Water 14 02757

water
Article
Numerical Simulation of Axial-Flow Pump Cavitation Based on
Variable Frequency Speed Regulation
Jincheng Ye, Linwei Tan * , Weidong Shi *, Cheng Chen and Egbo Munachi Francis
School of Mechanical Engineering, Nantong University, Nantong 226019, China

* Correspondence: tanlinwei@ntu.edu.cn (L.T.); wdshi@ujs.edu.cn (W.S.)
Abstract: In order to investigate the influence of variable voltage and variable frequency (VVVF)
regulation on the cavitation performance of the axial-flow pump, numerical simulation and exper-
iments were used to analyze the cavitation performance of an axial-flow pump under different
VVVF modes. The VVVF modes were uniform acceleration with constant acceleration, variable
acceleration with increasing acceleration, variable acceleration with decreasing acceleration, and its
corresponding deceleration scheme. Furthermore, a comprehensive performance test rig was built
for the pump to carry out cavitation visualization tests which verified the accuracy of numerical
simulation. For the uniform acceleration scheme with constant acceleration, the change of flow field
inside the impeller was stable, the expansion rate of cavitation was slow, and the growth rate of the
cavitation volume was the slowest. For the variable acceleration scheme with decreasing acceleration,
the cavitation extended rapidly due to the large initial velocity. For the variable acceleration scheme
with increasing acceleration, cavitation extension was the slowest. The growth rate of the cavity
volume of the two variable acceleration schemes was faster than that of the uniform acceleration
scheme, and the changing trend was consistent. This feature indicates that the impeller rotation speed
has a significant impact on cavitation, and excessive rotation speed will rapidly extend the cavitation.
Citation: Ye, J.; Tan, L.; Shi, W.; Chen, By monitoring the influence of cavitation on pressure distribution under VVVF, it was shown that
C.; Francis, E.M. Numerical the three acceleration schemes all produce large pressure fluctuation. For the uniform acceleration
Simulation of Axial-Flow Pump scheme with constant acceleration, the fluctuation range of pressure was more balanced, and the pres-
Cavitation Based on Variable sure dropped slowly. For the acceleration scheme with higher acceleration, the pressure fluctuation
Frequency Speed Regulation. Water amplitude increased in the late stage of acceleration and the pressure decline speed accelerated. For
2022, 14, 2757. https://doi.org/ the acceleration scheme with decreasing acceleration, the pressure showed a downward trend with
10.3390/w14172757 violent fluctuations in the early stage and gradually tended to be flat in the late stage.
Academic Editor: Aonghus
McNabola Keywords: axial-flow pump; numerical simulation; variable voltage; variable frequency; cavitation
performance
Received: 9 August 2022
Accepted: 2 September 2022
Published: 4 September 2022
Publisher’s Note: MDPI stays neutral 1. Introduction

with regard to jurisdictional claims in
In recent years, with the continuous development of intelligence, great achievements
published maps and institutional affil-
have been made in water conservancy informatization, and intelligent water conservancy
iations.
and intelligent irrigation have been gradually integrated into our daily life [1,2]. The
cavitation problem of the axial-flow pump under VVVF has become one of the most urgent
problems to be solved for an intelligent pump. Axial-flow pumps have the characteristics
Copyright: © 2022 by the authors.
of large flow, low head, and simple structure, and are widely used in irrigation, water
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. conservancy engineering, urban industry, and other industries [3,4]. VVVF can make
This article is an open access article the pump station maintain the highest operating efficiency at any time, reduce energy
distributed under the terms and loss, and improve energy-saving characteristics, and is an indispensable technology for
conditions of the Creative Commons pumps [5]. The axial-flow pump is more prone to cavitation than other types of pumps
Attribution (CC BY) license (https:// due to its characteristics of large flow and low head. Especially in the case of large flow
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ deviating from the design condition, the blade back of the axial-flow pump has a wide
4.0/). range at low pressure and is prone to serious cavitation [6–9]. Long-term cavitation will
Water 2022, 14, 2757. https://doi.org/10.3390/w14172757 https://www.mdpi.com/journal/water

Water 2022, 14, 2757 2 of 19
have a negative effect on the energy conversion of the impeller, leading to a decrease
in the hydraulic performance of the pump unit [10]. It will also induce vibration and
noise in the pump device and can even cause cavitation damage to the axial-flow pump’s
blades, which will seriously affect the operation safety of the pump station [11]. Research
on the cavitation performance of axial-flow pumps based on variable frequency speed
regulation is of great significance to improving the performance and reliability of the
intelligent operation of the axial-flow pump. This research can greatly promote the further
development of intelligent pumps and has great significance for boosting intelligent water
conservancy and intelligent irrigation.
At present, there has been relatively mature research on VVVF and cavitation in
axial-flow pumps. Fei, Z. et al. used PLC software to build a variable frequency constant
pressure water supply control system which can realize real-time monitoring of the oper-
ating environment and achieve a good energy-saving effect [12,13]. Zmf A. used theory,
programming calculation, and experimental research to study the variable speed scheme of
the pump and found a variable frequency method that could improve the system efficiency
and power-saving rate [14]. Dmitriev, A. designed an algorithm to maintain pressure
value and optimize efficiency for the process of frequency conversion speed regulation [15].
Cimorelli, L. et al. successfully reduced energy consumption loss and operating cost by
using variable speed drive technology [16]. In the research of cavitation, Li Lin-min. et al.
used a very large eddy simulation approach to investigate the conditions from inception
to sheet/cloud cavitation regimes for the flow field and the dynamic characteristics of
transient cavitating flow [17–19]. Zhong, L. proposed a brand-new cavitation coefficient
determination method by combining a camera and vibration sensor [20]. Xin, L. et al. used
the FBM model to predict the cavitation performance of the axial-flow pump and pointed
out that the prediction accuracy would be higher in the case of small flow [21,22]. Through
the frequency conversion speed system, Peng, W. designed a method to judge through the
VVVF system whether cavitation occurs in axial-flow pumps based on the head deviation
converted from the actual head and similar theory [23]. However, there are few studies on
the cavitation phenomenon in VVVF, which has certain blindness.
In this paper, numerical simulation and experimental analysis were used as the meth-
ods, three-dimensional turbulence numerical simulation was used as the primary research
method, and CFX was used as a computing platform. Then, an axial-flow pump was be
dealt with VVVF and the influence of cavitation on pump performance during VVVF was
analyzed. Finally, the accuracy of the numerical simulation was verified by experimen-
tal analysis.
2. Pump Model, Griding and Boundary Conditions

2.1. Computational Model
In this study, the axial-flow pump of an agricultural irrigation pump station was taken
as the prototype pump with a specific speed of 735. An impeller model pump with a
diameter of 200 mm was obtained using the similarity theory conversion as the research
object. The main model structure is shown in Figure 1. The main flow components included
a front water inlet pipe, impeller, guide vane, guide vane support plate, elbow, and outlet
pipe. Table 1 lists the basic design parameters.
Table 1. Main geometric parameters of the model pump.
Main Parameters Value

Flow (m3 /h) 365
Head (m) 3.02
Number of blades-Zi 3
Number of guide blades-Zs 7
Rated speed-n (r/min) 1450
Impeller inlet diameter-D0 (mm) 200
Impeller outlet diameter-D2 (mm) 250
Water 2022, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW 3 of 21
Water 2022, 14, 2757 3 of 19
Figure 1. Two-dimensional diagram of the axial-flow pump. 1. Pipe 2. Impeller 3. Guide vane 4.
Guide vane support plate.
Table 1. Main geometric parameters of the model pump.
Main Parameters Value
Flow (m3/h) 365
Head (m) 3.02

Figure 1. Two-dimensional diagram of the axial-flow pump. 1. Pipe 2. Impeller 3. Guide vane 4.
Impeller outlet diameter-D 2 (mm)
Figure 1. Two-dimensional diagram of the axial-flow pump. 1. 250
Pipe 2. Impeller 3. Guide vane 4.
Table The
1. Main
3Dgeometric
modelofofparameters
theaxial of
axialflowthe pump
flow model pump.
wascreated
createdby
bySolidWorks
SolidWorks2021.
2021.The
Themain
main
The 3D model the pump was
hydrauliccomponents,
hydraulic
Main Parameters components, such as the the impeller
impellerand
andguide
guidevane,
vane,are
Value areshown
shown inin
Figure
Figure2. In
2. the
In
process
the of model
process assembly,
of model thethe
assembly, gapgap
between
betweenthethe
impeller
impellerandand
the the
wallwall
andand
the the
axial gap
axial
Flow (m
gap3/h)
between thethe
between impeller and
impeller thethe
and guide
guideblade
bladewere strictly365
werestrictly controlled
controlled so the structure
so that the structure
conformedto
conformed tothe
theactual
actualsituation.
situation.
Head (m) 3.02

Figure 2. Three-dimensional structure diagram.
Impeller outlet diameter-D 2 (mm) 250
2.2.
2.2.Grid
GridSegmentation
Segmentation
SolidWorks
SolidWorks
The 3D model was
wasofused tocut
to
the axial cut outthe
out
flow the water
water
pump was body,
body, andand
created the the water
water bodybody
by SolidWorks 2021.model
model was
was main
The saved
saved according
according
hydraulic to the to
components,thesuch
type oftype asofthe
flow flow
parts; parts;
the
impeller theguide
mesh
and mesh
was wasdivided
then
vane, then divided pointwise.
pointwise.
are shown in FigureIn 2.
order In
to
In the
order
processto
improve improve
ofthe the
accuracy
model accuracy of
of numerical
assembly, numerical
the gap calculation calculation
between theand and the simulation
the simulation
impeller efficiency,
efficiency,
and the wall and thetheaxial the
impeller
gap
impeller the
between areaimpeller
had a mixed
and thegrid. The inlet,
guide blade outlet, and worm
were strictly shell adopt
controlled thethe
so that hexahedron
structure
structure mesh,
conformed which
to the actualhas good convergence. The number of grid nodes on each topology
situation.
line was adjusted, the whole computing domain mesh was made uniform, and the grid
was encrypted on the impeller region and interface. Figure 3 shows the position of the
impeller, guide vane, and support plate of the axial-flow pump and the grid division of the
water body.
To select the appropriate grid density, the grid should be tested for its independence.
Taking the head as a reference point, when the head curve tends to be stable, it shows that
the result converges. After analyzing a variety of grid quantities, a suitable scheme was
selected. The grid size of each section is shown in Table 2.
2.2. Grid Segmentation

SolidWorks was used to cut out the water body, and the water body model was saved
according to the type of flow parts; the mesh was then divided pointwise. In order to
improve the accuracy of numerical calculation and the simulation efficiency, the impeller
mesh, which has good convergence. The number of grid nodes on each topology line was
adjusted, the whole computing domain mesh was made uniform, and the grid was en-
crypted on the impeller region and interface. Figure 3 shows the position of the impeller,
guide vane, and support plate of the axial-flow pump and the grid division of the water
body.
Water 2022, 14, 2757 4 of 19
(a) Impeller (b) Guide vane (c) Support plate
Figure
Figure 3. 3. Grid
Grid of of main
main water
water body
body calculation
calculation domain.
domain.
Table 2. Local grid size.

To select the appropriate grid density, the grid should be tested for its independence.
Taking the head as a reference point, when the head curve tends to be stable, it shows that
Area Part Grid Form Number of Grid Number of Nodes
the result converges. After analyzing a variety of grid quantities, a suitable scheme was
Inlet Stationary domain
selected. The grid size ofStructured grid
each section 825,000
is shown in Table 2. 846,651
Impeller Rotating domain Structured grid 6,877,440 7,034,616
Guide vane Stationary domain Structured grid 1,355,585 1,415,904
Table 2. Local grid size.
Support plate Stationary domain Structured grid 179,520 190,400
AreaBend Stationary domain
Part Structured grid
Grid Form 370,064
Number of Grid 385,900
Number of Nodes
Outlet Stationary domain Structured grid 491,040 504,100
Inlet Stationary domain Structured grid 825,000 846,651
2.3. Numerical Methods
Impeller Rotating domain Structured grid 6,877,440 7,034,616
Based on the N–S equation and continuity equation, the flow characteristics of the
Guide vane shear
Stationary layer pumpStructured
domain are predictedgridby using an 1,355,585
SST k-omega model. This method not only
1,415,904
preserves the small-scale turbulence information near the wall but also accurately predicts
Support plate Stationary
thedomain Structuredinformation
large-scale turbulence grid in the179,520 190,400equation is
separation area. The control
as follows:
Bend Stationary domain Structured grid 370,064 385,900
 ∂(ρk) ∂(ρku ) h i
 ∂t + ∂x = ∂x i ∂ µt
µ + σ ∂x + Pk − β ρkω
∂k ∗
i j k3 j
h i
 ∂(ρω ) + ∂(ρωui ) = ∂ µ + σω3 ∂x + α3 ωk Pk − β 3 ρω 2 + 2(1 − F1 )ρ ωσ1ω2 ∂x
µt ∂ω ∂k ∂ω
∂t ∂x i ∂x j j ∂x j j
!
a1 k ∂ui ∂u j ∂ui 2 ∂uk ∂u
µt = ρ , P = µt + − 3µt k + ρk
max( a1 ω, SF2 ) k ∂x j ∂xi ∂x j 3 ∂xk ∂xk
Within the equation: β∗ ρkω is the dissipation term of the k equation; Pk is a turbulent
synthesis term produced by viscous forces; F1 and F2 are two mixed functions of SST
k-omega, and near the wall, F1 and F2 are 1. In the shear layer, F1 and F2 is 0.
Water 2022, 14, 2757 5 of 19
2.4. Frontier Conditions

In this paper, numerical simulation was performed using ANSYS CFX. Water was
chosen as a medium at 25 ◦ C, the K-3 model was used as a computational model, smooth
wall was used as a wall surface, the internal reference pressure was set to zero, the water
vapor phase in the fluid material was added, and the vaporization pressure was set to
3540 Pa. Inlet and outlet conditions were adjusted according to the actual situation of the
pump station. Convergence accuracy was set at 10−4 . The relevant parameters are shown
in Table 3.
Table 3. Preprocessing condition setting.
Name of Hydraulic Component Settings

Inlet Total pressure: 50 kPa
Inlet pipe Smooth wall surface
Rotation speed: 1450 r/min
Impeller
Frozen rotor model
Guide vane Smooth wall surface
Support plate Smooth wall surface
Bend Smooth wall surface
Outlet Outlet flow: 365 m3 /h
Time step length is the key parameter of unsteady numerical calculation. Too small of
a step length and too of a large step length will cost a great deal of computing resources.
The time step must satisfy the Coolang number criterion, and the sampling theorem must
be considered when monitoring the pressure pulse. This article set the time step length at
0.005 s.
2.5. Cavitation Model

In this paper, a Zwart cavitation model based on a simplified R-P equation was selected.
The R-P equation, which can describe the process of cavitation and bursting, is the basic
equation in cavitation dynamics. The equation assumes that there is no slip of relative
velocity and no change of heat between the vapor–liquid phases when the medium is
cavitated. The specific equations are:
2
d2 R B PB − P

3 dR B 4υl dR B 2S
RB + = − −
dt2 2 dt ρl R B dt ρl R B
R B ——Vacuum radius;
PB ——Vacuum surface pressure;
P——Infinity field pressure;
ρl ——Liquid density;
vl ——Motion viscosity of liquids;
S——Liquid surface tension factor.
In order to solve the problem numerically, the relationship between bubble radius and
media pressure can be deduced by ignoring the second order, viscous, and surface tension
terms in the equation: s
dR B 2 PB − P
=
dt 3 ρl
The change rate of the vacuole volume can be deduced by assuming that the vacuole
volume is the ideal spheroid and replacing the vacuole radius with the vacuole volume:
s
2 PB − P

dVB d 4
= πR3B = 4πR2B
dt dt 3 3 ρl
Water 2022, 14, 2757 6 of 19
Based on the above formula, the change rate of cavitation mass can be derived:
s
dm B dV 2 PB − P
= ρv B = 4πR2B ρv
dt dt 3 ρl
If the number of vacuoles per unit volume is NB , the cavitation volume fraction
formula is as follows:
4
αv = NB VB = πR3B NB
3
The transfer of mass between vapors and liquids during cavitation is controlled by the
transport equation of the vapour phase, which is as follows:
→

∂
(αv ρv ) + ∇• αv ρv Vv = Re − Rc
∂t
αv ——Vacuum volume fraction;

ρv ——Vacuum density;
→
Vv ——The speed of the bubble;
Re , Rc ——Sources of mass transfer during vacuole growth and collapse.
The Zwart cavitation model chosen in this paper is compatible with almost all turbu-
lence models. The four key parameters of the model are as follows: cavitation diameter,
core volume fraction of cavitation, and evaporation and condensation coefficient.
The formula for the evaporation term Re and condensation term Rc of this model is:
 h i 1
 R = F 3αnuc (1−αv )ρv 2 Pv − P 2 ( P ≤ P )


e vap RB 3 ρl v
h i 1
 Rc = Fcond 3αv ρv 2 P− Pv 2

( P ≥ Pv )

RB 3 ρ l
The empirical constant in the formula is as follows: evaporation factor Fvap = 50;
condensation factor Fcond = 0.01; vapour volume fraction αnuc = 5 × 10−4 ; vacuum radius
R B = 10−6 m.
2.6. VVVF Scheme

As, in the actual operation process and considering the safety condition, the pump
speed of a single frequency change should not exceed 10%, the growth rate is too large to
cause overload of the motor, friction loss, bearing loss, or packing loss; also, in the case
of deceleration, too little speed and a rapid decrease in mechanical efficiency can lead to
a decrease in pump efficiency, so that the average reduction in speed cannot exceed 30%.
However, in the process of frequency conversion, it is difficult to observe the characteristic
change of the pump. In order to highlight the comparison of pump performance under
different rotational speeds, the increase in rotational speed was set at more than 50% of the
rated speed, and the decrease in speed was set at half of the original rated speed.
This paper will use cel (CFX Expression Language) expression to simulate different
forms of frequency conversion methods. The selected three-speed change forms and the
corresponding acceleration scheme and deceleration scheme change forms are roughly the
same. The speed change curve with time is shown in Figure 4.
Scheme one is the uniformly accelerated change in which acceleration is constant; in
scheme two, the acceleration gradually increases, and the variation form is a quadratic curve
with the opening direction upward. The third scheme is the variable speed change with
decreasing acceleration, and the change form is also a quadratic curve with a downward
opening direction. To study the influence of different frequency conversion modes on
the flow field in the axial flow pump more accurately, after the completion of variable
frequency speed regulation, the system ran stably again at the final speed of 0.5 s until the
end of the numerical simulation after the completion of VVVF.
deceleration 1
different rotational speeds, the increase in rotational1400speed was set at more than 250% of
deceleration
deceleration 3
Rotate Speed N(r/min)

the rated speed, and the decrease in speed was set at1300
half of the original rated speed.
1200
This paper will use cel (CFX Expression Language)

1100
expression to simulate different
forms of frequency conversion methods. The selected
1000three-speed change forms and the
Water 2022, 14, 2757 7 of 19
corresponding acceleration scheme and deceleration900scheme change forms are roughly
the same. The speed change curve with time is shown800in Figure 4.
725
700
0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2 1.4 1.6

Time t/s
1500
deceleration 1
(a) acceleration scheme 1400 (b) deceleration scheme
deceleration 2
deceleration 3
Rotate Speed N(r/min)

1300
1200
Figure 4. Acceleration and deceleration scheme.
1100
Scheme one is the uniformly accelerated change1000

in which acceleration is constant; in
900
scheme two, the acceleration gradually increases, and the variation form is a quadratic
800
curve with the opening direction upward. The third 725
scheme is the variable speed change
700
with decreasing acceleration, and the change form is also a quadratic curve with a down-
0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2 1.4 1.6
ward opening direction. To study the influence of different frequency Time t/s
conversion modes
on the flow field in the axial flow pump more accurately, after the completion of variable
frequency(a) acceleration
speed scheme
regulation, the system ran stably again (b)atdeceleration
the final speed scheme
of 0.5 s until the
end of the numerical simulation after the completion
Figure 4. Acceleration and deceleration scheme. of VVVF.
Figure 4. Acceleration and deceleration scheme.
3. Experimental
3. Experimental ModelModel and
and Device
Device
Scheme
3.1. one isApparatus
Experiment the uniformly accelerated change in which acceleration is constant; in
3.1. Experiment Apparatus
scheme two, the acceleration gradually increases, and the variation form is a quadratic
The experiment
The experiment was completed
completed at at Nantong
Nantong University School School ofof Mechanical
MechanicalEngi-Engi-
curve with the opening wasdirection upward. The thirdUniversity
scheme is the variable speed change
neering.
neering. The pipe
The pipe diameter
diameter andof the
of the test bench was 150 mm, the inlet diameter of the pump
with decreasing acceleration, thetest benchform
change wasis150 mm,
also the inlet diameter
a quadratic curve with ofathe pump
down-
was 200
wasopening mm, and
200 mm,direction.the outlet
and the outlet diameter
diameter was 250
was 250 mm. mm. The test bench
The testfrequency was a closed
bench wasconversion circulation
a closed circulation
ward To study the influence of different modes
system which
which was mainly
mainly composed
composed of of aa driving
driving power
power device,
device, model
model pump,
pump, pipeline
pipeline
onsystem
the flow field was
in the axial flow pump more accurately, after the completion of variable
pressurization
pressurization system, circline,
system, circline, and pipeline
and pipeline flow
flow control
control system.
system. The schematics
The schematics and
andthe
pic-
frequency speed regulation, the system ran stably again at the final speed of 0.5 s until
pictures
tures of
of the the actual product
actual product are
are aftershown
shown in Figure 5.
end of the numerical simulation theincompletion
Figure 5. of VVVF.
3. Experimental Model and Device

3.1. Experiment Apparatus
The experiment was completed at Nantong University School of Mechanical Engi-
neering. The pipe diameter of the test bench was 150 mm, the inlet diameter of the pump
was 200 mm, and the outlet diameter was 250 mm. The test bench was a closed circulation
system which was mainly composed of a driving power device, model pump, pipeline
pressurization system, circline, and pipeline flow control system. The schematics and pic-
tures of the actual product are shown in Figure 5.
(a) (b)
Figure 5. Model pump experiment bench. (a) Schematic diagram of experiment bench. 1. Frequency
conversion motor; 2. torque measuring instrument; 3. axial flow pump test section; 4. inlet pressure
measuring section; 5. telescopic rubber hose; 6. watergate valves; 7. water tank; 8. vacuum pump;
9. electromagnetic flowmeter; 10. outlet pressure measuring section. (b) Picture of real products.
In this experiment, a 15 kW ABB three-phase asynchronous variable frequency motor

was used. The relevant parameters were a synchronous rated speed of 1460 r/min and a fre-
quency conversion range of 5–100 Hz. The inverter was used to control the motor operation,
(a)and the frequency conversion mode of the inverter was realized
(b) by computer programming.
The pump body section was made of transparent plexiglass shell, the impeller and
guide vane parts were made of stainless steel and coated with a smooth black metal surface.
Figure 6 shows the actual product. The basic parameters of the test pump were consistent
with the previous model pump used for numerical simulation. From left to right in the
figure are the support plate, guide vane, and impeller. The outer layer of the shell was
transparent plexiglass, which made it easy to observe the formation and disappearance of
cavitation in the flow field.
The pump body section was made of transparent plexiglass shell, the impeller and
guide vane parts were made of stainless steel and coated with a smooth black metal sur-
face. Figure 6 shows the actual product. The basic parameters of the test pump were con-
sistent with the previous model pump used for numerical simulation. From left to right
Water 2022, 14, 2757 in the Figure are the support plate, guide vane, and impeller. The outer layer of the shell
8 of 19
was transparent plexiglass, which made it easy to observe the formation and disappear-
ance of cavitation in the flow field.
Figure6.6.Impeller
Figure Impeller and
and guide
guide vane.
vane.
3.2. Experiment Method

3.2. Experiment Method
In order to verify the accuracy of the numerical simulation under VVVF, the cavitation
In order to verify the accuracy of the numerical simulation under VVVF, the cavita-
visualization experiment was carried out on the axial flow pump. High speed cameras were
tion visualization experiment was carried out on the axial flow pump. High speed cam-
used
eras to capture
were used to thecapture
evolution of cavitation
the evolution in the process
of cavitation in theof speedof
process increase and compare
speed increase and
the images of key time points with the numerical simulation
compare the images of key time points with the numerical simulation results. Afterwards, results. Afterwards, the
performance of the pump could be
the performance of the pump could be analyzed. analyzed.
Due to the short time of VVVF and the limitations of the monitoring equipment,
Due atosignificant
there was the short time delayof VVVF and the limitations
in monitoring the transientof the
head,monitoring equipment,
and the real-time thereof
change
wastransient
the a significant
headdelay
couldinnot monitoring the transient
be accurately head,Therefore,
recognized. and the real-time change
this paper’s of the
cavitation
transient head
visualization testcould
will not
use be accuratelyvisualization
a cavitation recognized. Therefore,
experimentthis paper’s cavitation
to explore the influence vis-of
ualization test will use a cavitation visualization experiment to
cavitation performance on the impeller area of the axial-flow pump in the process of VVVF.explore the influence of
Incavitation performance
view of safety concerns, on this
the impeller
experiment areaexplored
of the axial-flow pumpdevelopment
the cavitation in the process of of
the
VVVF. In
impeller view
area of safety
under concerns,
a 1300–1600 this experiment
r/min explored
speed regulation the cavitation
interval, 1.0 Qopt development
corresponding
of the
flow impeller
rate, and 50areakPaunder a 1300–1600
inlet pressure. r/min speed
As shown regulation
in Figure interval,was
7, the camera 1.0 positioned
Qopt corre-in
sponding
front of theflow rate, and
test pump and50captured
kPa inletan pressure.
image everyAs shown
1 ms. inThe Figure
pump7,pressure
the camerawaswas po-
reduced
tositioned
50 kPa in front the
before of the test
start ofpump and captured
the experiment, andanthe
image every 1converter
frequency ms. The pump pressure
accelerator was
was
set upreduced
before each to 50group
kPa before the start ofThe
of experiments. thetotal
experiment,
accelerationand time
the frequency
was set toconverter
1 s. At the
acceleratorofwas
beginning theset upthe
test, before
cameraeachwasgroup of experiments.
turned on and theThe total
speed acceleration
control of the time was
test pump
set to 1 s. At the beginning of the test, the camera was turned
was carried out through the inverter to record the cavitation. After one measurement
Water 2022, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW on and the speed control of
10 was
of 21
the test pump was carried out through the inverter to record
completed, the inverter was reset for cavitation determination in the second frequency the cavitation. After one
measurement
conversion mode,wasandcompleted,
so on. the inverter was reset for cavitation determination in the
second frequency conversion mode, and so on.
Figure7.7.Cavitation
Figure Cavitationvisualization
visualizationexperiment.
experiment.
4.4.Result
Resultand
andDiscussion
Discussion
4.1.
4.1. Production ofCavitation
Production of CavitationininAxial
AxialFlow
FlowPump
Pump
When
Whenthetheaxial
axialflow
flowpump
pumpwaswasrunning
runningnormally,
normally,thetheflow
flowvelocity
velocityon
onthe
theback
backofof
the
the blade was higher and cavitation was most likely to occur. When the blade rotatedtoto
blade was higher and cavitation was most likely to occur. When the blade rotated
the
theleft,
left,cavitation
cavitationmainly
mainlyoccurred
occurredatatthe
theinlet
inletand
andoutlet
outletlow
lowpressure
pressureareas
areason
onthe
theback
back
ofofthe
the blade. In addition, when the axial flow pump was running at a high flow rate,the
blade. In addition, when the axial flow pump was running at a high flow rate, the
relative velocity at the inlet of the blade shifted outward, the inlet of the blade backflowed,
and the low pressure cavitated. Under the condition of low velocity, the relative velocity
of the leaf shifted in the opposite direction, and vortex backflow was generated in the back
of the blade, which further exacerbated cavitation in the low-pressure area of the blade.
In the process of speed regulation, especially acceleration regulation, the inlet pressure
Water 2022, 14, 2757 9 of 19
relative velocity at the inlet of the blade shifted outward, the inlet of the blade backflowed,
and the low pressure cavitated. Under the condition of low velocity, the relative velocity of
the leaf shifted in the opposite direction, and vortex backflow was generated in the back of
the blade, which further exacerbated cavitation in the low-pressure area of the blade. In
the process of speed regulation, especially acceleration regulation, the inlet pressure under
the design conditions could not meet that of normal operation at high speed, the impeller
speed was too high, so the suction surface pressure of the pump was further reduced, and
the cavitation problem was more serious. In addition, the inlet condition of the pump was
one of the important factors affecting cavitation of the pump. A bad water intake pipe
produced vortex flow, increasing pump vibration.
4.2. The Evolution of Cavitation in the Process of VVVF

The axial-flow pump blade backside cavitation phenomenon is serious. This paper
mainly analyzes the backside cavitation of the blade under different acceleration schemes.
Figure 8 shows the distribution of the back blade surface cavitation volume fraction at
different times. The rotation direction of the blade is counterclockwise.
It can be seen from the diagram that cavitation first occurs at the edge of the wheel at
the inlet of the back of the blade and gradually extends to the root and outlet edge of the
impeller as the speed of the impeller increases.
Under conditions of uniform acceleration, the cavitation extends more evenly until
the blade surface appears completely cavitated after 0.5 s. Under variable acceleration
with increasing acceleration, the time required for complete cavitation is the longest,
and complete cavitation appears after 0.7 s. Under variable acceleration with decreasing
acceleration, the cavitation extends rapidly, and the blade surface has been completely
cavitation at about 0.2 s.
The simulation results show that the impeller rotation speed has a great influence on
cavitation when the total inlet pressure is constant. Excessive initial acceleration will lead
to a rapid deepening of cavitation.
According to the cloud diagram, cavitation mainly occurred at the tip of the blade.
Then, under acceleration scheme 3, the cavitation volume distribution diagram with an
inlet pressure of 50 kPa and blade height of 0.99 was mapped. Five time points from the
whole speed change process were chosen for comparative analysis. As shown in Figure 9,
there was a serious cavitation on the back surface of the blade, which gradually extended
to the outlet as the rotational speed increased. When the acceleration would be completed
at about 0.9 s, the cavitation at the outlet position of the blade was serious. In addition,
the cavitation vortexes caused by the leakage of the impeller top also exist in the impeller
passage. As the rotation speed increased, the cavitation vortex cluster grew larger and
larger, eventually covering the entire back of the blade. The cavitation vortex cluster was
roughly triangular in shape because of the uneven velocity of the tail of the blade.
The cel expression was edited for real-time monitoring of impeller cavitation volume
fraction. As is shown in Figure 10, the horizontal axis represents the change in speed, the
vertical axis represents the average cavitation volume of the impeller area, and the negative
sign represents deceleration. Under the acceleration scheme, the cavitation volume fraction
increased slowly before 1600 r/min. After 1600 r/min, the cavitation volume fraction rose
in a straight line. At this time, most of the back of the impeller reached the cavitation critical
state of the pump. Then, the cavitation volume fraction flattened after 1900 r/min.
Water 2022, 14, 2757 10 of 19
0.1 s 0.2 s 0.3 s
0.5 s 0.7 s 0.9 s
(a) uniform acceleration
0.1 s 0.2 s 0.3 s
0.5 s 0.7 s 0.9 s
(b) acceleration increases
Figure 8. Cont.
Water 2022, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW 0.1 s 0.2 s 0.3 s 12 of 21
Water 2022, 14, 2757 11 of 19
0.5 s 0.7 s 0.9 s
(c) acceleration decreases

0.1 s 0.2 s 0.3 s
Figure 8. Cloud diagram of cavitation volume fraction on the back of the blade.
Then, under acceleration Scheme 3, the cavitation volume distribution diagram with an
at about 0.9 0.5s,s the cavitation at the outlet 0.7 s
position of the blade was serious. 0.9 sIn addition,
passage. As the rotation (c) acceleration decreasesthe cavitation vortex cluster grew larger and
speed increased,
Cloud
Clouddiagram of
ofcavitation
Figure
Figure8.8.
roughly triangular diagram
in shape becausevolume
cavitation volume fraction
fractionon
of the uneven onthe
theback
velocity ofof
back ofthe
thetheblade.
blade.
tail of the blade.
Then, under acceleration Scheme 3, the cavitation volume distribution diagram with an
at about 0.9 s, the cavitation at the outlet position of the blade was serious. In addition,
passage. As the rotation speed increased, the cavitation vortex cluster grew larger and
roughly triangular in shape because of the uneven velocity of the tail of the blade.
0.1 s 0.3 s 0.5 s 0.7 s 0.9 s
Figure 9. Expansion of cavitation cloud diagram on the blade surface.
4.3. Influence of Cavitation on Pressure Distribution

The appearance of cavitation affected the pressure change of the pump. To better
explore the cavitation pressure distribution of each component, monitoring points were set
inside flow components. For the impeller and the guide vane, four monitoring points were
arranged from the edge of the inlet to the outlet, respectively. The flow of the support plate
and bend was relatively stable, and the pressure distribution was relatively uniform, so
only one monitoring point needed to be set there. The layout of the monitoring points is
shown in Figure 11.
0.1 s 0.3 s 0.5 s 0.7 s 0.9 s
fraction. As is shown in Figure 10, the horizontal axis represents the change in speed, the
vertical axis represents the average cavitation volume of the impeller area, and the nega-
tive sign represents deceleration. Under the acceleration scheme, the cavitation volume
fraction increased slowly before 1600 r/min. After 1600 r/min, the cavitation volume frac-
tion rose in a straight line. At this time, most of the back of the impeller reached the cavi-
Water 2022, 14, 2757 tation critical state of the pump. Then, the cavitation volume fraction flattened after 12 of 19
1900
r/min.
(a) acceleration (b) deceleration
Figure 10. The average cavitation volume fraction in the impeller region.

The appearance of cavitation affected the pressure change of the pump. To bette
explore the cavitation pressure distribution of each component, monitoring points were
set inside flow components. For the impeller and the guide vane, four monitoring point
were arranged from the edge of the inlet to the outlet, respectively. The flow of the suppor
plate and bend was relatively stable, and
(a) acceleration (b)the pressure distribution was relatively uniform
deceleration
so only one monitoring point needed to be set there. The layout of the monitoring points
Figure10.
Figure isThe
10.The shown
averageincavitation
average Figure 11.
cavitation volumefraction
volume fractionininthe
theimpeller
impellerregion.
region.

The appearance of cavitation affected the pressure change of the pump. To better
explore the cavitation pressure distribution of each component, monitoring points were
set inside flow components. For the impeller and the guide vane, four monitoring points
were arranged from the edge of the inlet to the outlet, respectively. The flow of the support
plate and bend was relatively stable, and the pressure distribution was relatively uniform,
so only one monitoring point needed to be set there. The layout of the monitoring points
is shown in Figure 11.
(a) impeller (b) guide vane
(a) impeller (b) guide vane
(c) support plate (d) bend
Figure 11.Layout
Figure11. Layoutof
ofmonitoring
monitoringpoints.
points.
The total pressure was kept at 50 kPa and then the pressure distribution of different
The total pressure was kept at 50 kPa and then the pressure distribution of different
flow components was monitored at different rotational speeds. The results are shown in
flow components was monitored at different rotational speeds. The results are shown in
Figures 12–15. The pressure distribution in the impeller area was complex, and the pressure
Figures 12–15. The pressure distribution in the impeller area was complex, and the pres-
fluctuation was obvious. The overall trend of change decreased over time, contrary to the
sure fluctuation was obvious. The overall trend of change decreased over time, contrary
absence of cavitation. This indicates that cavitation fundamentally changed the pump’s
to the absence of cavitation. This indicates that cavitation fundamentally changed the
original performance. Maximum pressure fluctuation occurred in the middle of the impeller.
pump’s original performance. Maximum pressure fluctuation occurred in the middle of
The maximum value was higher than that of other monitoring points under the same
the impeller. The maximum value was higher than that of other monitoring points under
scheme, and the minimum was even close to 0 Pa, which was lower than the critical
the same scheme, and the minimum was even close to 0 Pa, which was lower than the
vaporization pressure for the cavitation phenomenon in the pump at that time. In addition,
critical vaporization pressure for the cavitation phenomenon in the pump at that time. In
when observing the inlet and outlet monitoring points 1 and 4 in the impeller area, the
addition,changes
pressure when observing
were also the inlet
quite and outlet
dramatic, monitoring
especially points
at point 1—its1 pressure
and 4 in values
the impeller
were
area, the pressure changes were also quite dramatic, especially at point 1—its pressure
values were basically between 4.0 × 104 Pa and 8.0 × 104 Pa, in which the fluctuation degree
is close to the monitoring point in the middle. This phenomenon showed that cavitation
affects the inlet and outlet water conditions, and that strong pressure fluctuation can eas-
ily lead to the vibration of the whole impeller area, which will greatly reduce the pump
Water 2022, 14, 2757 13 of 19
basically between 4.0 × 104 Pa and 8.0 × 104 Pa, in which the fluctuation degree is close
to the monitoring point in the middle. This phenomenon showed that cavitation affects
the inlet and outlet water conditions, and that strong pressure fluctuation can easily lead
Water 2022, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW to the vibration of the whole impeller area, which will greatly reduce the pump 15 ofservice
21
life. Compared with the other three acceleration schemes, under the uniform acceleration
scheme with constant acceleration, the cavitation degree in the pump deepened after 0.5 s,
the maximum pressure inside impeller was near 105 Pa, and the pressure change degree
acceleration
intensifiedincreased
and began andtothe velocity
drop. Under increased. Under the
the acceleration variable
scheme velocity
with scheme
increasing with
acceleration,
acceleration
decreasing increased
acceleration, and the velocity
the initial increased.
acceleration Under the variable velocity scheme with
the pump was completely cavitated and thevalue was change
pressure larger, and the increased
degree velocity variation
by 0.7 s due
decreasing acceleration, the initialfluctuation
acceleration value wasHowever,
larger, and the velocity variation
was more
to obvious,
the increase sovelocity,
of the pressure
and the pump pressure was larger.
fluctuated when
between theand
0 Pa 8.0 × 104 Pa.
acceleration
was more
gradually obvious, so the pressure fluctuation was larger. However, when the acceleration
Under returned to zero,scheme
the acceleration the velocity variation was
with decreasing no longerthe
acceleration, obvious.
pressureThehadpressure in
a downward
gradually
the pump returned
was almost toconstant
zero, theunder
velocitythe variation
influence was no longer
of velocity, and obvious.
the The pressure
pressure distribu- in
trend after 0.2 s, and the velocity changed slowly after 0.8 s. The interference of the flow
the pump
tionfield
was was was
almost almost
cyclical.
small, constant
the pump under
Thispressure
phenomenon the influence
shows that
was basically of velocity, and
below 6.0 ×
acceleration
stable the
has 4pressure
10anPa,obvious distribu-
and theinflu-
pressure
tion was
encevalue almost
tended
on the cyclical.
to be stable.
cavitation This phenomenon
This situation
of stationary shows that acceleration has an obvious
parts. indicates that cavitation does not affect the pressure influ-
ence on the cavitation
distribution under VVVF. of stationary parts.
1.0x105 1 2
1.0x105 1 2 Increasing acceleration
Uniform acceleration 3 1 4 2 1.0x105 3 1 4 2
1.0x10 5 Increasing acceleration
Uniform acceleration 3 4 3 4
8.0x104
8.0x104
8.0x104
8.0x104
Pressure/(Pa)
Pressure/(Pa)
6.0x104
Pressure/(Pa)
6.0x104
Pressure/(Pa)
6.0x104
6.0x104
4 4.0x104
4.0x10
4.0x104
4.0x104
2.0x10 4 2.0x104
2.0x104 2.0x104
0.0 0.0
0.0 0.0
0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0
0.2 0.4 T/s 0.6 0.8 1.0 0.2 0.4 T/s0.6 0.8 1.0
T/s T/s
1.0x105 1 2
1.0x105 Decreasing acceleration 3 1 4 2
Decreasing acceleration 3 4
8.0x104
8.0x104
Pressure/(Pa)
6.0x104
Pressure/(Pa)
6.0x104
4.0x104
4.0x104
2.0x104
2.0x104
0.0
0.0
0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0
0.2 0.4 T/s0.6 0.8 1.0
T/s
Figure 12. Cavitation

Figure pressure
12. Cavitation distribution
pressure at impeller
distribution area.area.
at impeller
Figure 12. Cavitation pressure distribution at impeller area.
9x104 8x104 Increasing acceleration 5

Uniform acceleration 5
9x104
8 5 8x104 Increasing acceleration 8 5
8x104
Uniform acceleration 7x104 8
8x104 8
7x104 7x104
6x104
Pressure/(Pa)
Pressure/(Pa)
7x104
6x104 6x104
Pressure/(Pa)
Pressure/(Pa)
6x104 5x104
5x104
5x104
5x104 4x104
4x104
4x104
4x104
3x104 3x104
3x104 3x104
2x104 2x104
2x104 2x104
1x104
1x104
1x104
0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1x104
0.2 0.4 T/s0.6 0.8 1.0
0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0
T/s 0.2 0.4 T/s0.6 0.8 1.0
T/s
Figure 13. Cont.
Water
Water 2022,
2022, 14, x14,
FORx FOR PEER
PEER REVIEW
REVIEW 16 21
16 of of 21
Water 2022, 14, 2757 14 of 19
Decreasing acceleration 5
8x104 Decreasing acceleration
Decreasing acceleration 5
8x104 8x104 85
8 8
7x104
7x104 7x104
6x104
Pressure/(Pa)
6x104 6x104
Pressure/(Pa)
Pressure/(Pa)
5x104
5x104 5x104
4x104
4x104 4x104
3x104
3x104 3x104
2x104
2x104 2x104
1x104
1x104 1x104
0
0 00.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0
0.2 0.2 0.4 0.4 0.6 0.6 0.8 0.8 1.0 1.0
T/s T/s
T/s
Figure 13. Cavitation pressure distribution at guide

guide vane.
Figure
Figure
13. 13.
Cavitation pressure
pressure
Cavitation distribution
distribution
pressure at
at guide
distribution vane.
vane.
at guide vane.
Figure
Figure 14. Cavitation pressure distribution at
at the support plate.
Figure 14. 14.
Figure Cavitation
14. Cavitation
pressure
pressure
pressure
distribution
distribution at the
distribution
the support
support
at the
plate.
plate.
support plate.
Figure 15. Cont.

Water 2022, 14, 2757 15 of 19

Figure 15. Cavitation pressure
pressure distribution
distribution at
at the
the bend.
bend.
Observing
In conclusion, the monitoring
cavitation will point in the
affect theinlet and outlet
operating of the guide
environment of thevane,
pump,the the
pressure
pres-
fluctuation of the inlet position of the guide vane was obviously larger than that of the outlet
sure fluctuation is large, and the variation is messy. The operating performance of the
position, which indicates that the cavitation had a direct influence on the inlet position of
pump changes significantly with the generation and development of cavitation. As cavi-
the guide vane; however, the pressure variation at the outlet position of the guide vane was
tation intensifies, the pressure drops sharply. Therefore, from the point of view of pres-
consistent with that of the support plate and the bending pipe, which indicates that the
sure distribution, cavitation greatly affects the pump’s efficient operation, especially
cavitation had less effect on the flow path behind the guide vane.
in the acceleration process, and cavitation development is extremely fast. If there is no
We then compared the acceleration schemes according to the pressure distribution of
effective means of control, VVVF will produce a counterproductive effect.
the stationary parts. Under the uniform acceleration scheme with constant acceleration,
the pressure fluctuation was not too great as a whole due to the velocity variation being
4.4. Experiment Results
more uniform, and the pressure began to decrease gradually after 0.5 s. Under the variable
The frequency
acceleration schemeconversion
with increasing scheme mentioned the
acceleration, above was used
pressure to obtain
decreased the pictures
rapidly as the
of the cavitation
acceleration of theand
increased axialthe flow pumpincreased.
velocity at speeds Under of 1450–1600 r/min.velocity
the variable Six timescheme
points werewith
then selected
decreasing for comparison.
acceleration, the initialAs shown in Figures
acceleration value 16–18, at rated
was larger, andspeed, the blade
the velocity rota-
variation
tion more
was speedobvious,
was stable, so thestreamline
pressure distribution
fluctuation was waslarger.
even, and cavitation
However, whenwas the not obvious.
acceleration
Compared to the results of numerical simulation of the
gradually returned to zero, the velocity variation was no longer obvious. The pressure frequency conversion speed reg-
in
ulation, only a few cavitation particles appeared in the pump
the pump was almost constant under the influence of velocity, and the pressure distribution at the beginning of the ac-
celeration,
was almost mainly
cyclical.atThisthe phenomenon
tip position atshowsthe back thatofacceleration
the blade, and has the interval influence
an obvious from gener- on
ation
the to collapse
cavitation was very short,
of stationary parts.with strong transient characteristics. With the increase of
velocity, the blade cavitation
In conclusion, cavitationgroup expanded
will affect to the exit environment
the operating gradually, forming of theapump,
linear cav-the
itation group.
pressure Whenisthe
fluctuation rotational
large, and the speed increased
variation is messy.further,
Thethe linear cavitation
operating performance groupof
gradually developed a gap between blades and blocked
the pump changes significantly with the generation and development of cavitation. As part of the impeller flow passage.
The cavitation
cavitation group moved
intensifies, the pressure with the flow
drops to the guide
sharply. vane,from
Therefore, forming slight of
the point cavitation,
view of
which then
pressure covered the
distribution, whole impeller
cavitation flow channel
greatly affects the pump’s uponefficient
hitting operation,
the guide vane. This
especially
in the acceleration
conclusion process,
is consistent withand the cavitation
evolution of development
cavitation inisnumerical
extremelysimulations.
fast. If thereAtisthis no
effective
time, themeans
pump of control,
body began VVVF will produce
to visibly vibrate, aaccompanied
counterproductive by the effect.
distinct sound of cav-
itation rupture. This phenomenon indicates that the cavitation in the pump at this time
4.4.
hadExperiment Results and the pump performance began to decline. In the later stage of
been very serious,
The frequency
acceleration, conversion
a relatively stablescheme mentioned
triangular cavitation abovegroupwaswasusedformed
to obtain on the
the pictures
blade suc- of
the
tioncavitation
surface. At ofthis
the time,
axial flow pump
the head at speeds
value began of to 1450–1600 r/min. Six
decline, indicating thattime
the points
influence wereof
then selected
cavitation had forexceeded
comparison. As shown in influence
the performance Figures 16–18, broughtat rated speed, thethe
by increasing blade rotation
speed.
speed was stable, streamline distribution was even, and cavitation was not obvious. Com-
paredCompared
to the results with of the cavitation
numerical evolution
simulation process
of the at different
frequency conversion rotational
speedspeeds,
regulation, the
cavitation
only a few development
cavitation particles speed appeared
under uniform in theacceleration
pump at thescheme beginning 1 is ofthethe
most balanced,
acceleration,
and a stable
mainly at thetriangular
tip position cavitation cluster
at the back of formed
the blade, in theandlatter stage of from
the interval acceleration.
generation Accel-
to
eration scheme 2 has the slowest cavitation development speed—the
collapse was very short, with strong transient characteristics. With the increase of velocity, cavitation is formed
later,
the and the
blade overall group
cavitation flow inexpanded
the pumpto is the
more stable
exit than other
gradually, schemes.
forming Under
a linear acceler-
cavitation
ated scheme
group. When3, the the cavitation
rotational massincreased
speed developsfurther,
the fastest, and itcavitation
the linear takes a very groupshort time to
gradually
spread to the
developed a gap whole
between flowblades
channel andfrom
blocked the part
beginning of cavitation.
of the impeller After 150
flow passage. The times of
cavita-
slow-down
tion group moved processing,
with the it was
flowfound
to thethat
guide byvane,
the time the impeller
forming was rotated
slight cavitation, which about
then5
times, the
covered theimpeller flow channel
whole impeller was already
flow channel filled with
upon hitting a large
the guide vane.number of cavitation
This conclusion is
Water 2022, 14, 2757 groups, and the entire circulation pipeline also experienced slight vibration. This 16 result
of 19
groups, and not
shows that the only
entirethe
circulation
change inpipeline alsoalso
speed but experienced
the change slight vibration. This
in acceleration has result
a huge
shows that
effect on thenot only the change
development in speed Steady
of cavitation. but alsoacceleration
the changecan in acceleration
promote thehas a huge
smooth de-
effect on the development of cavitation. Steady acceleration can promote the smooth de-
velopmentwith
consistent of pump cavitation. High-efficiency
the evolution variable speed schemes cantime,
promote high-
velopment of pump cavitation.ofHigh-efficiency
cavitation in numerical
variable simulations.
speed schemes At can
thispromotethehigh-
pump
efficiency
body began change of
to visibly pump speed,
vibrate, but under
accompanied the
by the influence of
distinctofsoundcavitation performance,
of cavitation rupture. it
efficiency change of pump speed, but under the influence cavitation performance, it
will have
Thishave a substantial
phenomenon influence
indicates thaton pump stability, which is consistent with the numerical
will a substantial influence onthe cavitation
pump stability,inwhich
the pump at this with
is consistent time the
hadnumerical
been very
simulation results. In practice, the pump should be kept running without cavitation as
simulation results. In practice, the pump should be kept running without cavitation as a
serious, and the pump performance began to decline. In the later stage of acceleration,
long as possible,
relatively especially cavitation
stable especially
triangular in the acceleration
group was process;
formed when
on thetheblade
the pump work surface and
long as possible, in the acceleration process; when pump suction surface.
work surface andAt
backtime,
this pressure
the gradient
head value arebegan
large,toslight cavitation
decline, can easily
indicating that lead
the to vibration
influence of of the whole
cavitation had
back pressure gradient are large, slight cavitation can easily lead to vibration of the whole
pump. Therefore,
exceeded sufficient inlet pressure
the performance should be applied before VVVF to avoid cavi-
pump. Therefore, sufficientinfluence brought
inlet pressure by increasing
should be appliedthe speed.
before VVVF to avoid cavi-
tation.
tation.
Figure16.
Figure 16.Acceleration scheme1.1.
Accelerationscheme
Figure 17. Acceleration

Figure17. Acceleration scheme
scheme 2.
Water 2022, 14, 2757 17 of 19
Figure 17. Acceleration scheme 2.

The cavitation
Compared withvisualization
the cavitationexperiment shows that
evolution process cavitation
at different occursspeeds,
rotational at the inlet po-
the cav-
sition of the leaf tip on the back of the blade and extends to the
itation development speed under uniform acceleration scheme 1 is the most balanced, and flow path between the
ablade
stableoutlet and the
triangular blade ascluster
cavitation the speed increases.
formed in the During the acceleration
latter stage of acceleration. period, a stable,
Acceleration
large triangular bubble is formed on the surface of the blade, and
scheme 2 has the slowest cavitation development speed—the cavitation is formed later, the pump unit vibrates
and
violently. During the acceleration process, the cavitation performance
the overall flow in the pump is more stable than other schemes. Under accelerated scheme of the test pump is
controlled by speed and acceleration. The cavitation degree of the test
3, the cavitation mass develops the fastest, and it takes a very short time to spread to the pump under uni-
form acceleration
whole flow channel increases
from the slowly with time,
beginning while theAfter
of cavitation. cavitation of the
150 times oftest pump under
slow-down pro-
constantitacceleration
cessing, was found that changes
by thedramatically. However,
time the impeller wasno matter
rotated which
about frequency
5 times, conver-
the impeller
sion method
flow channel is used,
was the cavitation
already filled withphenomenon
a large number willofoccur after the
cavitation acceleration,
groups, and the which
entire
will affect the performance of the pump. For a pump that needs frequency
circulation pipeline also experienced slight vibration. This result shows that not only the conversion for
a long time, the inlet pressure should be increased as much as possible
change in speed but also the change in acceleration has a huge effect on the development of to restrain cavita-
tion.
cavitation. Steady acceleration can promote the smooth development of pump cavitation.
High-efficiency variable speed schemes can promote high-efficiency change of pump speed,
5. Conclusions
but under the influence of cavitation performance, it will have a substantial influence on
pumpBasedstability,
on awhich
method is consistent
combining with the numerical
numerical simulation
simulations results. In practice,
and experiments, this paperthe
pump should be kept running without cavitation as long as possible,
studied the evolution of the cavitation of an axial-flow pump and the influence of cavita- especially in the
acceleration
tion on pressureprocess;
under when
VVVF, the and
pump workdrew
finally surface
the and back pressure
following conclusions:gradient are large,
slight cavitation can easily lead to vibration of the whole pump. Therefore, sufficient inlet
pressure should be applied before VVVF to avoid cavitation.
The cavitation visualization experiment shows that cavitation occurs at the inlet
position of the leaf tip on the back of the blade and extends to the flow path between
the blade outlet and the blade as the speed increases. During the acceleration period,
a stable, large triangular bubble is formed on the surface of the blade, and the pump
unit vibrates violently. During the acceleration process, the cavitation performance of
the test pump is controlled by speed and acceleration. The cavitation degree of the test
pump under uniform acceleration increases slowly with time, while the cavitation of the
test pump under constant acceleration changes dramatically. However, no matter which
frequency conversion method is used, the cavitation phenomenon will occur after the
acceleration, which will affect the performance of the pump. For a pump that needs
frequency conversion for a long time, the inlet pressure should be increased as much as
possible to restrain cavitation.
Water 2022, 14, 2757 18 of 19
5. Conclusions
Based on a method combining numerical simulations and experiments, this paper
studied the evolution of the cavitation of an axial-flow pump and the influence of cavitation
on pressure under VVVF, and finally drew the following conclusions:
(1) The main area of cavitation is in the impeller region. The impeller rotation speed has
a significant effect on cavitation. Excessive rotation speed will make cavitation extend
rapidly. Under the frequency conversion scheme with reduced acceleration, it takes
only 0.2 s for the impeller surface to completely cavitate.
(2) The growth rate of cavitation mainly depends upon the stability of velocity. In the
case of constant acceleration, the growth rate of cavitation is the slowest. However, in
the two-variable acceleration schemes, the growth rate of cavitation accelerates, and
the change trend is the same.
(3) The pressure distribution in the pump will be seriously affected by cavitation. All
three acceleration schemes generate large pressure fluctuation. Under the uniform
acceleration scheme with constant acceleration, the fluctuation range of the pressure
is more balanced, and the pressure drop is slow. Under the acceleration scheme
with increasing acceleration, the pressure fluctuation amplitude increases, and the
pressure decline velocity accelerates. Under the acceleration scheme with decreasing
acceleration, the pressure in the early stage shows a downward trend with violent
fluctuations and gradually tends to be flat in the later stage.
(4) Compared with the three VVVF schemes, the variable acceleration scheme with
decreasing acceleration should be avoided as far as possible in order to reduce the
influence of cavitation.
Author Contributions: Conceptualization, W.S.; formal analysis, C.C.; writing—original draft, J.Y.;
writing—review & editing, L.T. and E.M.F. All authors have read and agreed to the published version
of the manuscript.
Funding: This work was supported by National Key R and D plan (Grant No. 2019YFB2005300), the
National High-tech Ship Research Project (Grant No. MC-202031-Z07), the General Project of the
National Natural Science Foundation of China (Grant No. 51979138), the National Natural Science
Foundation of China (Grant No. 52109106) and the China Postdoctoral Science Foundation (Grant
No. 273746).
Institutional Review Board Statement: Not applicable.
Informed Consent Statement: Not applicable.
Data Availability Statement: The study did not report any data.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.
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School of Mechanical Engineering, Nantong University, Nantong 226019, China

Publisher’s Note: MDPI stays neutral 1. Introduction

Water 2022, 14, 2757. https://doi.org/10.3390/w14172757 https://www.mdpi.com/journal/water

2. Pump Model, Griding and Boundary Conditions

Table 1. Main geometric parameters of the model pump.

Main Parameters Value

Table 1. Main geometric parameters of the model pump.

Main Parameters Value

Flow (m3/h) 365

Head (m) 3.02

Number of guide blades-Zs 7

Rated speed-n (r/min) 1450

Impeller inlet diameter-D0 (mm) 200

Number of guide blades-Zs 7

Rated speed-n (r/min) 1450

Impeller inlet diameter-D0 (mm) 200

2.2. Grid Segmentation

(a) Impeller (b) Guide vane (c) Support plate

Table 2. Local grid size.

2.4. Frontier Conditions

Table 3. Preprocessing condition setting.

Name of Hydraulic Component Settings

2.5. Cavitation Model

αv ——Vacuum volume fraction;

2.6. VVVF Scheme

Rotate Speed N(r/min)

This paper will use cel (CFX Expression Language)

0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2 1.4 1.6

Rotate Speed N(r/min)

Scheme one is the uniformly accelerated change1000

3. Experimental Model and Device

In this experiment, a 15 kW ABB three-phase asynchronous variable frequency motor

3.2. Experiment Method

4.2. The Evolution of Cavitation in the Process of VVVF

0.1 s 0.2 s 0.3 s

0.5 s 0.7 s 0.9 s

(a) uniform acceleration

0.1 s 0.2 s 0.3 s

0.5 s 0.7 s 0.9 s

(b) acceleration increases

0.5 s 0.7 s 0.9 s

(c) acceleration decreases

0.1 s 0.3 s 0.5 s 0.7 s 0.9 s

Figure 9. Expansion of cavitation cloud diagram on the blade surface.

4.3. Influence of Cavitation on Pressure Distribution

(a) acceleration (b) deceleration

4.3. Influence of Cavitation on Pressure Distribution

4.3. Influence of Cavitation on Pressure Distribution

(a) impeller (b) guide vane

(a) impeller (b) guide vane

(c) support plate (d) bend

Figure 12. Cavitation

9x104 8x104 Increasing acceleration 5

Figure 13. Cavitation pressure distribution at guide

Figure 15. Cont.

Figure 15. Cavitation

Water 2022, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW 19 of 21

Figure 17. Acceleration

Figure 17. Acceleration scheme 2.

Figure 18. Acceleration scheme 3.

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