2016 International Conference on Interactive Technologies and Games
Learning Through Play: the Role of Learning and
Engagement Theory in the Development of
Educational Games for Intellectually Challenged
Children
Andriani Piki, Markos Markou, Anna Vasiliou
Department of Business Computing
P.A. College
Larnaca, Cyprus
Email: {a.piki,m.markou}@faculty.pacollege.ac.cy
Abstract—Games-based learning is an effective way to get
learners actively involved in educational activities. This paper
attempts to bridge the gap that exists between learning and
engagement theory and systems analysis and design through a
multidisciplinary framework for guiding the development of new
educational games aimed at intellectually challenged children.
Based on this framework a new web-based games platform
is designed from the ground up, framed within games-based
learning, learner engagement and motivation, and instructional
systems development, and supported through the data gathered
from a real-life case study. Mixed methods are employed for
gathering insights on how intellectually challenged children at
the age of 8 to 10 years old engage in learning activities, and
for examining ways to help their development using educational
games. Realising the role of learning and engagement theory
in the development of educational games has a number of
implications. Firstly, it emphasises the need to integrate theoreti-
cal constructs into the traditional systems analysis and design
lifecycle when creating educational applications. Secondly, it
confirms educators’ central role both as informants in the game
analysis and design process and as evaluators of the learning
outcomes achieved by incorporating educational games within
formal education. The contribution of the current work lies in
the adaptation of the traditional system prototyping methodology
to account for theoretical insights and on-going evaluation of the
expected learning outcomes.
Index Terms—games-based learning, instructional design,
learning theory, engagement theory, systems analysis and design,
intellectual disability.
I. I NTRODUCTION
Learner engagement is a challenging yet rewarding process
for students and educators alike. Even though there exists
an extensive set of learning and instructional theories and
pedagogical approaches, engaging students in the learning
process still remains a challenge. This is true for all educa-
tional levels, including education of intellectually challenged
children. Evidence in current educational literature suggests
that employing technology in education results in increased
student engagement and improved learning outcomes [1]–[3].
Specifically, it has been argued that web-based educational
games can provide engaging learning environments while
978-1-5090-3738-4/16 $31.00 © 2016 IEEE 1
DOI 10.1109/iTAG.2016.8
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at the same time satisfy children’s fundamental needs and
requirements [4], [5] such as playing, exploring, winning, and
having fun. However, learner engagement cannot be taken for
granted simply because of the presence of technology either
in the classroom or online [3]. Particularly with regards to
games-based learning, we cannot deduce that every single
game will be effective as an educational tool. We need to
consider how efficient the game is in supporting, motivating,
and rewarding children; which skills need to be promoted
or developed through the game; how the game needs to be
designed to ensure that both the goals and instructions of the
game are clear; which (intellectual and/or actual) age level
the game is intended for; and how the teacher can actively
be involved in the game-mediated learning process, amongst
other pedagogical aspects.
Current educational literature focuses primarily on the
theoretical or empirical exploration of games-based learning
approaches, through evaluation of existing educational games,
and less on the process of developing new games grounded
on these tenets. At the same time, system analysis and design
projects often neglect taking into account theoretical learning
and engagement constructs. This paper attempts to bridge
the gap that exists between theory and systems analysis and
design methodologies through a multidisciplinary framework
for guiding the development of new educational games aimed
at intellectually challenged children. The framework emerged
from a real-life case study in the context of special education,
focusing on children with mild and moderate severity of
cognitive impairment, in the age range of 8 to 10 years,
attending a special education school in Cyprus. A mixed-
methods approach was employed for gathering insights on how
intellectually challenged children engage in learning activities,
and for examining ways to help their development using
educational games. We argue that for an educational game
to have a constructive impact on students’ learning it has to
be grounded in learning and engagement theory, in addition
to gathering genuine insights in the field. By integrating
theoretical ideas in the systems development life cycle (SDLC)
 the aim is to inform the traditional systems analysis and design
process. Additionally, the proposed framework incorporates a
distinct evaluation phase to explicate the educators’ key role
both in the process of designing the game and in using it to
monitor and evaluate their students’ progress. The proposed
framework can be used as a systematic approach for guiding
the analysis, design, and development of educational games
aiming to support instruction and learning of intellectually
challenged children.
II. BACKGROUND TO THE STUDY AND THEORETICAL
FRAMEWORK
Intellectual disability is characterised by significant limita-
tions in both intellectual functioning and in adaptation to the
environment [6]–[8]. This research focuses on children with
mild to moderate intellectual disability. Current literature sug-
gests that these children can learn basic academic, work and
social skills [9]. Individuals with moderate intellectual disabil-
ity can also learn how to use means of transportation, perform
simple financial transactions, learn how to cook, and enhance
social and self-care skills [9], [10]. It has been suggested that
these skills can be practiced and achieved through web-based
games [4]. Games-based learning provides an effective way to
get learners actively involved in educational activities [4], [5],
[11]. Although a multitude of games are widely accessible,
most games focus more on entertainment and less,if at all, on
the learning outcomes. Hence, when developing educational or
assistive technology, for supporting individuals with cognitive
impairment, the aim is to satisfy specific educational needs
and problems and address particular instructional and learning
processes including listening, mathematics, organisation and
memory, reading and writing [7], [8]. Within special education
such technologies aim to increase, maintain or improve the
functional capabilities and adaptive behaviour of people with
disabilities.
In the process of creating educational games, having a
clear understanding of what constitutes intellectual disability
is significant for two reasons. Firstly, to understand what
challenges these individuals face and secondly, to identify how
technology can help them develop the conceptual, social and
practical skills necessary to function in their everyday lives [7].
Drawing threads form existing learning theory (e.g. games-
based approach, instructional systems development, ARCS
model, etc.) and engagement theory can form the basis for
designing and developing educational games through which
intellectually challenged children can learn through play. There
are several theoretical constructs as well as practical ideas
which, if carefully considered and applied within instructional
design, can promote mental growth and the development of
perceptual and learning abilities like memory, reading, writing,
and numerical skills [7], [8]. A number of ideas can be
extracted from existing learning and engagement theory and
these are outlined next.
The application of various forms of technology (including
educational games, virtual learning environments, blogs, wikis,
social networking, web-based tools and mobile applications)
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within educational settings is definitely not a recent trend.
In their ‘Engagement Theory’ Kearsley and Shneiderman
[12] suggest that “while in principle [. . . ] engagement could
occur without the use of technology, [. . . ] technology can
facilitate engagement in ways which are difficult to achieve
otherwise”. Particularly in the context of assistive technology,
Mary Pat Radabaugh a former member of the IBM Disability
Support Center, in her commonly-quoted proposition suggests
that “For most people technology makes things easier. For
people with disabilities, however, technology makes things
possible” [13]. While the beneficial role of educational tech-
nology is profound, simply introducing technology in the
curriculum will not automatically engage students [3]. It is
the careful selection of technology-mediated learning tasks
and appropriate assessment strategies which greatly impacts
student engagement. Additionally, there is a genuine need for
continuous feedback, active monitoring, and support from the
lecturer [3]. All these factors are conducive to learning and
can lead to increased learning outcomes [4], [14]. Considering
these factors at the initial stages of the SDLC can inform
user requirements analysts, designers, and programmers while
delivering the various prototypes of the game.
Learning theory and pedagogical paradigms exist in a
continuum ranging from behavioural theories to cognitive
theories to social learning theory and constructivism. The
latter identifies the value of learner-centred instruction and of
immersing the learner in relevant, real-world contexts [15].
With regards to educational games this means that for the
game to be successful the context, multimedia environment,
and interaction types featured in the game should be relevant to
the students’ prior experiences and interests. Children are more
likely to engage if the games correlate with their particular
needs and interests and if the learning experience is genuinely
meaningful [16]. To ensure this correlation is achieved a
number of design guidelines have been suggested in the field
of interaction design [17]. Formally incorporating theoretical
exploration within the SDLC provides space for considering
these guidelines when developing educational games.
Within educational literature, several engagement and mo-
tivational theories have been proposed over the years. Mo-
tivational literature is closely associated with the study of
academic achievement and development [18], [19] empha-
sising the ‘mediating role’ that learner engagement plays in
the learning process [3]. Reacting to inadequacies in both
behaviourist and cognitive theories of learning to account
for learner motivation, Keller [14] developed an enhanced
theoretical framework, called ARCS model, which suggests
that a game can motivate children to continue playing if
it satisfies four basic learner motivation categories; namely,
attention, relevance, confidence and satisfaction. Keller [20]
later developed an integrative theory to better explain the
dynamic interrelationships between motivation, learning, and
achievement. Other prominent theories in engagement liter-
ature include Kearsley and Shneiderman’s [12] engagement
theory and Martin’s [21] student motivation and engagement
wheel. These theories suggest that students with high levels
 of engagement demonstrate increased interest and enthusiasm
for the subject which, in turn, has a positive impact on their
retention, learning, and satisfaction.
A key notion within engagement and motivational theory
is the significance of having clear goals. Providing simple
instructions allows students to formulate clear goals and this
in turn affects their level of motivation and achievement.
If students do not straightforwardly understand what it is
expected from them, or if the target of the game is not obvious
right from the beginning, then they will likely disengage or
easily give up. Therefore, educators and system designers alike
should explicitly consider students’ goals and expectations
when formulating the requirements of an educational game.
This is also essential within special education, although the
goals as such may differ. Kauffman and Hung [9] suggest
that special education differs from general education and
that the former should provide direct, systematic and precise
instructions, instead of general information, in order to be
effective. Providing clear guidelines as an integral part of
the game helps children identify exactly what they need to
do and how. Research shows that children can continuously
benefit by gaining communication, social, and technical skills
in a practical, pleasurable and entertaining way by following
systematic and precise instructions [9].
Furthermore, special education teachers employ an array of
approaches to reinforce the acquisition of particular skills,
including continuous assessment and progress monitoring.
Having this in mind can help the designer shape the game in
a way which supports special educators in their role. Given
that the aim of an educational game is primarily learning,
and not simply entertainment, the game should allow the
special educator to routinely and discretely monitor and assess
each student independently. This functionality will allow the
educator to adjust the curriculum according to each individual
student’s level of functioning and formulate individualised
instruction approaches. Therefore, student progress monitoring
should be considered as an essential functional requirement
in the process of developing educational games to be used
within formal education. Nevertheless, this functionality is
often neglected in existing web-based games.
According to Keller [20], “motivational design is concerned
with connecting instruction to the goals of learners, providing
stimulation, and appropriate levels of challenge”. Hence, a suc-
cessful game is one that embraces clear goals and objectives,
and presents challenges that are aligned with the children’s
skills level [4], [22]. Designers should carefully consider the
level of difficulty as it plays a significant role in children’s
attitude towards the game; if the level of challenge is greater
than the player’s skill level the player may feel stressed, while
if it is lower, the player may feel bored. Therefore, the final
game target should be neither too trivial nor too challenging.
Rather, the game should be designed in such a way so that
children engage with it from the first instance but also remain
motivated until they complete all the levels of the game [4].
Matching the difficulty level of the game to the students’ skill
level ensures that the game is enjoyable and successful in terms
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of the learning outcomes [22].
Another element that should not be underestimated in the
process of designing educational games is the power of provid-
ing encouraging and rewarding messages. A successful game
is one that embraces immediate feedback and appropriate
messages to motivate learners continue playing. In addition
to rewarding good performance, “the progress of not so good
players should be somehow supported in order to ensure that
they can catch up to better players and complete the game”
[4]. Furthermore, using a systematic prompting procedure, like
time delay, allows enough space for students to think instead of
simply guiding them to find the answer, and this is especially
relevant for individuals with significant cognitive disabilities
[9], [23].
In summary, in the context of developing educational games,
it is very important to provide immediate feedback, clear goals
and challenges according to children’s needs and skill level.
Additionally, rewarding is an important element which should
be included in the game to motivate children to continue
playing and learning. Designers should also carefully consider
the content of the game. Ideally the game should embrace
engaging storylines, online instruction, and content which
supports student creativity and critical thinking and aligns with
the students’ interests and expectations. Moreover, cognitive
overload should be eliminated in games by avoiding extra-
neous multimedia content, using touch-screen technologies
and providing usable user interfaces that support knowledge
construction. Lastly, educational games should be easy to use
and allow children to have a sense of control, resulting in an
enhanced learning experience [4], [24].
III. P ROPOSED MULTIDISCIPLINARY FRAMEWORK
The set of theoretical ideas discussed in the previous section
is neither unique nor exhaustive; there are manifold learning
and engagement theories which can inform the development
of educational games for children with intellectual disabil-
ities. The uniqueness of this research lies in its approach
towards developing educational games, arguing that theory
needs to be an integrated part of the SDLC. We argue that
threads from a combination of theories can be drawn to
better understand learner engagement and in turn, design and
implement engaging educational games. Having these ideas in
mind can guide the process of specifying and analysing user
requirements, and in turn, can inform the process of game
design, implementation, and on-going evaluation.
The framework we propose (see Fig. 1) is an adaptation
of the traditional system prototyping methodology [25], [26]
combined with instructional systems development (ISD) [27]
so that it accounts for theoretical insights and on-going evalua-
tion of the expected learning outcomes. In the adapted method-
ological framework, theoretical exploration is presented as an
explicit, transitional phase in the SDLC (labelled ‘Theory’).
Given that theoretical awareness can guide and influence the
subsequent iterative process consisting of analysis, design, and
implementation phases, influential theories should be consid-
ered at the initial stages of the SDLC. Therefore, theoretical
 PLANNING
THEORY
ANALYSIS
DESIGN
IMPLEMENTATION
GAME
IMPLEMENTATION
PROTOTYPE
EVALUATION
EDUCATIONAL
GAME
Fig. 1: Multidisciplinary framework for developing educa-
tional games.
exploration is purposefully situated as an intermediate phase
between planning and analysis. Additionally, the proposed
framework incorporates a distinct evaluation phase (labelled
‘Evaluation’) to establish the educators’ central role both as
informants in the game development process, and as eval-
uators of the learning outcomes achieved by incorporating
educational games within traditional education. The suggested
framework is a multidisciplinary approach integrating concepts
from various complementary fields including educational psy-
chology, instructional design and software engineering.
IV. A PPLICATION OF THE MULTIDISCIPLINARY
FRAMEWORK
The framework presented above has been applied in the
process of planning, theoretically and empirically exploring,
analysing, designing, implementing and evaluating an educa-
tional games platform aimed at intellectually challenged chil-
dren with mild and moderate severity of cognitive impairment,
in the age range of 8 to 10 years, whose native language
is Greek. After setting the project’s aims and objectives
during the planning phase, extensive exploration of influential
learning and engagement theories was performed, as discussed
in the previous section. The main theoretical constructs and
ideas gathered from this exploration formed the initial list
of functional user requirements considered during the design
and implementation of the game. According to these, the
game should feature an engaging, touch-based interface; pro-
vide clear game instructions and use simple language when
formulating the game objectives; respond with encouraging
and rewarding messages; promote skills related to everyday
tasks such as financial transactions, recognition of emotions,
health and eating habits; provide learning tasks matching the
intellectual level of the students; and finally, allow the teacher
to continuously monitor and assess the students’ progress.
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These theoretically-driven functional requirements provided
a rich, illuminating source of inspiration in the process of
developing the educational games platform for the target
group.
Following an extensive theoretical exploration through the
available literature that falls into this multidisciplinary field,
an interpretivistic study was conducted as part of the data
gathering and analysis phase in order to refine the extracted
user requirements. The aim was to explore the challenges that
the selected group of children with cognitive disabilities face
and examine ways to help them in terms of their development,
using educational games. A mixed-methods approach was
employed involving gathering primary data from interviews
and direct observation in a special education classroom.
Specifically, in accordance with system prototyping method-
ology, in-depth interviews with three special educators were
conducted in order to extract the main user requirements.
The findings from the interviews provided insights into how
children learn effectively, what expectations educators have,
and what elements the game should incorporate in order to
engage children in getting hands-on experience with learning.
Given that the game is aimed at children with intellectual
disabilities, educators’ perceptions and requirements were an
important source of information while building intermediate
game prototypes. Nevertheless, the focus of the game is the
children themselves. Therefore, in addition to the interviews,
an observation session was conducted in a special education
classroom. Direct observation in the field [17] is essential
in the case of designing games to be used as educational
tools because of the variation in the abilities and skills of
the children. Such games need to be custom-build to reflect
the diverse capabilities and needs of the group members.
Through direct observation in a special education classroom,
it was possible to get a deeper understanding of what fa-
cilitates children’s engagement, including the importance of
providing simple instructions, clear goals, and encouraging
and rewarding messages. These findings confirm what has
been suggested in the literature and provide genuine insights
into the elements an educational game should incorporate in
order to engage children with mild or moderate severity of
intellectual disability with learning activities. Therefore, the
study is both theoretically informed and empirically grounded.
Thematic analysis of the gathered data yielded eight the-
matic categories which were subsequently formulated as a
list of functional and non-functional requirements: motiva-
tion and reward; simple language; skills; challenges; learning
considerations and objectives; design and technology; possible
functionality; and examples of games. The first five reaffirm
what emerged from theoretical exploration, while the last
three provided novel, design-oriented insights not discov-
ered through the studied learning and engagement theories.
The final list of requirements was adapted and renegotiated
through an iterative process moving between analysis, design
of game prototypes, implementation and on-going evaluation.
In accordance with system prototyping methodology [25],
[26] and instructional systems development [27], on-going
 testing and evaluation was an integral part of the project. features both a child progress page and a teacher monitoring
Multiple methods were employed to test the usability of this page. The former allows each child to review the scores on
system based on both the students’ and teachers’ experiences. the various games providing additional incentives to aim for
Subsequently, a new, interactive, touch-based games platform higher scores and achieve better results each time. The latter
was fully developed based on the research outcomes and on- constitutes an important differentiating factor of the games
going interaction with the special educators. The game was platform compared to existing ones since it allows teachers
implemented using PHP, JavaScript, and HTML/CSS. Even to monitor their students’ progress (in terms of scores, degree
though the game was designed primarily for use on tablets of participation, number of attempts, etc.) hence giving them
and, therefore, features a landscape design and large icon- the opportunity to adapt their instructional methods to the
based buttons common on touch-based systems, it can be just individual needs of each student.
as effective on widescreen personal computers and laptops. In
accordance with the findings in the ‘Theory’ and ‘Analysis’
stages of the SDLC methodology, the platform combines
visual and auditory cues for the players and features a wide
range of encouraging and rewarding messages in the form of
large, colourful images. The developed educational platform
is publicly available online at www.paixnidizo.com.

Fig. 4: Memory game.

Fig. 2: Welcome screen.

The proposed platform combines various games in order to

develop a number of skills giving children in the selected age
group an opportunity for learning online from anywhere, at
any time. In particular, the games platform incorporates three
games: memory, general knowledge and mathematics, follow-
ing suggestions from special educators and in accordance with
Fig. 5: Student progress page.
the formal curriculum used for this age group.

Fig. 3: Game selection screen. Fig. 6: Teacher monitoring page.

The particular set of games featured in the games platform
cover a wide range of skills considered as important including
reading, writing, mathematical, problem-solving, and memory
skills. Additionally, an innovating element of the games plat-
form is its progress monitoring functionality. The platform
The combination of theoretical insights with intense evalu-
ation and on-going improvements resulted in an accessible,
multimodal, and effective games application. The primary
purpose of the educational game developed by following the

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 suggested framework was to engage children with intellectual
disabilities in learning activities through a series of games.
V. C ONCLUSION
Keeping students interested and arousing their curiosity
while learning is an essential requirement for all levels and
forms of education. Games-based learning is considered an
effective approach towards engaging students with learning
activities. The contribution of the current work lies in the
proposed multidisciplinary framework for developing new ed-
ucational games for intellectually challenged children, which
emerged through linking learning and engagement theory with
system prototyping methodology and instructional systems
development. The main argument is that in order to produce
a successful system which satisfies the students’ needs and
the expected learning outcomes it is essential for theory to be
taken into consideration as an explicit, integrated element of
the system lifecycle hence informing all phases of the SDLC
methodology. Additionally, the research confirms educators’
central role both as informants in the game analysis and design
process and as evaluators of the learning outcomes achieved
by incorporating educational games within formal education.
Hence, the proposed framework accounts for theoretical in-
sights and on-going evaluation of the learning outcomes. The
framework is designed from the ground up, framed within
engagement and motivational theory, games-based learning
and instructional systems development, and supported through
the data gathered from a real-life case study. A multidisci-
plinary approach is adopted using mixed methods for gathering
insights on how children with intellectual disabilities engage
with learning activities through a series of educational games.
The knowledge and insights gathered by theoretically and
empirically exploring the research aim subsequently guided
the process of analysing, designing, building, and evaluating
the new educational games platform. The research findings
suggest that the developed games application can support
and enhance traditional teaching and learning methods, and
enable entertaining and constructive ways for intellectually
challenged children to learn through play.
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