
Outsourcing information system is not a new phenomenon. Outsourcing
options have existed since the dawn of data processing. As early as 1963,
Petrot’s Electronic Data Systems (EDS) handled data processing services
for Frito-Lay and Blue Cross. Activities such as software programming,
operation of large computers, time-sharing and purchase of packaged
software have to some extent been outsourced since the 1960s.
Because information systems play such a large role in contemporary
organizations, information technology now accounts for about half of most
large firms’ capital expenditure. In firms where the cost of information
systems function has risen rapidly, managers are seeking ways to control
those costs and are treating information technology as a capital investment
instead of an operating cost of the firm. One option for controlling these
costs is to outsource.
9.6.1 Advantages and disadvantages of outsourcing
Outsourcing is becoming popular because some organization perceive it as
being more cost effective than it would be to maintain their own computer
center and information systems staff. The provider of outsourcing services
can benefit from economies of scale (the same knowledge, skills, and
capacity can be shared with many different customers) and is likely to
charge competitive prices for information systems services. Outsourcing
allows a company with fluctuating needs for computer processing to pay
for only what it uses rather than to build its own computer center to stand
underutilized when there is no peak load. Some firms outsource because
their internal information systems staff cannot keep pace with technological
change. But not all organizations benefit from outsourcing, and the
disadvantages of outsourcing can create serious problems for organizations
if they are not well understood and managed.
Advantages of Outsourcing
The most popular explanations for outsourcing are the following:
Economy: Outsourcing vendors are specialists in the information systems
services and technologies they provide. Through specialization and
economies of scale, they can deliver the same service and value for less
money than the cost of an internal organization.
Service quality: Because outsourcing vendors will lose their clients if the
service is unsatisfactory, companies often have more leverage over external
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vendors than over their own employees. The firm that out-sources may be Building Information Systems
able to obtain a higher level of service from vendors for the same or lower
costs.
Predictability: An outsourcing contract with a fixed price for a specified
level of service reduces uncertainly of costs.
Flexibility: Business growth can be accommodated without making major
changes in the organization’s information systems infrastructure. As
information technology permeates the entire value chain of a business,
outsourcing may provide superior control of the business because its costs
and capabilities can be adjusted to meet changing needs.
Making fixed costs variable: Some outsourcing agreements, such as running
payroll, are based on the price per unit of work done (such as the cost to
process each cheque). Many out-sources will take into account variations
in transaction processing volumes likely to occur during the year or over
the course of the outsourcing agreement. Clients only need to pay for the
amount of services they consume, as opposed to paying a fixed cost to
maintain internal systems that are not fully utilized.
Freeing up human resources for other projects & financial capital: Scarce
and costly talent within an organization can refocus on activities with higher
value and payback than they would find in running a technology factory.
Some agreements with outsource include the sale for cash of the outsourced
firm’s technology capital assets to the vendor.
Disadvantages of Outsourcing
Not all organizations obtain these benefits from outsourcing. There
are dangers in placing the information systems functions outside the
organization. Outsourcing can create serious problems such as loss of
control, vulnerability of strategic information, and dependence on the
fortunes of an external firm.
Loss of Control: When a firm farms out the responsibility for developing
and operating its information systems to another organization, it can lose
control over its information systems function. Outsourcing places the
vendor in an advantageous position where the client has to accept whatever
the vendor does and whatever fees the vendor charges. If a vendor becomes
the firm’s only alternative for running and developing its information
systems, the client must accept whatever technologies the vendor provides.
This dependency could eventually result in higher costs or loss of control
over technological direction.
Vulnerability of Strategic Information: Trade secrets or proprietary
information may leak out to competitors because a firm’s information
systems are being run or developed by outsiders. This could be especially
harmful if a firm allows an outsourcer to develop or to operate applications
that give it some type of competitive advantage.
Dependency: The firm becomes dependent on the viability of the vendor. A
vendor with financial problems or deteriorating services may create severe
problems for its clients.

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System Analysis and Computer 9.6.2 When to use outsourcing?
Languages
Since outsourcing has both benefits and liabilities and is not meant for all
organizations or all situations, managers should assess the role of information
systems in their organization before making an outsourcing decision. There
are a number of circumstances under which outsourcing makes a great deal
of sense:
●● When there is limited opportunity for the firm to distinguish itself
competitively through a particular information systems application
or series of applications. For instance, both the development and
operation of payroll systems are frequently outsourced to free the
information systems staff to concentrate on activities with a higher
potential payoff, such as customer service or manufacturing systems.
Applications such as payroll or cafeteria accounting, for which the
firm obtains little competitive advantage from excellence, are strong
candidates for outsourcing. If carefully developed, applications
such as airline reservations or plant scheduling could provide a firm
with a distinct advantage over competitors. The firm could lose
profits, customers, or market share if such systems have problems.
Applications where the rewards for excellence are high and where
the penalties for failure are high should probably be developed and
operated internally.
Companies may also continue to develop applications internally while
outsourcing their computer center operations when they do not need
to distinguish themselves competitively by performing their computer
processing onsite.
When the predictability of uninterrupted information systems service is
not very important. For instance, airline reservations or catalog shopping
systems are too “critical” to be trusted outside. If these systems failed to
operate for a few days or even a few hours, they could close down the
business. On the other hand, a system to process employee insurance claims
could be more easily outsourced because uninterrupted processing of claims
is not critical to the survival of the firm.
When outsourcing does not strip the company of the technical know-how
required for future information systems innovation. If a firm outsource
some of its system but maintains its own internal information systems staff,
it should ensure that its staff remains technically up to date and has the
expertise to develop future applications.
When the firm’s existing information systems capabilities are limited,
ineffective, or technically inferior. Some organizations use outsourcers as an
easy way to revamp their information systems technology. For instance, they
might use an outsourcer to help them make the transition from traditional
mainframe-based computing to a new information architecture – distributed
computing environment.
Despite the conventional wisdom on when to outsource, companies
sometimes do outsource strategic functions. In any case, if systems
development and the information systems function are well managed and
productive, there may not be much immediate benefit that can be provided
by an external vendor.
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Managing Outsourcing Building Information Systems

To obtain value from outsourcing, organizations need to make sure the process
is properly managed. With sound business analysis and an understanding
of outsourcing’s strengths and limitations, managers can identify the most
appropriate applications to outsource and develop a workable outsourcing
plan.
Segmenting the firm’s range of information systems activities into pieces
that potentially can be outsourced makes the problem more manageable
and also helps companies match an outsourcer with the appropriate job.
Noncritical applications are usually the most appropriate candidates
for outsourcing. Firms should identify mission-critical applications and
mission-critical human resources required to develop and manage these
applications. This would allow the firm to retain its most highly skilled
people and focus all of its efforts on the most mission-critical applications
development. Setting technology strategy is one area that companies should
not abdicate to outsourcers. This strategic task is best kept in-house. Ideally,
the firm should have a working relationship of trust with an outsourcing
vendor. The vendor should understand the client’s business and work with
client as a partner, adapting agreements to meet the client’s changing needs.
Firms should clearly understand the advantages provided by the vendor and
what they will have to give up to obtain these advantages. For lower operating
costs, can the client live with a five-second-response time during peak hours
or next-day repair of microcomputers in remote offices? Organizations
should not abdicate management responsibility by outsourcing. They
need to manage the outsourcer as they would manage their own internal
information systems department by setting priorities, ensuring that the right
people are brought in, and guaranteeing that information systems are running
smoothly. They should establish criteria for evaluating the outsourcing
vendor that include performance expectations and measurement methods
for response time, transaction volumes, security, disaster recovery, backup
in the event of a catastrophe, processing requirements of new applications
and distributed processing on microcomputers, workstations, and LANs.
Firms should design outsourcing contracts carefully so that the outsourcing
services can be adjusted if the nature of the business changes.
Activity B
Take the case of a petrol pump, a bookstore, a software development
company, and an electronic goods manufacturer. Is outsourcing information
systems required for them? Describe what can be outsourced and the
advantages.
……………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………

9.7 ENSURING QUALITY WITH INFORMATION

SYSTEM
The emergence of a global economy has stimulated worldwide interest in
achieving quality. Companies can no longer be satisfied with producing
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System Analysis and Computer goods and services that compete only with goods produced within their
Languages own country – consumers can now select from a broad range of products
and services produced anywhere in the world. Before examining how
information systems can contribute to quality throughout the organization,
we must first define the term quality.
Traditional definitions for quality have focused upon the conformance to
specifications (or the absence of variation from those specifications). With
this definition, a producer can easily measure the quality of its products.
Achieving quality under this definition requires three steps from the
manufacturer: First, establish product specifications. Second, measure
products as they are produced to determine whether or not they achieve the
standards established in the specifications. Third, alter the manufacturing
process whenever necessary to bring the products up to standard.
However, achieving quality is not quite that simple and direct. The definition
of quality has been changing and broadening in recent years. Defining quality
as conformances to specifications view it from a producer’s perspective
only. Customers have a different perspective, being more concerned with
value for their Rupees. They normally apply three criteria. First, customers
are concerned with the quality of the physical product. They want to know
if the product is durable, how safe it is, its reliability, its ease of use and
installation, its stylishness, and how well the producer supports the product.
Second, customers are concerned with the quality of service, by which they
mean the accuracy and truthfulness of the advertising, the timeliness and
accuracy of the billing process, responsiveness to warranties (implied as
well as specified), and ongoing product support. Finally, customer concepts
of quality include the psychological aspects: how well do the sales and
support staff know their products, the courtesy and sensitivity of the staff,
and even their neatness, the reputation of the product. For companies to
compete globally, they need to include a customer perspective in any
definition of quality.
Today more and more businesses are turning to an idea known as total
quality management. Total quality management (TQM) is a concept that
makes quality the responsibility of all people within an organization. TQM
holds that the achievement of quality control is an end in itself. Everyone is
expected to contribute to the overall improvement of quality – the engineer
who avoids design errors, the production worker who spots defects,
the sales representative who presents the product properly to potential
customers, and even the secretary who avoids typing mistakes. Total quality
management encompasses all of the functions within an organization. TQM
is based on quality management concepts developed by American quality
experts. Japanese management adopted the goal of zero defects, focusing on
improving their products or services prior to shipment rather than correcting
them after they have been delivered. Japanese companies often give the
responsibility for quality consistency to the workers who actually make
the product or service, as opposed to a quality control department. Studies
have repeatedly shown that the earlier in the business cycle a problem
is eliminated, the less it costs for the company to eliminate it. Thus the
Japanese quality approach not only brought a shift in focus to the workers
and an increased respect for product and service quality but also lowered
costs.
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How Information Systems Contribute To Total Quality Management? Building Information Systems

Information systems can fill a special role in corporate quality programs

for a number of reasons. First, IS is deeply involved with the daily work
of other departments throughout the organizations. IS analysis usually
have taken a leading role in designing, developing, and supporting such
varied departmental systems as corporate payrolls, patent research systems,
chemical process control systems, logistics systems, and sales support
systems. IS professionals also maintain their knowledge of these departments
through their participation in departmental information planning. In addition,
IS personnel are usually key to the sharing of data between departments
because they have unique knowledge of the relationships between various
departments. Often, only IS personnel know where certain data originate,
how other departments use and store them, and which other functions would
benefit from having access to them. With this broad understanding of the
functional integration of the corporation, IS personnel can be valuable
members of any quality project team.
The IS staff in effective information systems departments have three
skills that are critical to the success of a quality program. First, they are
specialists in analyzing and redesigning business processes. Second, many
IS technicians are experienced in quantifying and measuring procedures
and critical activities in any process. Typically, IS departments have long
been involved with measurements of their own manager training has long
been a staple of better IS departments; such training includes the use of
project management, software. These skills can contribute a great deal to
any serious quality program, which will normally be organized as a project
and will usually be heavily task-oriented.
The information systems staff is the source of ideas on the application of
technology to quality issues; often they are also the people who can make
that technology available to the quality project. For example, with the help
of IS departments, statistical analysis software is becoming more widely
used in the drive for quality.
Benchmark: Many companies have been effective in achieving quality
by setting strict standards for products, services and other activities, and
then measuring performance against those standards. Companies may use
external industry standards, standards set by other companies, internally
developed high standards, or some combination of the three.
IS contributes to these efforts in many ways: IS staff participates in re-
engineering projects and helps to design and build the systems that make
the quality processes possible. Any study of quality programs shows that
information is a top concern to those involved, and IS is often central to the
collection of that information. To improve production or sales, for example,
management needs data to determine both what is being done right and
what is being done wrong. IS is usually the key to making that information
available in a timely fashion and in a format useful to those who need it for
quality purposes. For instance, manufacturing data have traditionally been
supplied to management in summary form at the end of the manufacturing
process. In effect it is historical data that at best can be used to reduce future
problems. To provide better information for benchmarking, information
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System Analysis and Computer
Languages
systems specialists can work with business specialists either to design new
systems or to analyze quality-related data found in existing systems.
Use customer demands as a guide to improving products and services:
Improving customer service, making customer service the number one
priority, will improve the quality of the product itself.
Reduce cycle time: Experience indicates that the single best way to address
quality problems is to reduce the amount of time from the beginning of
a process to its end (cycle time). Reducing cycle time usually results in
fewer steps, an improvement right there. But reducing cycle time has other
advantages. With less time passing between beginning and end, workers
will be better aware of what came just before, and so are less likely to make
mistakes.
Improve the quality and precision of the design: Quality and precision in
design will eliminate many production problems. Computer-aided design
(CAD) software has made dramatic quality improvements possible in a
wide range of businesses from aircraft manufacturing to production of razor
blades.
Increase the precision of production: For many products, one key way
to achieve quality is to tighten production tolerance. CAD software has
also made this possible. Most CAD software packages include a facility
to translate design specifications into specifications both for production
tooling and for the production process itself. In this way, products with
more precise designs can also be produced more efficiently.
Include line workers in any quality process: Experience has shown that
involvement of the people who perform the function is critical to achieving
quality in that function. Although the information systems are could
potentially make many more contributions like these, its involvement in
corporate quality programs has provoked a great deal of controversy. IS
has been criticized for a reluctance to become involved in organization-
wide quality programs. Often IS focuses exclusively upon technological
capabilities while not reaching out to aid the rest of the company in the
ways described above. For example, many IS departments are criticized
for failure to use customer demands as a guide to improving their products
and services. On the other hand, non-IS departments often fail to consider
contributions the IS staff might make to their quality project and so do not
reach out to involve them. It is not uncommon for IS to be viewed only as
technical support with little to contribute to the planning or content of the
quality program.

9.8 SUMMARY
In this unit we discuss about computer based information system and their
different types. Information systems have been used by organization as
an effective way for decision-making and in supporting communication.
The field of IT moves so rapidly that terminology often fails to keep
pace with innovation. The same problem occurs with information system
classification. People identify a new type of system, such as DSS or EIS,
and describe its characteristics are no longer as important or have become
commonplace. Eventually many information systems contain characteristics
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from several system categories. Furthermore a system that fits in a category Building Information Systems
today may not fit once new features are added. Information systems that
contain characteristics of several different categories can be called hybrid
information systems.
Organizations in the past few years have shown a tendency to focus on their
core business. Functions that are not considered to be part of the core business
are outsourced to external suppliers. Organizations face an increased need,
flexibility as a consequence of a faster changing competitive environment
and rapid developments in information technology. Management has been
questioning the idea that quality costs more. Today many senior executives
have come to the conclusion that the lack of quality is actually a significant
expense. While we all understand that product returns and repairs result in
added costs for repair (labor, parts replacement, and additional shipping),
only recently has management focused on the many previously hidden costs
that arise from producing products that are not high quality.

9.9 UNIT END EXERCISES

Q1. What types of resources are used in an information system?
Q2. What are the different types of computer based information system
used in different functional areas business by organizations?
Q3. Who are the typical users of information system?
Q4. What is the most common form of IT enabled organizational change?
Q5. Which form of organizational change requires business processes to
be analyzed simplified and redesign?
Q6. When outsourcing should be used by the organizations?
Q7. How Information systems can contribute for total quality management?

9.10 REFERENCES & SUGGESTED FURTHER

READING
1. Alter Steven , Information Systems (A management perspective),
Pearson Education.
2. Burch, John , Systems Analysis, Design, and Implementation, Boston:
Boyd & Fraser.
3. Laudon Kenneth, C., Laudon Jane, P. , Management Information
Systems (Organization and Technology), Prentice Hall of India, New
Delhi.
4. Loff De , Information Systems Outsourcing Decision Making (A
Managerial Approach), IDEA Group.
5. O’ Brien, James, A. Introduction to Information Systems, Irwin.
6. Post Gerald, V., and Anderson David, L.(2003), Management
Information Systems, Tata McGraw-Hill, New Delhi.

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 UNIT 10: SYSTEM ANALYSIS AND DESIGN
Structure
10.1 Introduction
10.2 Objectives
10.3 Application Software Development and Customisation
10.4 Systems Development Life Cycle (SDLC)
10.5 Phases of SDLC
10.5.1 Project Identification and Selection
10.5.2 Project Initiation and Planning
10.5.3 Analysis
10.5.4 Logical Design
10.5.5 Physical Design
10.5.6 Implementation
10.5.7 Operation and Maintenance
10.6 Summary
10.7 Unit End Exercises
10.8 References & Suggested Further Reading

10.1 INTRODUCTION
Software is required to automate a process. The process to be automated
could be any part of an activity or many activities at the organizational
level in terms of an Information system. Success of any system depends
on the approach of building it. If the development approach is right, the
system will work successfully. From the inception of an idea for a software
system, until it is implemented and delivered, and even after that, the system
undergoes gradual development and evolution. The software is said to have
a life cycle composed of several phases. Each of these phases results in the
development of either a part of the system or something associated with
the system, such as a test plan or a user manual. In the traditional life cycle
model, each phase has well-defined starting and ending points, with clearly
identifiable deliverables to the next phase.

10.2 OBJECTIVES
After reading this unit, you should be able to
●● Describe systems development life cycles;
●● Identify different phases of systems life cycle;
●● Explain the process of system analysis;
●● Describe the conceptual basis of system design; and
●● Know about Implementation and maintenance of software.

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 System Analysis and Design
10.3 APPLICATION SOFTWARE
DEVELOPMENT AND CUSTOMISATION
Information system is an arrangement of people, data, processes, information
presentation and information technology that interacts to support and
improve day-to-day operations of a business as well as support the problem
solving and decision making needs of management and users.
Information system is categorised as application software. It can be
standalone module i.e. subsystem or an integrated system to automate
processes in the organisation. Software is developed using computer
language(s). This process is also known as coding. Development of software
is either done by internal team or it can be developed by any IT service
provider as decided by the organisation.
Before going for the development of the software, all users of the desired
software in the organisation give the requirements. Based on these
requirements only the software is developed. Nothing more nothing less is
the mantra which is followed for automating the business processes. Similar
like constructing a building the software development undergoes several
well defined steps like requirements gathering, doing analysis for the cost
involved and readiness to adopt the new system, doing analysis for inter
and intra process relationships, preparing designs, coding and testing of
the developed software, installation of the software and finally putting the
software into practice by imparting all necessary and sufficient training to
users for making it sustainable. All these steps are linked to one another
to build the application software. They have been elaborated in further
sections.
You have seen the concept of integrated applications with examples like
ERP, SCM, CRM etc. These software are not developed again and again
by organisations for business automation. Rather they are developed by
IT companies in such a way that the produced system becomes generic.
They can be further changed to suit the requirements of organisations
globally. Software tools are available to make such application software.
The process of making changes in already developed application software is
called customisation. It is standard practice available these days. Here also
requirements from users are required to make changes accordingly. Coding
is also required to fill gaps under the customisation process. Similarly other
steps of software development are also required in adopting and adapting
the system – be it CRM, SCM, ERP or any other third party developed
software.

10.4 SYSTEMS DEVELOPMENT LIFE CYCLE

The goal of the information system life cycle is to keep the project under
control and assure that the system produced satisfies the requirements. The
systems life cycle is the oldest method for building information systems
and is still used today for complex, medium or large systems projects.
This methodology assumes that an information system has a life cycle
similar to that of any living organism, with a beginning, middle, and an
end. This is known as the systems development life cycle (SDLC). The
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System Analysis and Computer
Languages
traditional system life cycle divides the project mainly into four steps, each
of which has distinct deliverables, such as computer programs, standard
operating procedures (SOPs), or design documents. The deliverables are
related because each subsequent step builds on the conclusions of previous
steps. The four steps in traditional SDLC are – Initiation, Development,
Implementation, and Operations & Maintenance, as shown in Figure 10.1.

Initiation
Statement of what the problem
Changes in is and how the information
Purpose scope of system should help
schedule
Development
Programs that run on a computer
Realization that the plus user documentation
Information System must be and procedures
changed before implementation
can be completed
Implementation
Information System
operation as part of a
Realization that the business process
implementation is
incomplete
Operation &
Maintenance

Figure 10.1: Traditional SDLC Phases

Some deliverables are oriented toward the technical staff, whereas others
are directed toward or produced by users and managers. The latter ensure
that users and their management are included in the system development
process. These steps are covered in detail in next Section 10.4.
The traditional system life cycle is a tightly controlled approach designed to
reduce the likelihood of mistakes or omissions. Despite its compelling logic, it
has both advantages and disadvantages. Adherence to fixed deliverables and
signoffs improves control but guarantees a lengthy process. Having specific
deliverables due at specific times makes the schedule of deliverables. When
merely going through the motions of producing deliverables on schedule,
participants may be tempted sometimes to turn in work that is incomplete and
to approve documents they do not truly understand. However, the traditional
SDLC is the standard against which other approaches are compared. Project
managers who want to bypass some of its steps still need a way to deal with
the issues they raise.
SDLC is a standard methodology for the development of Information
System. Traditional SDLC was strictly sequential. The software developers
had to first complete the previous phase then start the next phase. But now
concept of Repository is introduced in SDLC and it is known as Fast SDLC
methodology where work is done across shared repository. It means that
all the inputs and outputs of phases must be stored in the repository. At any
time developers can backtrack to previous phase and they can also work
on two phases simultaneously. Repository is thus defined as data store of
accumulated system knowledge i.e. system models, detailed specifications,

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and any other documentation that has been accumulated during the system’s System Analysis and Design
development. This knowledge is reusable and critical to the production
system’s ongoing support. The repository is implemented with various
automated tools and it is often centralized as an enterprise business and IT
resource. In SDLC, it is also possible to complete some activities in one
phase in parallel with some other activities of another phase. Sometimes, life
cycle is iterative; that is, phases are repeated as required until a satisfactory
and acceptable system is found. Some people consider life cycle to be spiral,
in which we constantly cycle through the phases at different levels of detail.
The life cycle can also be thought of a circular process in which the end of
the useful life of one system leads to the beginning of another project that
will develop a new version or replace an existing system altogether.
Every custom software producer will have its own specific detailed life cycle
or system development methodology. Even if a particular methodology
does not look like cycle, you will discover that many of SDLC steps are
performed; SDLC techniques and tools are used. In order to make this unit
generic, we follow a rather general life cycle model, as described in Figure
10.2. This model resembles a staircase with arrows connecting each step
to the step before and to the step after it. This representation of the system
development life cycle is sometimes referred to as the “waterfall model”.
We use this SDLC as one example of methodology but more as a way to
arrange the steps of systems analysis and design. Each phase has specific
outputs and deliverables that feed important information to other phases. At
the end of each phase, system development project reaches a milestone and,
as deliverables are produced, parties outside the project team often review
them.

Project Initiation & Planning

Project Identification

Analysis

Logical Design

Physical Design

Implementation

Operation & Maintenance

Figure: 10.2: Phases of System Development Life Cycle

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System Analysis and Computer Activity A
Languages
Take a business problem concerning your top manager and the IS department.
Propose a system, which can be put on in such cases. Analyze the scope and
feasibility of the proposed system and develop a project plan.
……………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………
SDLC consists of mainly seven phases. These phases are also called as
SDLC steps or stages. These phases/steps/stages are:
1. Project Identification and Selection
2. Project Initiation and Planning
3. Analysis
4. Logical Design
5. Physical Design
6. Implementation
7. Operation and Maintenance
10.5.1 Project Identification and Selection
The first phase in the SDLC is called project identification and selection.
In this phase, the user identifies the need for a new or improved system.
This phase stage tries to answer the questions, “Why do we need a new
system ?” and “What do we want to accomplish?” This stage determines
whether the organization has a problem and whether that problem can be
solved by building a new information system or by modifying an existing
one. If a system project is called for, this stage identifies its general
objectives, specifies the scope of the project, and develops a project plan
that can be shown to management. In large organizations, this identification
may be part of a systems planning process. Information requirements
of the organization as a whole are examined, and projects to meet these
requirements are proactively identified. The organization’s information
system requirements may result from requests to deal with problem in
current system’s procedures, from the desire to perform additional tasks, or
from the realization that information technology could be used to capitalize
on an existing opportunity. These needs can then be prioritised and translated
into a plan for the Information System department including a schedule
for developing new major systems. In smaller organizations, determination
of which systems to develop may be affected by user request submitted
as the need for new or enhanced systems arises as well as from a formal
information planning process. In either case, during project identification
and selection, an organization determines whether or not resources should
be devoted to the development or enhancement of each information system
under consideration. The outcome of the project identification and selection
process is a determination of which systems development projects should
be undertaken by the organization at least in terms of an initial study.

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10.5.2 Project Initiation and Planning System Analysis and Design

The second phase is project initiation and planning. The problems that are
identified should be investigated and a decision to implement the information
system or not for the organization should be taken. A critical step at this point
is determining the scope of the proposed system. The project leader and
initial team of system analysts also produce a specific plan for the proposed
project, which the team will follow using the remaining SDLC steps. Now,
this baseline project plan customizes the standardized SDLC and specifies
the time and resources needed for its execution. The formal definition of a
project is based on the likelihood that the organization’s information system
department is able to develop a system that will solve the problem or use
the opportunity and determine whether the costs of developing the system
outweigh the benefits it could provide, based on cost benefit analysis. In
case of large projects the IS department may propose for getting the system
developed and implemented by a third party. The final presentation with
the subsequent project phases is usually made by the project leader and
other team members to the organisation’s management and/or to a special
management committee with experts, some of them may be from other
similar organizations. With all such presentations finally the decision is
taken about the projects the organization will undertake.
10.5.3 Analysis
Analysis is the next phase. During this phase, the analysis has several sub-
phases. The first is requirements determination. In this sub-phase, system
analysts work with users to determine the requirements and expectations
of users from the proposed system. The systems study stage analyzes the
problems of existing systems (manual or automated) in detail, identifies
objectives to be attained by a salutation to these problems, and describes
alternative solutions. The systems study stage examines the feasibility of
each solution alternative for review by management. This stage tries to
answer the questions, “What do the existing systems do?” “What are their
strengths, weakness, trouble spots, and problems?” “What user information
requirements must be met by the solution?” “What alternative solution
options are feasible?” “What are their costs and benefits?” “Whether the
Projects should be executed by external agency?”
Answering these questions requires extensive information gathering and
research; careful study of current systems manual or computerized that might
be replaced or enhanced as part of this project, seeing through documents,
reports, and work papers produced by existing systems; observing how these
systems work; polling users with questionnaires; and conducting interviews.
In this phase, system analysts work like students to learn and find out users
requirements. All of the information gathered during the systems study
phase are used to determine information system requirements.
Next, the requirements are studied and structured in accordance with their
inter-relationships and eliminate any redundancies. Third, alternative initial
design is generated to match the requirements. Then, these alternatives are
compared to determine which alternative best meets the requirement in
terms of cost and labour to commit to development process. In this phase,

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System Analysis and Computer feasibility study of the proposed system is also performed. The main three
Languages feasibilities are:
●● Technical feasibility which involves question such as whether the
technology needed for the information system exists and whether the
firm has enough experience using that technology.
●● Economic feasibility which involves question such as whether the
firm can afford to build the information system, whether its benefits
should substantially exceed its costs, and whether the project has
higher priority than other projects that might use the same resources.
●● Organisational feasibility which involves questions such as whether
the information system has enough support to be implemented
successfully, whether it brings as excessive amount of change, and
whether the organization is changing too rapidly to absorb it. This
also involves time feasibility to answer the question such as what is
the total time required for the project and whether the organization is
ready to devote that much time.
If the information system appears to be feasible from all aspects then this
SDLC phase produces a functional specification and a project plan. In case
the proposed system is not feasible to develop, it is rejected at this very step.
The functional specification is the description of the alternative solution
recommended by the analysis team. Once, the recommendation is accepted
by the organisation’s management, the project teams can begin to make
plans to acquire or hire IT resources in terms of hardware, system software,
and human resources (if found necessary during the analysis) to build or
operate the system proposed. The overall requirements is finally documented
as System Requirement Specification (SRS) for further consulting both by
users and developers during other phases of SDLC.
After analysis phase is complete, design of the system begins. The design
for an information system can be broken down into logical and physical
design specifications. The fourth and fifth phases are devoted to design of
the new and enhanced system. During design, IS technical team including
system analysts convert the description of the recommended alternative
solution into logical and then physical system specifications. Design of all
aspects of the system from input and output screens to reports, databases,
and computer processes are mandatorily done. Design occurs in two phases,
viz., logical design and physical design.
10.5.4 Logical Design
Logical design lays out the components of the system and their relationship
to each other, as they would appear to users. It specifies what the system
solution would do as opposed to how it is actually implemented physically.
It describes inputs and outputs, processing functions to be performed,
business procedures, data models, and controls. Controls specify standards
for acceptable performance and methods for measuring actual performance
in relation to these standards.
Logical design is not tied to any specific hardware and systems software
platform. Theoretically, the system could be implemented on any hardware
and systems software. The idea is to make sure that the system functions as
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intended. Logical design concentrates on the business aspects of the system. System Analysis and Design
Various standard charts and diagrams are prepared by the system analysts
to illustrate data flows and processing steps for further use. Because the
life cycle emphasizes formal specifications, many of the design and
documentation tools, such as data flow diagrams, structure charts, or system
flowcharts are used.
10.5.5 Physical Design
Physical design is the process of translating the abstract logical model into
the specific technical design for the new system. It produces the actual
specifications for hardware, software, physical databases, input/output
media, manual procedures, and specific controls. Physical design provides
the specifications that transform the abstract logical design plan into a
functions system of people and machines.
As said above, conversion from logical design to physical design takes
place in this phase of SDLC. For example, diagrams are converted to map
the origin i.e. starting point to other processing steps, flow, and processing
of data in the system. This conversion is done into a structured systems
design that can then be broken down into smaller and smaller units known
as modules for further conversion to instruction written in a programming
language. Various parts of the system are then designed to perform the
physical operations necessary to facilitate data capture, processing, and
information output. During the physical design, the analyst team decides the
programming language in which the computer instructions will be written
in, which database system and file structure will be used for the data, the
platform that will be used and the network environment under which the
system will be run. These decisions finalize the hardware and software
plans initiated at the end of the analysis phase. Now, proceedings can be
made with respect to acquisition of any new technology not already present
in the organization. The final product of the design phase is the physical
system specification in a form ready to be turned over to programmers and
other system builders for construction. The physical system specifications
are turned over to programmers as the first part of the implementation phase.
10.5.6 Implementation
Implementation is the process of putting a system into operation in an
organization. During implementation, system specification (output of the
system design phase) is turned into working system that is tested and put
into use. Implementation includes coding/programing using computer
language(s), testing of the developed software system and installation
of the system. In fact large organizations may adopt this phase into two
– development of the software by coding/programming and testing of the
developed system in one phase and in another phase system testing, training
and installation of the developed system. The implementation phase being
highly technical with most of the activities done by the IT professionals the
three steps – coding, testing, and installation have been put under Installation
phase for business management point of view. The Installation phase begins
with implementation planning for
●● developing the software by computer programmers using computer
language,
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System Analysis and Computer ●● the process of creating plans for training,
Languages
●● conversion from old system to newly developed system, and
●● testing of the system by the technical team and users.
During coding, programers write programs that make up the system. Some
systems development projects assign programming tasks to specialists
whose work consists exclusively of coding programs. Other projects prefer
programers/analysts who both design and code software programs. Since
large systems entail many programs with thousands – even hundreds of
thousands – of lines of code, programming teams are frequently used. The
training plan explains how and when the user will be trained. The conversion
plan explains how and when the organization will convert to new business
processes. The acceptance-testing plan describes the process and criteria
for verifying that the information system works properly in supporting the
improved work system. During the system testing, programers and analysts
test the individual programs and the entire system in order to find and
correct errors. This is a very crucial and important phase of SDLC because
this is the phase which gets the system developed as per users requirements
well defined earlier in the analysis phase in terms of SRS. Exhaustive
and thorough testing must be conducted to ascertain whether the system
produces the right results. Testing answers the question, “Will the system
produce the desired results under known conditions?” Testing is also time-
consuming. Test data must be carefully prepared, results reviewed, and
corrections made in the system. In some instances, parts of the system may
have to be redesigned. Yet the risks of glossing over this step are enormous.
Testing information system can be broken down into three types of activities:
Unit testing or program testing: it consists of testing each program separately
in the system. Testing should be viewed as a means of locating errors in
programs, focusing on finding all the ways to make a program fail. Once
pinpointed, problems can be corrected.
System testing: it consists of testing the functioning of the information
system as a whole. It tries to determine if discrete modules will function
together as planned and whether discrepancies exist between the ways the
system actually works and the way it was conceived. Among the areas
examined are performance times, capacity for the storage and handling
peak loads, recovery and restart capabilities, and manual procedures.
Acceptance testing it provides the final certification that the system is ready
to be used in a production setting. Systems tests are evaluated by users and
reviewed by management. When all parties are satisfied that the new system
meets their standards, the system is formally accepted for installation.
It is essential that all aspects of testing be carefully thought out and that
they be as comprehensive as possible. To ensure this, the development team
works with users to devise a systematic test plan. The test plan includes all
of the preparations for the series of tests previously described.
Users play a critical role in the testing process. They understand the full
range of data and processing conditions that might occur within their system.
Moreover, programmers tend to be aware only of the conditions treated in
their programs; the test data they devise are usually too limited. Therefore,
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input from other team members and users will help ensure that the range of System Analysis and Design
conditions included in the test data is complete. Users can identify frequent
and less common transactions, unusual conditions to anticipate, and most of
the common types of errors that might occur when the system is in use. User
input is also decisive in verifying the manual procedures for the system.
During installation, conversion takes place. Conversion is the process of
changing from the old system to the new system. It answers the question,
“Will the new system work under real conditions?” As the result of
conversion process, the new system becomes a part of the daily activities
of the organization. Application is installed or loaded, on existing or new
hardware and users are introduced to new system and trained. In fact, the
system analysts begin planning for testing and installation as early as the
project initiation and planning phase, since testing and installation require
extensive analysis in order to develop the right approach. For conversion,
four main strategies can be employed:
●● the parallel strategy,
●● the direct cutover strategy,
●● the pilot study strategy, and
●● the phased approach strategy.
In a parallel strategy, both the old system and its potential replacement are
run together for a time until everyone is assured that the new one functions
correctly. This is the safest conversion approach because, in the even to
errors or processing disruptions, the old system can still be used as a backup.
However, this approach is very expensive, and additional staff or resources
may be required to run the extra system.
The direct cutover strategy replaced the old system entirely with the new
system on an appointed day. At first glance, this strategy seems less costly
than parallel conversion strategy. However, it is a very risky approach that
can potentially be more costly than parallel activities if serious problems
with the new system are found. There is no other system to fall back on.
Dislocations, disruptions, and the cost of corrections may be enormous.
The pilot study strategy introduces the new system only to a limited area of
the organization, such as a single department or operating unit. When this
pilot version is complete and working smoothly, it is installed throughout
the rest of the organization, either simultaneously or in stages.
The phased approach strategy introduces the new system in stages, either
by functions or by organizational units. If, for example, the system is
introduced by functions, a new payroll system might begin with hourly
workers who are paid weekly, followed six months later by adding salaried
employees who are paid monthly to the system. If the system is introduced
by organizational units, corporate headquarters might be converted first,
followed by outlaying operating units four months later.
A formal conversion plan provides a schedule of all the activities required
to install the new system. The most time-consuming activity is usually
the conversion of data. Data from the old system must be transferred to
the new system, either manually or through special conversion software
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System Analysis and Computer
Languages
programs. The converted data then must be carefully verified for accuracy
and completeness.
Moving from an old system to a new one requires that end users be trained
to use the new system with ongoing user assistance. Detailed documentation
including SOPs (Standard Operating Procedures) showing how the system
works from both a technical and end-user standpoint is finalized during
conversion time for use in training and everyday operations. Documentation
is produced throughout the lifecycle. With the adoption of Computer
Aided Software Engineering (CASE) tools, more of the documentation is
basically a compilation of data and diagrams already stored on a computer.
Implementation can continue for as long as the system exists since ongoing
user support is also part of implementation. Lack of proper training and
documentation contributes to system failure, so this portion of the systems
development process is very important. Figure 10.3 illustrates the steps
performed in Installation Phase of SDLC.
Development Initiation
Phase Phase
Information system that Functional
operates on the computer specification
according to specifications Implementation Phase Project
plant
Implementation Implementation Phase
Planning Training Plan

Training
Trained Conversion
Users Plan
Acceptance
Conversion testing plan

Information Acceptance
system in Testing
operation Information system
formally accepted by Post-
users implementation
Initiation audit
Phase
1. Recommendations for future of the system
2. Lessons from the project
Figure 10.3: Steps in the Implementation Phase of SDLC

10.5.7 Operation and Maintenance

The operation and maintenance phase starts after the users have accepted
the new system. This phase can be divided into two activities:
●● ongoing operation and support and
●● maintenance of the system.
Unlike the other steps in the life cycle, these steps continue throughout the
system’s useful life. The end of a system’s life cycle is its absorption into
another system or its termination.
Ongoing operation and support is the process of ensuring that the technical
system components continue to operate correctly and that the users use it
effectively. It works best when a person or group has direct responsibility
for keeping the information system operating. This responsibility is often
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split, with the technical staff from the IT Servuce department taking care System Analysis and Design
of computer operations and members from the users departments in the
organization ensuring that users understand the system and use it effectively.

Day-to-day computer operations typically include scheduled events such as

generating summary reports from management and backups of the database.
The operations manual specifies when these jobs should be done. When the
database becomes almost full, or when response times start to increase, the
technical configuration of the information system must be changed. This is
done by allocating more disk storage space and unloading (by backing up
or discarding) data that are not current. With storage space being cheaper as
compared to yester years, organizations maintain systems with large storage
even on cloud as part of IAAS facility by third party. There are many IT
service providers giving Infrastructure-As-A-Service. If the organization
opts to go for the complete IS facility by the third party, the total solution
may be possible to have as SAAS (Software-As-A-Service). In this case
user organization gets just a link to operate using internet facility. Rest is
maintained by the IT service provider. In such a case the agreement between
both the organization and the IT service provider is signed with mutually
agreed terms and conditions.
Maintenance is the process of modifying the information system over time.
As users gain experience with a system, they discover its shortcomings and
usually suggest improvements. The shortcomings may involve problems
unrelated to the information system or may involve ways that the information
system might do more to support the work system, regardless of the
original intentions. Some shortcomings are bugs. Important shortcomings
must be corrected if users are to continue using an information system
enthusiastically. Software programers make the changes that users ask for
and modify the system to reflect and support changing business conditions.
These changes are necessary to keep the system running and useful.
Maintenance is not separate phase but a repetition of the other SDLC phases
required to study and implement the needed changes. Thus, maintenance is
an overlay to the life cycle rather than a separate phase. The amount of time
and effort devoted to maintenance depends a great deal on the performance
of the previous phase of life cycle. There comes a time when an information
system is no longer performing as desired, when maintenance cost becomes
prohibitive, or when the organization’s needs has changed substantially.
Such problems are an indication that it is the time to begin designing the
system’s replacement, therefore, completing the loop and starting the life
cycle over again. Often, the distinction between the major maintenance and
new development is not clear, which is another reason why maintenance
often resembles the lifecycle itself. Maintenance is of three types:
Corrective maintenance: In this type, the errors that creep into the system
are removed, hence the name corrective maintenance.
Adaptive maintenance: It is done to adapt with the changing external
factors. For example, if the government rules change regarding the Dearness
Allowance from X% to Y%, then the changes have to be made in the
Information System to adapt with the changing scenario.
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System Analysis and Computer Perfective maintenance: This is done to satisfy the users’ requirements to
Languages make the system more and more perfect.
The steps in each of the phases of the SDLC have now been introduced.
The SDLC is a highly linked set of phases where output of one phase serves
as input to the subsequent phase. Throughout the systems development
life cycle, the systems development project needs to be carefully planned
and managed. Therefore, the larger the project, the greater is the need for
project management. Table 10.1 outlines the steps in each phase and makes
two major points in addition to the details it presents. First it shows that
users are highly involved in most of the phases. In other words, building
information systems is not just technical work done by the technical staff.
It also shows that each phase has specific deliverables that help maintaining
the project progress to date and help keep the project under control. Table
10.1 illustrates the steps and deliverables in SDLC. It helps as a guideline
for all - management, IT staff, and users involved in IS system life cycle.
Table 10.1: Step and Deliverables in the Traditional System Life Cycle
Phase/Step Degree of user Key deliverable, Key participants
participation plan or document
Initiation
• Feasibility High Functional User representatives,
study specification management, and
technical staff
• Project Medium Project plan User representatives,
planning management, and
technical staff
Development
• Detailed High External User representatives,
requirements specification management, and
analysis technical staff
• Internal system None Internal Programmers and
design specification technical staff
• Hardware None Hardware plan Technical staff
acquisition and Hardware
installation operational
• Programming None Individual programs Programmers
debugged
• Documentation Medium User and Technical staff and users
programmer
documentation
• System testing Medium Test plan Programmers and users
Completed system
test
Implementation
• Implementation High Implementation Training, users, and
planning plan management
• Training High Training materials Trainers and users
• Conversion High System in use Users and project team
184
 System Analysis and Design
• Accepting High System accepted Users and project team
testing
• Post High Audit report Users and management
implementation
audit
Operation and Maintenance
• Ongoing Low Operations manual Technical staff
operation and Low Usage statistics Technical staff and users
support
High Enhancement Technical staff and users
requests and bug fix
requests
• Maintenance Medium Maintenance plan Technical staff and users
• Absorption or - - -
termination

10.8 SUMMARY
There is a fundamental dilemma faced by anyone developing a computer
application. Most problems are so large they have to be split into smaller
pieces. The difficulty lies in combining the pieces back into a complete
solution. Often each piece is assigned to a different team, and sometimes it
takes months to complete each section. Without a solid plan and control, the
entire system might collapse. Thousands of system development projects
have failed or been cancelled because of these complications.
Partly because of the problems that have been encountered in the past,
and partly because of technological improvements, several techniques
are available to develop computer systems. The most formal approach is
known as the systems development life cycle. Any major company that uses
SDLC also has to have documents explaining all the steps in various phases
including SOPs. Mostly they are softcopies stored for reference as and
when required. These documents also contain rules that MIS designers have
to follow. Although these details vary from firm to firm, all of the methods
have a common foundation. The goal is to build a system by analyzing the
business processes and breaking the problem into smaller, more manageable
pieces.

10.9 UNIT END EXERCISES

1. What are the different phases of traditional system life cycle?
2. What are the three phases of traditional system life cycle where users
are highly involved?
3. What are the various steps and deliverables in the development phase?
4. In which phase of system life cycle the following are performed?
Defining the problem, identifying its causes, specifying the solution,
and identifying the information requirements.
5. What are the three major areas of feasibility, which are addressed in
system analysis?

185
System Analysis and Computer 6. Which of the design lays out the components of the system and their
Languages relationship to each other, as they would appear to users?

10.10 R
 EFERENCES & SUGGESTED FURTHER
READING
Alter Steven (1999), Information Systems (A management perspective),
Pearson Education
Boyd Donald, W (2001), Systems Analysis and Modeling (A Macro-to-
Micro Approach with Multidisciplinary Applications) Academic Press and
Harcourt India
Ghezzi Carlo, Jazayeri Mehdi and Mandrioli Dino (1991), Fundamentals of
Software Engineering, Prentice-Hall of India, New Delhi.
Pressman, Roger S. (2001), Software Engineering (A Practitioner’s
Approach), McGraw-Hill, New Delhi

186
UNIT 11: COMPUTER PROGRAMMING
AND LANGUAGES
Structure
11.1 Introduction
11.2 Objectives
11.3 Programming vocabulary
11.4 Control structure or control statement
11.5 Overview and features of Visual Basic (VB.Net)
11.6 Overview and features of Java
11.7 Overview and features of HTML
11.8 Overview and features of Excel
11.9 Summary
11.10 Self-Assessment Exercises
11.11 References & Suggested Further Reading

11.1 INTRODUCTION
As we know that to communicate with a computer, we have to write/code
in computer language in terms of instructions to the computer. It means that
for any problem to be solved by computers, we have to write a program
for solving the problem. A computer program is the set of instructions or
statements written in any computer programming language. Programming
language is the only means by which we can communicate with computer.
In other words computer programs work as an interface between a person
and a computer. There are many computer languages to write programs.
Broadly they are categorized as Low Level language e.g. Machine Level;
Assembly Level language; and High Level language (e.g. C, C++, Visual
Basic (VB.NET), Python, JAVA etc.). Low-level language is hard to learn
as computer programs are required to be coded in ‘0’ and ‘1’. Similarly
Assembly level is also not easy as programs are required to be written in
mnemonic codes. Both these languages are machine dependent and they are
used by expert programmers. High-level programming languages are easy
to understand and learn as they are written in English like language.

11.2 OBJECTIVES
After reading this unit, you should be able to
●● Explain the vocabulary used in programming languages;
●● Identify and describe control structures in programming languages;
●● Identify important features of VB.NET, Java, HTML and XML,
Excel, and Python;
●● Write programs in higher level language.

187
System Analysis and Computer
Languages 11.3 PROGRAMMING VOCABULARY
Suppose we want to write program for finding factorial of a number. The
flow chart and pseudo code for this will be as follows:

Start

Enter N

T Print
N< 0 “Invalid Number”
F

Declare
FACT = 1

N =0 or T Print
N=1 “Factorial(N) = FACT”
F

FACT = FACT *N
Stop

N = N-1

Figure 11.1(a)

Pseudo code for the above is as given below:

Step 1 : Input N
Step 2 : if (N>0)
Step 3 : Declare FACT = 1
Step 4 : if((N=0) or (N=1))
Step 5 : Print “Factorial(N) = FACT”
Step 6 : else
Step 7 : Repeat
Step 8 :   FACT = FACT*N
Step 9 :   N=N-1
Step10 : Until(N>0)
Step11 : else
Step12 : Print “Invalid Number”
Step13 : end
Figure 11.1(b)
188
In writing above program we have used some important words such as ‘if – Computer Programming and
then –else’, ‘repeat – until’, Input, Print, Declare etc. Respective meanings, Languages
inherent in these words, form fundamental concepts in programming. These
words are called ‘Reserve Words’ or ‘Keywords’ of a programming language.
To write program in any language is simply a matter of learning its syntax
and semantic rules and special features. While syntax denotes the grammar
rules, semantic denotes the meaning associated. ‘N’ denotes the number for
which factorial is required to be obtained by the computer. ‘FACT’ denotes
the calculated factorial of the number N during the execution of the program
and till the end.
Apart from key words a program uses several other programming concept
viz. identifiers, constants, expression, library functions etc. These concepts
are defined here below.
Identifiers:
Identifiers are the name given to various program elements such as variables,
functions, sub-routines etc. Identifiers consist of letters and digits, in any
order, except the first character must be a letter. For example, the name
FACT used in figures 11.1(a) and 11.1(b) is an identifier. It has been used
to denote/identify the values of factorial of ‘N’ which is a number to be
provided as input.
Variables:
Variables are those elements of program whose value can change during the
execution of a program. Both ‘N’ and ‘FACT’ used in the figures referred
above are variables as their values are changing after each computation.
Constant:
Constant are those elements of program whose value cannot be changed
during the execution of the program. Means they have fixed value.
The numeric constant can be integer representing whole number or floating
point number with a decimal point. Constants would be probably the most
familiar concept to us since we have used them in doing everything that
has to do with numbers. Operations like, addition, subtraction, division,
multiplication, and comparison can be performed on numeric constants.
String constants are sequence of alphanumeric characters i.e. combination
of ‘alphabets’ and ‘numerics’ enclosed in double quotation marks e.g.
“Computer”, “X123”. String constant can be concatenated and compared in
a lexicographic sense.
Expression:
An expression represents a single data item, such as a number or a character.
The expression may consist of a single entry such as a constant, a variable, an
array, or a reference to a function. It may also consist of some combination
of such entities inter connected by one or more operators. For example
FACT = 1, FACT = FACT*N etc. are expressions.
Generally every high level programming language provides some sets of
arithmetical, relational, logical operators. For knowledge about computer
programs you should be aware about theses basics. The most common
arithmetical, relational, and logical operators, as we all know, are:
189
System Analysis and Computer Arithmetical operators:
Languages
* for Multiplications
/ for Divisions
- for Subtractions
+ for Additions
Relational operators
= Equal to
<> Not equal to
< Less than
> Greater than
<= Less than or equal to
>= Greater than or equal to
Logical Operator
NOT Logical NOT operator simply negates a truth-value.
AND Logical AND operator return true if both operators are true
(e.g. (4<=8) and (a<=b) is true.
OR Logical OR operator return false if both operands and false.
XOR Exclusive OR is true only if one of the operand is true and other
is false.
Each operator has got some precedence associated with it and expression is
always evaluated on the basis of precedence of the operator e.g.
3+7*6-4/2-2 4
In above expression exponential operator is evaluated first then multiplication
and division operators are evaluated and lastly the addition and subtraction
operator are evaluated. The precedence of arithmetic operators is exactly the
same as in mathematics. That is computer follows BODMAS (Bracket Of,
Division, Multiplication, Addition, Subtraction). If the expression contains
Exponential operator then it is of highest precedence i.e. it is evaluated first.
Relational operators have same level of precedence among themselves but
low precedence than arithmetic operators. Logical operators have lower
precedence than relation operators. Among themselves they have the
following order of priority during evaluation of logical expression (logical
expression is an expression evolving relational or logical operators and
evaluate either true value or false value)
NOT Highest precedence
AND
OR, XOR Lowest precedence
Expressions would be our basic workhorses. Our programs would be full
of them, and while executing the program; computer would be preoccupied
most of the time to evaluate them. But it would also be doing other things
such as taking some values as input from input device, assigning a value or
result of an expression to a variable, send a value for display to output device
190
pondering to be or not to be on some conditional expression, repeating some Computer Programming and
tasks until we are satisfied and calling some slave – program to perform Languages
specific task. In the following discussion we shall elaborate on these actions.
Generally every high level programming language has got some
i) Built-in Data Types
ii) Statements
They are illustrated here below:
Programming Language

Built-in Data Types Statements

Int Chr Real Boolean

Input/Output Declarative Assignment Control

Branching/ Looping Iteration Jump

Selection
Statement Statement
Statement

If – Repeat
else – Case For While
end if Until

Break Goto Continue

Built-in data type and statement type are specific to a particular programming
language.
Built in Data Types
Generally all programming language support following types of built in
data viz.
Int. Whole number
Real Number with fractional part
Boolean Data type which is either ‘true’ or ‘false’
Char 
Single alphabet or numeric character enclosed in single
quotation mark e.g. ‘a’, ‘1’ etc.
String Group of characters enclosed in double quotation mark.

191
System Analysis and Computer Before using any variable in the program it is generally necessary to define
Languages it’s type, broadly known as ‘data type’. The computer memory requirement
for each data type is different and it is dependent upon the specific
programming language.
Statements
Statement in programming language can be broadly classified as follows:
i) Declarative statements
ii) Input output statement
iii) Assignment statement
iv) Control statement or control structure.
Declarative Statements
These statements are used to declare the type of the variable e.g.
Examples in Java -
Int x : x is of integer type variable
Char x : x is character type variable
Byte b : b is of byte type variable
Float y : y is of float (real) type variable
Examples in Visual Basic -
Dim x as Integer : x is integer type variable
Dim b as Byte : b is Byte type variable
Dim y as Single : y is of floating (real) type variable
Input Output Statement
They can be broadly classified as
i) Console i.e. on screen input statement
ii) File input statement for giving input in a file
iii) Console i.e. on screen output statement
iv) File output statement for getting output in a file
Console input is used for taking the input from default input devices e.g.
Step 1 of Figure 11.1(b) while console output statement is used for printing
the result of the program on default output device e.g. Step 4, and Step 12 of
Figure 11.1(b). Similarly file input statements are used for taking the input
from file or non default input device while file output statement is used for
writing the output into the specified file.
Assignment statements are used for assigning the value to variable e.g.
variable name = value to be assigned as in Step 3 and Step 9 of above
referenced figures. Some more examples may be as given below -
X = 123 : value 123 is assigned to X
Z = func1( ) : 
return value of func1( ) will be assigned to the
variable Z. Here data type of Z and data type of value
returned by func1( ) must be of the same type.
192
 Computer Programming and
11.4 CONTROL STATEMENT OR CONTROL Languages
STRUCTURE
The execution of computer program is always sequential i.e. statement which
is written first will be executed first. To change the sequential execution of
a program, we need control structures which can be broadly categorized as
follows:
i) Branching or selection statement
ii) Looping or Iterative statement
iii) Jump statement
Branching or selection statements
They are used to select one group of statements or single statement for
execution from several available groups of statements. The selection of a
particular group depends on some Boolean condition. Example -
If – then – else
This statement is used when we have to make selection from two available
groups of statements. S1 group of statements will be only executed if Boolean
expression is true otherwise S2 group of statement will be executed.
If <Boolean expression>
S1 statement(s)
Else
S2 statement(s)

Entry

Boolean
Expression

F
T

Group S2 Statements Group S1 Statements

CASE statement is used if we have to make selection from several available

groups of statements
Case (Expression R)
{ Case X : S1
Case Y : S2
Case W : S3
Case Z : S4

193
System Analysis and Computer ………………………..
Languages
………………………..

default : Sn (default statement)
}
Here X, Y, W, Z are permissible values for Expression R. If Expression
R evaluates to value Y then S2 group of statements will be executed if
Expression R evaluates to non-permissible values i.e. none of X, Y, W, and
Z then default i.e. Sn group of statements will be executed.

Expression
R

Expression R = X
S1

Expression R = Y
S2

if no match then default case

Sn

Looping / Iterative Statement

A computer is well suited to perform repetitive operations. It can do
it tirelessly. Every computer language must have features that instruct a
computer to perform such repetitive tasks. The process of repeatedly
executing a block of statements is known as looping. The statements in the
block may be executed any number of times, from zero to infinite number.
If a loop continues forever it is called an infinite loop. Finite loop is a loop,
which terminates after fixed number of iterations. These fixed number of
iterations are knows to us in advance for implementing finite looping we
use for loop structure.
For Variable X = value1 to value2 steps size value3
S1
S2
Body of the loop
S3
Sn
End
In this case Variable X is initialized to value1, then it checks whether the
value of variable is greater value2. If not then it executes the body of the
loop and then increase the value of variable by step size equal to value 3.
194
If we do not know in advance how many times the loop will iterate then Computer Programming and
we use while – loop or repeat – until structures. There types of loops are Languages
terminated by some Boolean expression. The body of these loops must
contain one statement that alters the value of the Boolean expression.
While <Boolean expression>
S1
S2 Body of the loop containing a
statement that alters the Boolean
S3 expression.
Sn
End

Boolean
Expression F

Execute body of loop

Repeat
S1
S2 Body of the loop containing
a statement which alters the
S3 Boolean expression.
Sn
Until <Boolean expression>
It is clear from the flow chart of ‘while’ loop and ‘repeat – until’ loop that
body of repeat until loop will always executed at least for one time.
Jump Statement
Goto, break and continue are generally the jump statements. Goto statement
is used for jumping from one location to another labeled location within the
program. Break statement causes the loop to be terminated, the continue
statement causes the loop to be continued with the next iteration after
skipping any statements in between.
Functions/ Sub-routine / Sub program/ Modules
There are two ways to write a large and complicated computer program.
One is to write the single program, if we can, which are normally very
difficult for a large and complicated program. The other is to look at
the large program as consisting of several somewhat less complicated
subprograms. Coping with each of the subprogram can be seen in the same
manner as main program, either write them directly, if we can, or refine it
in terms of further subprograms and so on. The process of breaking large
195
System Analysis and Computer and complicated programs in smaller and less complicated sub program is
Languages known as modular programming approach. Each subprogram is termed as
function, subroutine, module etc. depending on the specific programming
language used to write the program.

11.5 OVERVIEW AND FEATURES OF VISUAL

BASIC (VB.NET)
Visual Basic, originally called Visual Basic .NET (VB.NET), was launched
by Microsoft in 2002 as the successor to its original Visual Basic language,
the last version of which was Visual Basic 6.0 (VB6). The “.NET” portion
of the name was dropped in 2005.
“. NET” (pronounced as dot net) is a framework that provides a programming
guidelines that can be used to develop a wide range of general purpose
applications, from web to mobile to Windows based applications. The
applications developed using VB.NET can also be run in other systems
having Linux, Mac operating systems.
Visual Basic.NET (VB.NET or VB.Net) is an object-oriented computer
programming language implemented on the .NET Framework. Although
it is an evolution of classic Visual Basic language, it is not backwards-
compatible with VB6, and any code written in the old version does not
compile under VB.NET. It is easy to learn and has strong programming
features. Object-oriented programming (OOP) is a programming paradigm
based on the concept of “objects”, which can contain data and code: data in
the form of fields (often known as attributes or properties), and code, in the
form of procedures (often known as methods).
The following reasons make VB.Net a widely used professional language −
●● It is one of the popular modern languages used worldwide for general
purpose applications.
●● It is based on object oriented concept of modern programming
technique.
●● It is easy to learn because it’s foundation is based on the BASIC (
Beginner’s All-purpose Symbolic Instruction Code) programming
language and VB6.
●● It is a structured language. The Structure data type is user defined
and can be used to represent information about something more
complicated than a single number (Integer), Character, or Boolean
data types can do.
●● It produces efficient programs meaning thereby that the codes written
in VB.NET use optimal processing time and computer memory space.
●● It can be compiled on a variety of computer platforms like Windows,
Linux, Mac, and mobiles.
In computer programming, Data types refer to an extensive system used for
declaring variables or functions of different types. The type of a variable
determines how much space it occupies in storage and how the bit pattern
stored is interpreted.

196
Data Types Available in VB.NET Computer Programming and
Languages
VB.Net provides a wide range of data types. The following table shows all
the data types available –
Table 11.1: Data types in VB.Net

Data Type Storage Requirement

Boolean Depends on implementing platform

Byte 1 byte

Char 2 bytes

Date 8 bytes

Decimal 16 bytes

Double 8 bytes

Integer 4 bytes

Long 8 bytes

Oblect 4 bytes on 32 bit platform

8 bytes on 64-bit platform

SByte 1 byte

Short 2 bytes

Single 4 bytes

String Depends on implementing platform

UInteger 4 bytes

ULong 8 bytes

User-Defined Depends on implementing platform

UShort 2 bytes
Control Statements of VB.NET
Following types of conditional branching statements are available in Visual
Basic
i) If – then – end
ii) If – then – else
iii) If – then – Else if - End if
iv) Select case statements
If- then is most common conditional branching statement. This is simplest
and illustrated below. Syntax of If- then – end is

197
System Analysis and Computer If expression then
Languages
Statement(s)
End if
Statement 1

If Then
Optional
Expression Statement (s)

Statement

The optional statement block is executed only when expression is true.

Regardless of the value of the expression, execution continues after the ‘if’
statement with statements.
If-then else is used when certain statements execute only when the expression
is true other statements execute if the expression is false

Statement 1

If Else Statement(s)
Expression If expression
is false

Then
Statement(s)
If expression
is true

End if

Statement 2

Syntax:
If Expression Then
Statements(s)

198
Else Computer Programming and
Languages
Statements(s)
End if
The final extension of if-then-End if branch is diagrammed below:

Statement 1

Else Else
If If If
Expression 1 Expression 2 Expression 3

Then Then Then

Statement(s) if Statement(s) if Statement(s) if

expression –1 is expression – 2 expression –n
true is true is true

End if

Statement 2

Syntax:
If expression 1 then
Statement(s)

Else if expression 2 then
Statement(s)
:
:
:
Else if expression n then
Statement(s)
End if
The select case branch is used in place of nested if-then-else statements and
is easy to understand and is diagramed below

199
System Analysis and Computer
Select Case
Languages
Expression

Case
Statement Block 1
Value 1

Case
Statement Block 2
Value 2

Case
Statement Block n
Value n

End Case

Syntax:
Select Case Expression
Case value 1
Statement(s)
Case value 2
Statement(s)
:
:
:
Case value n
Statement(s)
Else Case
Statement(s)
End Select
Looping Constructs of Visual Basic
The For… Next is useful whenever we know how many times loop through
the statement block
Syntax
For var = intial value to final value
Statement 1
:
:
Statement n
200
 Next var Computer Programming and
Languages
Initialize var to initial value

Var > Final

Value

Yes No

Execute body of program

Do – Loop executes a block of statements for as long as a condition is true.

There are two variations of the Do – Loop statements, but both use the same
basic model.
The loop can be executed either while condition is true or until the condition
becomes true. The two variations of the Do – loop use the keywords while
until to specify how long the statements are executed. To execute a block of
statements while a condition is true, use the following syntax
Do while condition
Statement block
Loop

To execute a block of statements until the condition becomes true use the
following syntax:
Do Until Condition
Statement block
Loop

11.6 OVERVIEW AND FEATURES OF JAVA

Java is a high-level, general purpose, object – oriented language originally
developed by Sun Microsystems of USA in 1991. It was released in 1995 as
a core component of Sun Microsystems’ Java-Platform. Sun Microsystems
was acquired by Oracle in 2010. As of October 2021, Java 17 is the latest
version.
The most striking feature of the language is that it is platform neutral
language. It is intended to let programmers Write Once Run Anywhere
(WORA) meaning that compiled Java code can run on all platforms that
support Java without the need for recompilation. Java is the first programming
language that is not tied to any particular hardware or operating system. As
such, programs developed in Java can be executed anywhere on any system.
More than a billion computers and at least 3 billions mobile phones use Java
for application development.
201
System Analysis and Computer
Languages
Java has become a popular and useful programming language because of its
excellent features. The important feature of Java is as under:
●● Simple and Familiar
●● Compiled and Interpreted
●● Platform Independent, Portable, and Architectural Neutral
●● Object-Oriented, secure, and Robust
●● Distributed, Multi-threaded and Interactive
●● High Performance, Dynamic and Extensible
Programs written in Java are simple and easy to understand. It has a base
of familiar and pre-existing languages like C and C++ and removes the
drawbacks, and complexities of C/C++.
Usually, computer language is either compiled or interpreted. Java combines
both these approaches thus making Java a two-stage system. Java compiler
translates source code into what is known as byte code instruction. Byte
codes are not machine instructions and therefore, Java Virtual Machine
(JVM) then executes this bytecode which is executable on many operating
systems and is portable. JVM works as the interpreter generating machine
code that can be directly executed by the machine that is running Java
program. The Figure 11.2 shows the above process:
JAVA Virtual Machine
JVM 0101001…

MyProgram.Java Compiler MyProgram.clan interpreter My Program

Figure 11.2

The most significant feature of Java is that it provides platform independence

which leads to a facility of portability. Being platform-independent means
a program compiled on one machine can be executed on any machine in
the world without any change. Java achieves platform independence by
using the concept of the BYTE code. This is where the “Write Once, run
anywhere” (WORA) slogan for Java comes in.
Below diagram explains the platform independence feature of Java-
Windows Windows
JVM OS

Linux Linux
JVM OS

Solaris Solaris
Program.java Byte Code JVM OS
Java Compiler
(program.clan :
:
platform independent) :
:
: :

Mac Mac
JVM OS

Figure 11.3
202
Java is a true object oriented language. Almost everything in Java is an object. Computer Programming and
All program code and data reside within objects and classes. You cannot Languages
develop an executable program in Java without making use of the class.
This indicates that Java very strictly applies the principle of Encapsulation
which is one of the prime features in Object Oriented Programming (OOP).
Security is an important issue for any programming language as there is a
threat of malicious activities and viruses. Java supports facilities to check
memory access and also ensures that no viruses enter into the code. It also
has a bytecode verifier that checks the code fragments for any illegal code
that violates the access right.
Java is robust as it is capable of handling run-time errors, supports other
features and has a strong memory management system. It helps in eliminating
errors as it checks the code during both compile and runtime.
Java is garbage-collected language as JVM automatically de-allocates the
memory blocks and programmers do not have to worry about deleting the
memory manually as in other languages.
Java also provides the concept of exception handling which identifies
runtime errors and eliminates them.
Java is designed as a distributed language for creating applications on
networks. It has the ability to share both data and programs. Java applications
can open and access remote objects on Internet as easily as they can do in
a local system. This enables multiple programmers at multiple locations
to collaborate and work together on a single project. It encourages users
to create distributed applications. You can split a program into many parts
and store these parts on different computers. A Java programmer sitting on
a machine can access another program running on the other machine. This
feature in Java gives the advantage of distributed programming, which is
very helpful when we develop large projects.
A thread is an independent path of execution within a program, executing
concurrently. Multithreaded means handling multiple tasks simultaneously.
Java supports multithreaded programs. This means that we need not wait for
the application to finish one task before beginning another e.g. we can listen
to an audio clip while scrolling a page and at the same time downloaded an
applet from a distant computer.
The performance of Java is impressive for an interpreted language because
of its intermediate bytecode. Java provides high performance with the
use of “JIT – Just In Time compiler”, in which the compiler compiles the
code on-demand basis, that is, it compiles only that method which is being
called. This saves time and makes it more efficient. Java architecture is
also designed in such a way that it reduces overheads during runtime. The
inclusion of multithreading enhances the overall execution speed of Java
programs. Bytecodes generated by the Java compiler are highly optimized,
so Java Virtual Machine can execute them much faster. Java is dynamic
and extensible means that you can add classes and add new methods to
classes, creating new classes through subclasses. Java gives the facility of
dynamically linking new class libraries, methods, and objects. It is highly
dynamic as it can adapt to its evolving environment.
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Languages
JAVA software for your computer, or the Java Runtime Environment (JRE)
is also referred to as the Java Runtime, Java Virtual Machine(JVM), Java
Add-on, Java Plug-in etc. JRE is a software layer that runs on top of a
computer’s operating system software and provides the class libraries and
other resources that a specific Java program needs to run. It includes a large
number of development tools and hundreds of classes and methods. The
development tools are part of Java Development Kit (JDK) and classes and
methods are part of Java Standard Library (JSL).
Following Java Basic Tools are the foundation of the JDK. They are the
tools you use to create and build applications.
Table 11.2: Java Development Tools
Tools Description
Appletviewer To run and debug Java applets without a web browser.
Apt Annotation processing tool.
Extcheck Utility to detect Jar conflicts.
Jar To create and manage Java Archive (JAR) files.
Java Java interpreter, which runs applets and application by reading
and interpreting bytecodes. It is used for both – development and
deployment
Javac The Java compiler, which translates Java source code to byte code files
that the interpreter can understand.
Javadoc API documentation generator. Creates HTML format documentation
from Java source code file.
Javah Produces header file for use with native methods.
Javap Java disassembler, which enables us to convert bytecode files into a
program description.
Jdb Java debugger, which helps us to find errors in our programs.

The way these tools are applied to build and run application program is
show below in the figure

Java source code Javadoc HTML files

Javac

Java class file Javah Header files

Java Jdb

Java program output

Java standard library includes hundred of classes and methods grouped into
six functional packages.
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 Computer Programming and
Java program Virtual
Source code
Java Compiler
Machine
Languages

Java
Byte Code Machine code
Interpreter

1. Language support package: Collection of classes and methods

required for implementing basic features of Java.
2. Utilities package: A collection of classes to provide utility functions
such as time and date.
3. Input / output package: A collection of classes required for input/
output manipulation.
4. Networking package: A collection of classes for communicating with
other computer via intranet or Internet.
5. Awt Package: The abstract window tool kit package contains classes
that implements platform independent graphical user interface (GUI).
6. Applet package: This includes a set of classes that allow us to create
java applets. Applets are small java programs developed for intranet/
Internet applications.
Some of the examples of Java tools are StdIn.java, StdOut.java, StdAudio.
java, StdStats.java, StdRandom.java, In.java, Out.java, Draw.java, Picture.
java which are used for their respective applications.
An applet located on a distant computer (server) can be downloaded via
internet/ intranet and executed on a local computer (client) using a java
capable browser.
Structure of Java program
A typical structure of a Java program contains the following sections:
Sections Respective uses…
Documentation The documentation section is an important section but optional
section for a Java program. It includes basic information about a Java
program. The information includes the author’s name, date of
creation etc. Whatever one writes in the documentation section,
the Java compiler ignores the statements during the execution
of the program.
Package The package declaration is optional. It is placed just after the
statement documentation section. In this section, package name in which
the class is placed, is declared.
Import The package contains the many predefined classes and
statement interfaces. If we want to use any class of a particular package,
we need to import that class. The import statement represents
the class stored in the other package. Import keyword is used
to import the class.
Interface It is an optional section. You can create an interface in this
statement section if required. ‘Interface’ keyword is used to create an
interface. An interface is a slightly different from the class. It
contains only constants and method declarations.
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System Analysis and Computer
Class In this section, you define the class. It is vital part of a Java
Languages
definitions program. Without the class, you cannot create any Java
program.
Class Variables In this section, you define variables and constants that are to be
and Variables used later in the program. In a Java program, the variables and
constants are defined just after the class definition.
Main method In this section, you define the main() method. It is essential for
class all Java programs because the execution of all Java programs
starts from the main() method.
Methods and In this section, we define the functionality of the program by
Behaviors using the methods. The methods are the set of instructions that
we want to perform. These instructions execute at runtime and
perform the specified task.
All Java source files will have the extension Java, also if a program contains
multiple classes, the file name must be the class name of the class containing
the main method.
Data Types in JAVA
Data types specify the different sizes and values that can be stored in the
variable. There are two types of data types in Java:
1. Primitive data types: The primitive data types include boolean, char,
byte, short, int, long, float and double.
2. Non-primitive data types: The non-primitive data types include
Classes, Interfaces, and Arrays.
Table 11.3: Data types in JAVA
Data Type Storage Requirement
Boolean 1 bit
Char 2 bytes
Byte 1 byte
Short 2 bytes
Int 4 bytes
Long 8 bytes
Float 4 bytes
Double 8 byte

Control Statements
The if-else statement in java may be implemented in following different
form depending on the complexity if condition to be tested:
i) Simple if statement
ii) If-else statement
iii) Nested if-else statement
iv) Else if ladder
If(expression)
{
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 Statement(s) Computer Programming and
Languages
}
Statement x

Expression
True

False Statement x

Statement x

If(expression)
{
True – block statement(s)
}
else
{
False – block statement(s)
}
Statement – x

True False
Expression

True - block False – block

statement statement

Statement x

If(Condition-1)
Statement – 1;
Else if (Condition – 2)
Statement – 2;

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System Analysis and Computer Else if (Condition – 3)
Languages
Statement – 3;
………………
………………
Else if (Condition – n)
Statement – n;
Else
Default statements;
Statement – x
Activity A
1. What are the different types of conditional branching statement sin
Visual basic?
2. Describe the six functional packages in JAVA progam library.
………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………

T F
Condition - 1

Statement - 1 T F
Condition - 2

Statement - 2 T F
Condition - 3

Statement - 3 T F
Condition - n

Statement - n3 Default
statement

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The Java language provides three constructs for performing loop operations Computer Programming and
viz Languages

While loop
Do loop
For loop
In the while loop test condition is evaluated and if the condition is true, then
body of loop is executed as illustrated in the figure below:
Syntax:
Initialization
While(Condition)
{
Body of loop
}

F
Condition

Body of loop

In do statement test condition is evaluated the bottom of the loop hence

resulting at least one time execution of the body of the loop irrespective of
the value of test condition:
Syntax:
Initialization
Do
{
Body of loop;
} While (condition)

Body of loop

F
Condition

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System Analysis and Computer
Languages
The for loop is used when we know in advance how many times the loop
will run. The syntax is:
For(initialization; test condition; increment)
{
Body of loop;
}

Initialization of Control
variable

Test F
Condition

Initialization of Control
variable

11.7 OVERVIEW AND FEATURES OF

HYPERTEXT MARKUP LANGUAGE
For web site development and to provide information through web, we
prepare documents in a markup language known as Hypertext Markup
Language (HTML). It was first created in 1989. As of now, in 2021, the latest
version is known as HTML5. HTML is used to create pages and make them
functional. Hypertext means that the document contains links that allow
the reader to jump to other places in the document or to another document
altogether. A Markup Language is a way that computers speak to each other
to control how text is processed and presented. To do this HTML uses two
things: tags and attributes. With HTML, we can describe the structure of
our web documents, including related information such as the integration of
multimedia and use of hyperlinks. It also links java applets to our web site.
HTML is actually a subset of an internationally known standard called
Standard Generalized Markup Language (SGML). The advantage of HTML
is that we can create its documents with simple ASCII text editor, which is
not always true for document based on SGML. HTML defines documents
so that any browser running on any computer can read a display them.
The basic HTML commands that are needed to create web pages fall into
following categories:
Structural Command
These identify a file as an HTML document and provide information about
the data in the HTML file.

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Paragraph formatting Command Computer Programming and
Languages
These specify paragraph endpoints and heading levels.
Character formatting Command
These allow us to apply various styles to the characters in our documents.
List specification Command
HTML supports several list formats including bulleted numbered and
definition list.
Hyper linking command
These allow us to provide information about moving from one document
to another.
Assest interaction command
These allow us access to multimedia information. Through these commands,
we can display graphical images, access sound and provide digital movies
for users.
The body of any HTML document is as under:
<HTML>
<HEAD>
<TITLE> This is document title </TITLE>
</HEAD>
<BODY>
:
:
:
This is document text
:
:
<BODY>
</HTML>
HTML file has .HTM or .HTML as their file name extension.
XML and XHTML
XML (eXtensible Markup Language) is a mark up language designed to
store and transport data. It is not designed to display data. XML came into
existence in late 90’s. it was created to provide an easy way to use and store
self describing data. XML is not a replacement for HTML. It is platform
independent and language independent.
The main benefit of xml is that you can use it to take data from a program
like Microsoft SQL, convert it into XML then share that XML with other
programs and platforms. You can communicate between two platforms
which are generally very difficult. Many corporation use XML interfaces
for databases, programming, office application mobile phones and more. It
is due to its platform independent feature.
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System Analysis and Computer
Languages
With XML, your data can be available to all kinds of “reading machines”
(Handheld computers, mobile phones, smart devices, voice machines, news
feeds, etc), and make it more available for blind people, or people with
other disabilities.
XHTML (eXtensibl HyperText Markup Language ) is a markup language
which is written in XML. It is a hybrid technology between HTML and
XML that combines the functionalities of both to become powerful and
efficient. HTML is used for the presentation of the data, while XML is used
for carrying the data. It was developed by World Wide Web Consortium
(W3C), which is an international organization that sets standards for the
World Wide Web (WWW). It was designed to help web developers to make
the transition from HTML to XML. It is specifically designed for net device
displays.
Activity B
A Principal wants to make a web site for the information of parents so that
they can get information of their progress of their ward in the school as well
about various schemes of the school.
1. Make a diagram for the website
2. Which language would you prefer for that website
………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………

11.8 OVERVIEW AND FEATURES OF EXCEL

Microsoft Excel is a program specially designed to enter organized data as
well as to analyze and present the data attractively. Excel is one of the most
versatile and popular spreadsheet programs. It serves as an, electronic pad
for accountants. It an easily perform simple as well as complex mathematical
operations. Spreadsheet is a simple worksheet consisting of rows and
column in which any data can be entered e.g. report cards of students are
manual spreadsheet. An electronic spreadsheet instead of being on papers,
it is on the computer screen.
Spreadsheets are used for performing calculations, recalculating results if
any data stored in them is changed, creating financial reports, comparing
reports etc. A very useful feature of spreadsheet is its ability to create
groups. It helps you establish relation-ship between two or more sets of
data and easily understand the trends of data changes.
A spreadsheet consists of rows and columns, which combine to form cells.
A Cell is a box where we can enter data. Column form the vertical lines of
calls while rows form the horizontal line of cells. Cell is an intersection of
rows and columns. To describe the location or address of a cell, we have to
write the names of the column and the row whose intersection has created
this cell.
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 Computer Programming and
Columns Languages
Rows
A B C
1
2 Cell B3
3
4
5

Cell B3 is location of address of this cell, which means column B, & row 3
Labels are the headings, which we enter in cell. Values are the number on
which calculations are performed. Formulas and functions are elements that
perform the desired calculations on the values.
Value
A B C D E
1 Profit in months
2
3 Export 1,200 1,600 1,479
4 2,200 1,785 2,100
5
6 Total 3000 C3+C4 3,579

Label formula or function

Formulas, which are present within the spreadsheet itself, are called
functions. We can also put up our own formulae in any cell. In the above
figure cell B6; C6 and D6 contain the formula, which total the values of
export and import.
A spreadsheet can be designed in a number of formats. Basically, designing
is concerned with how a number should look on the screen. The various
designing formats are comma, percent, currency, scientific. The data in a
cell may be right aligned, left aligned or centered.
Exam Left-aligned
Exam Right-aligned
Exam Centered
Spreadsheets allow us to use different fonts and styles to emphasize
headings.
Graph is yet another powerful feature of spreadsheet. The data stored in
the spreadsheets can be converted into graph so as to study the relationship
various data. The spreadsheet program has the facility to draw various
graphs viz. Bar, Pie, 2D and 3D graphs.
Spreadsheet allows the user to protect their workbooks by using a password
from unauthorized access to their information.
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Languages
11.9 SUMMARY
In this unit we have explained the concept and fundamental of programming
languages. We have also explained the different type of data types
and looping statements available in Visual Basic (VB.Net) and Java
programming language. We also learn how to compile and run programs in
above programming languages.

11.10 UNIT END EXERCISES

1. Explain the concept of programming language. Explain identifiers,
constants, expressions, and library functions.
2. Give points to support that Visual Basic is an excellent development
tool. Highlight important features of VB.
3. Java is not 100% pure object oriented language? Do you agree or not?
Justify your answer.
4. What do you understand by HTML? Present the features of HTML.
5. “Excel is a versatile spreadsheet package. It can do wonder for
accountants”. Comment.
6. “With so many ready made and customized software available-The
need for a manager is to learn to use them effectively rather than learn
to program them.”. Do you agree?
7. What makes Java an almost perfect web programming language?
What are its disadvantages?
8. Differentiate between HTML, XML, and XHTML.

11.11   REFERENCES & SUGGESTED FURTHER

READING
Sebesta, Concepts Of Programming Languages, 4e, Pearson Education
Terrence W. Pratt, Marvin V. Zelkowitz , Programming Languages: Design
And Implementation, 4th Ed. , Prentice-Hall Of India
Tucker, Allen, Programming Languages Principles and Paradigms, Tata
Mc Graw-Hill
https://dotnet.microsoft.com/learn/dotnet/what-is-dotnet, October 10, 2021
https://www.tutorialspoint.com/vb.net/vb.net_overview.htm, October 12,
2021
https://techvidvan.com/... October16, 2021
https://docs.oracle.com/javase/7/docs/technotes/tools/index.html October
18, 2021
https://www.javatpoint.com/ https://www.javatpoint.com October 19, 2021
https://html.com/ October 19, 2021

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