CLASSICAL SCHOOL OF THOUGHT person is legally or socially responsible for his
THE CLASSICAL SCHOOL
CESARE BECCARIA (1738-1794) or Cesare
Marchese His main notion is that it is better to
prevent crimes than to punish them. He believed in
the SOCIAL CONTRACT THEORY of government,
that is, that sovereignty resided in the people and the
law applied equally to all members of society.
JEREMY BENTHAM (1748-1832), an English
philosopher, economist, and theoretical jurist, in his
principle of UTILITARIANISM in which he said,
"Mankind was governed by two sovereign motives,
pain and pleasure and the principle of utility
recognized this state of affairs (Duignan, 2018).
Bentham's HEDONISTIC CALCULUS/FELICITY
involved weighing of pleasure versus pain. He
admired Beccaria's work and believed that freewill
allowed people to make calculated and deliberate
decisions related to the pursuit of their own
happiness.
Classical School's main principle is that, "Let the
punishment fit the crime."
THE NEO-CLASSICAL SCHOOL
Neo-classical school questioned that there are
people who have the absence of freewill hence they
must be exempted from punishment because they did
not know what they were doing: they did not know
what they did was wrong or what they did was the
product of insanity. Its fundamental notion is that,
"Let the children and lunatic criminals be
exempted from punishment."
POSITIVIST SCHOOL OF THOUGHT
THE ITALIAN OR POSITIVIST SCHOOL
The Italian or Positive School developed in
the nineteenth century as an attempt to apply
scientific methods to the study of the criminal while
rejecting the legal definition of crime.
AUGUST COMTE (1798-1857)- He was recognized as
the “Father of Sociology and Positivism”. According
to Comte, societies pass through stages that can be
grouped on the basis of how people try to understand
the world in which they live.
THE HOLY THREE:
CESARE LOMBROSO (1835-1909), an Italian
criminologist who founded the said school once
explained that criminals commit crimes because they
are mentally-ill, sick and disturbed individuals; that is
why they need to be treated instead of being
punished. But this was commented by SHELDON
GLUECK, a Polish-American criminologist when he
said, "A sick person has a right not to be treated; it is
only when he becomes contagious that he may be
quarantined. Known as the Father of Criminology
Raffaele Garofalo (1851-1934), an Italian
criminologist and a student of Lombroso noted that
the concept of a "criminal presupposes the concept of
"crime." He also traced the roots of criminal behavior
not in the individual's physical features but to their
psychological equivalents, which he called "moral
anomalies." Garofalo defined crime, not as a
violation of a law, but as a violation of nature.
ENRICO FERRI (1856-1929), a highly successful
trial lawyer and perhaps Italy's perhaps greatest
contemporary forensic orator, stated that "crime
must be studied in the offender” and said that "a
actions by the fact that he is a member of society,
not because he is capable of willing an illegal act."
He argued that criminals should not be held morally
responsible for their crimes, because they did not
choose to commit crimes but were rather were
driven to commit crimes due to economic, social and
political factors (moral responsibility. The Italian or
Positivist School's main notion is that, "LET THE
PUNISHMENT FIT THE CRIMINAL."
PHYSIOGNOMY
Etymology of the term Physiognomy
PHYSIOGNOMY came from the Middle English
PHISONOMIE, from Anglo-French PHISENOMIE, from
Late Latin PHYSIOGNOMONIA, PHYSIOGNOMIA, from
Greek PHYSIOGNÖ MONIA, from PHYSIOGNOMON
judging character by the features, from physis nature,
physique, appearance plus gnomon interpreter
(Merriam Webster's Dictionary).
GIAMBATTISTA DELLA PORTA, also called Giovanni
Battista Della Porta, (1535-1615) an Italian physician
and natural philosopher, founded the school on
HUMAN PHYSIOGNOMY. Physiognomy deals with
the study of facial features and their relation to
human behavior. According to Porta, a thief had
large lips and sharp vision.
Two centuries later, Johann Kaspar Lavater (1741-
1801), Swiss writer, Protestant pastor was able to
REVIVE the work of Porta (Adler et al., 2010).
PHRENOLOGY
Phrenology/Craniology or Cranioscopy-
developed in the late 1700s and popularized
throughput the early to mid-19th century, phrenology
is the study of analyzing and predicting certain
psychological traits based on the physical features on
the skull.
It is a theory of brain and science of character
reading, what the nineteenth-century phrenologists
called “the only true science of mind”. It was
derived by Franz Joseph Gall. Phrenology is the
study of the conformation of the skull as indicative of
mental faculties and traits of character, especially
according to the hypotheses of Franz Joseph Gall and
the 19th century adherents Johann Kaspar Spurzheim
and George Combe. Phrenologists posited that bumps
on the head were indicators of psychological
propensities.
SOMATOTYPE
SOMATOTYPING THEORY
Somatotyping is a theory which associates body
physique to behavior and criminality; it began
with the work of German psychiatrist neurologist,
psychopathologist, ERNST KRETSCHMER (1888-
1964) who constituted three principal types of
body physiques:
1) Asthenic- lean, slightly built, narrow shoulders;
2) Athletic- medium to tall, strong, muscular, coarse
bones; and
3) Pyknic-medium height, rounded figure, massive
neck and broad face (Adler et al., 2010).
4.) Dysplastic or Mixed Type- The person has a
body type is less clearly evident having any
predominant type (unclassifiable).
Since Kretschmer was a psychiatrist, he related these
body shapes to various psychiatric disorders:
pyknics to manic depression.
- Manic depression according to Merriam-
Webster's Dictionary refers to any of several
psychological disorders of mood characterized
usually by alternating episodes of depression and
mania. It is also known as bipolar disorder.
On the other hand, he related asthenics and
athletics to schizophrenia.
- Schizophrenia is a mental disorder that is
characterized by disturbances in thought (such as
delusions), perception (such as hallucinations),
and behavior (such as disorganized speech or
catatonic behavior), by a loss of emotional
responsiveness and extreme apathy, and by
noticeable deterioration in the level of
functioning in everyday life. It is also called
dementia praecox (Merriam-Webster's
Dictionary).
WILLIAM H. SHELDON, JR.
Kretschmer's work was brought to the United States,
William H. Sheldon, Jr. (1898-1977) an American
psychologist and physician who devised his own
group of somatotypes: the ENDOMORPH,
MESOMORPH AND THE ECTOMORPH.
- ECTOMORPH- tall and thin (they are sensitive
and avoid crowds)
- MESOMORPH- well developed muscles and
athletic appearance (more active, aggressive and
violent and they are most likely delinquent)
- ENDOMORPH- heavy builds and slow moving
(lethargic and jolly, mild temperament and
comfortable persons, sociable)
EARNEST A. HOOTON
He examined the relationship between
PERSONALITY AND PHYSICAL TYPE, with regards
to criminal behavior. Hooton (1887-1954) an
American physical anthropologist believed in Cesare
Lombroso's theory of the born criminal, according to
which criminals could be identified based on their
physical characteristics.
He suggested that human somatotype (body shape
and physique) can even determine which type of
crime a person will commit:
1. TALL-SLENDER MEN are predisposed for
murder and robbery,
2. TALL-MEDIUM HEAVY MEN for forgery; tall-
heavy men for first-degree murder:
3. MEDIUM HEIGHT-HEAVY for antisocial
behavior,
4. SHORT-SLENDER for burglary and larceny;
short-medium heavy for arson; while
5. SHORT-HEAVY MEN for sex offenses.
Since he believed that biological predispositions
determine deviant behavior, Hooton advocated the
removal of criminals from society, seeing no hope in
their rehabilitation.
Charles Goring (1870-1919)
In his work "The English Convict", he studied 3,000
English convicts.
Gabriel Tarde (1843-1904)
The forerunner of modern-day learning theorists.
Believed people learn from one another through a
PROCESS OF IMITATION.
PSYCHODYNAMIC THEORY
• The psychodynamic approach includes all the
theories in psychology that see human functioning
based upon the interaction of drives and forces
within the person, particularly unconscious, and
between the different structures of the personality.
• Psychodynamic theory states that events in our
childhood have a great influence on our adult lives,
shaping our personality. Events that occur in
childhood can remain in the unconscious, and cause
problems as adults. (McLeod, 2020)
Sigmund Freud (1856-1939)- FATHER OF
PSYCHOANALYSIS
According to him, criminal behavior is caused by a
conflict between the id, ego, and superego, or it may
be the result of an improper fixation during a stage of
emotional development.
ELEMENTS OF PSYCHODYNAMIC THEORY
According to the classic version of the theory, the
human personality contains a three-part structure:
1. ID
-the primitive part of an individual's mental makeup
present at birth.
-The id follows the pleasure principle
2. EGO
- develops early in life, when a child begins to learn
that his or her wishes cannot be instantly gratified.
-The ego is guided by the reality principle
3. SUPEREGO
-Develops as a result of incorporating within the
personality the moral standards and significant
others. and values of parents, community
-It is the moral aspect of an individual's personality;
it passes judgments on behavior.
-The superego is divided into two parts: conscience
and ego ideal.
Psychosexual Stages of Human Development Eros -
The most basic human drive present at birth. The
instinct to preserve and create life. It is expressed
sexually. Thanatos-death instinct, which is expressed
as aggression.
Oedipus complex - Males begin to have sexual
feelings for their mothers (phallic stage).
Electra complex - Girls begin to have sexual feelings
for their father (phallic stage).
If conflicts are encountered during any of the
psychosexual stages of development, a person can
become fixated at that point.
THE PSYCHODYNAMICS OF ANTISOCIAL BEHAVIOR
ALFRED ADLER (1870-1937)
Founder of Individual Psychology
Coined the term inferiority complex to
describe people who have feelings of inferiority and
compensate for them with a drive for superiority.
ERIK ERIKSON (1902-1984)
Described the identity crisis as a period of
serious personal questioning people undertake in an
effort to determine their own values and sense of
direction.
Adolescents undergoing an identity crisis might
exhibit out-of-control behavior and experiment with
drugs and other forms of deviance.
AUGUST AICHORN
After examining many delinquent youths,
Alchorn concluded that societal stress, though
damaging, could not alone result in a life of crime
unless a predisposition existed that psychologically
prepared youths for antisocial acts.
Latent delinquency is found in youngsters whose
personality requires them to act in these ways:
BIOSOCIAL THEORY viewed that both thought and
behavior have biological and social bases.
Contemporary biosocial theorists seek to explain the
onset of antisocial behaviors, such as aggression and
violence, by focusing on the physical qualities of the
offenders. Their research efforts appear to be
concentrated in three (3) distinct areas of study:
biochemical factors, neurological dysfunction, and
genetic influences (Siegel et al., 2007).
1. Biochemical factors stress on the relationship
between antisocial behavior and biochemical makeup
and that body chemistry can govern behavior and
personality, including levels of aggression and
depression. (Siegel et al., 2007).
1.1 Hormonal Levels
Another area of biochemical research emphasizes
that antisocial behavior allegedly peaks in the
teenage years because hormonal activity is at its
highest level during this period. Research also
suggests that increased levels of the male androgen
and testosterone are responsible for excessive levels
of violence among teenage boys.
2. NEUROLOGICAL DYSFUNCTION
Another concentration of biosocial theory is
the neurological structure, or brain and nervous
system of the offenders.
2.1 MINIMAL BRAIN DYSFUNCTION
Minimal brain dysfunction is defined as the
damage to the brain itself that causes antisocial
behavior injurious to the individual's lifestyle and
social adjustment.
3. GENETIC INFLUENCES
Genetic influences focus on the idea that
individuals who share the same genes are alike in
personality regardless of how they are reared, while
the rearing environment induces little or no
personality resemblance. Some biosocial theorists,
for example, stated that certain violent personality
traits-including psychopathy - may be inherited.
3.1 PARENT-CHILD SIMILARITIES
A number of studies found out that parental
criminality and deviance do, in fact, powerfully
influence delinquent behavior. Donald J. West and
David P. Farrington (1986) made a study and they
found out that a significant number of delinquent
youths have criminal fathers. West and Farrington's
study has been supported by Rochester Youth
Development Study. The latter found an
intergenerational continuity in antisocial behavior,
that is, criminal fathers produce delinquent sons who
grow up to have delinquent children themselves
3.2 SIBLING AND TWIN SIMILARITIES
Biosocial theorists have compared the
behavior of twins and non-twin siblings and found
out that the twins, who share more genetic material,
are also more similar in their behavior. When
comparing identical monozygotic (MZ) twins with
same-sex fraternal dizygotic (DZ) twins, they found
out that the former have an identical genetic makeup,
while the latter share only about 50% of their genetic
combinations, Reviews of twin studies found that in
all cases, MZ twins have delinquent and antisocial
behavior patterns more similar than that of DZ twins.
3.3 ADOPTION STUDIES
Samoff Mednick and Bernard Hutchings
(1983) forced to conclude based on their study that
genetics played at least some role in creating
delinquent tendencies. They found that adoptees
share many of the behavioral and intellectual
characteristics of their biological parents despite the
social and environmental conditions found in their
adoptive homes (Siegel et al., 2007).
RATIONAL CHOICE THEORY
Rational choice theory holds that person will engage
in criminal behavior after weighing the consequences
and benefits of his/her actions. Criminal behavior is a
rational choice made by a motivated offender who
perceives that the chances of gain outweigh any
possible punishment or loss (Siegel et al., 2007).
"Rational choice theory, which is derived mainly from
the expected utility model in economics, has become
a "hot" topic in criminology, sociology, political
science, and law. The rational choice theory posits
that one takes those actions, criminal or lawful, which
maximize payoff and minimize costs (Akers, 1990).
ROUTINE ACTIVITY THEORY
This theory was created by Lawrence E. Cohen and
Marcus K. Felson, based on their 1979 publication of
their seminal article "Social Change and Crime Rate
Trends: A Routine Activity Approach." They viewed
that crime is a "normal" function of the routine
activities of modern living, that is, offenses can be
expected if there is a motivated offender and a
suitable target that is not protected by capable
guardians (Siegel et al., 2007).
Routine activity theory also sometimes referred to as
lifestyle theory has been proven to be one of the
more useful theories for understanding criminal
victimization and offending patterns in the late 20th
and early 21st centuries. This theoretical explanation
is primarily focused on providing information
regarding who is more or less likely to be a crime
victim. Routine activity theory is most useful and
makes important contributions to social policy and
by predicting conditions under which victimization
risks are enhanced and identifying patterns of social
events associated with criminal incidents (Cohen and
Felson, 2010). Below is an illustration of the said
theory (Siegel et al., 2007).
MOTIVATED OFFENDERS
Unemployed Teenage boys Gang member
LACK OF CAPABLE GUARDIANS
Police officers Home owners Security systems
Parents
SUITABLE TARGETS
Unlocked homes Expensive cars Easily transported
goods
GENERAL DETERRENCE THEORY is aimed at
making potential criminals fear the consequences of
crime showing that crime does not pay. It focuses on
potential offenders and that these offenders must
receive punishment in severe, swift and certain ways.
It is also manifesting societal deterrence which aimed
to target would be offenders (Siegel et al., 2007). An
example of which is imposing long prison sentences
or in the lifetime imprisonment for violent or heinous
crimes.
SPECIFIC DETERRENCE THEORY holds that if
offenders are punished so severely, the experience
will convince them not to repeat their illegal acts. Its
main targets are those offenders who have already
been convicted as it also claims that punishing more
criminals will reduce their involvement in criminal
activities (Siegel et al., 2007).
VICTIM PRECIPITATION THEORY
Victim precipitation theory viewed that some
people may actually initiate the confrontation that
eventually leads to their injury or death. It was first
presented by Hans von Hentig (1941) and applies
only to violent victimization. Its basic premise is that
by acting in certain provocative ways, some
individuals initiate a chain of events that lead to their
deaths.
ACTIVE PRECIPITATION occurs when victims act
provocatively, use threats or fighting words, or even
attacks the offenders first.
PASSIVE PRECIPITATION occurs when the victim
exhibits some personal characteristics that
unknowingly either threatens or encourages the
attacker.
COGNITIVE THEORY
Cognitive theory is a branch of psychology that
studies the perception of reality and the mental
process required to understand the world we live. It
focuses on mental processes- the way people
perceive and mentally represents the world around
them, Adolescents who use information properly,
who are better conditioned to make reasoned
judgments, and who can make quick and reasoned
decisions when facing emotion-laden are the ones
that can avoid antisocial behavior choices.
Jean William Fritz Piaget (1896-1980), is the Swiss
psychologist who was the first to make a systematic
study of the acquisition of understanding in children
based on his cognitive development theory. He
hypothesized that a child's reasoning processes
develop in an orderly manner, from birth onwards
and it has 4 stages (Siegel et al., 2007).
MORAL DEVELOPMENT THEORY
Moral development theory suggests that people
who obey the law simply to avoid punishment or who
have outlooks mainly characterized by self-interest
are more likely to commit crimes than those who
view the law as something that benefits all of society
and who honor the rights of others. (Siegel et al.,
2007).
Lawrence A. Kohlberg (1927-1987) expanded
Piaget's theory of cognitive development and applied
the concept of development stages to issues in
criminology. His theory of moral development (1973)
was dependent on the thinking of the former (Piaget)
and the American philosopher John Dewey.
Kohlberg's stages of development are as follows:
INTERGENERATIONAL TRANSMISSION THEORY
Intergenerational transmission refers to the
socialization and social learning that helps to explain
the ways in which children growing up in a violent
family learn violent roles and, subsequently, may play
out the roles of victim or victimizer in their own adult
families as adults.
Intergenerational transmission theory states that
criminal and antisocial parents tend to have
delinquent and antisocial children, as shown in the
classic longitudinal surveys by Joan McCord in Boston
and Lee Robins in St. Louis, USA (1982).
The concept of intergenerational
transmission is also used by social scientists who
conducted research on family violence such as Ann
Duffy and Julianne Momirov (2000) who utilized the
concept of intergenerational transmission to explain
the social learning of violence within families
ALTERNATIVE THEORY
Alternative theory focuses on assortative mating
where female offenders tend to cohabit with or get
married to male offenders. In the Dunedin study in
New Zealand, which is a longitudinal survey of over
one thousand children from age three, Robert F.
Krueger and his colleagues (2010) found that sexual
partners tended to be similar in their self-reported
antisocial behaviors.
EYSENCK’S CONDITIONING THEORY
Hans J. Eysenck (1916-1997) in his theory of
conditioning claims that all human personalities may
be seen in three dimensions such as psychoticism.
extroversion, and neuroticism. Those who score high
on measures of psychoticism are aggressive,
egocentric, and impulsive. Those who score high on
measures of extroversion are sensation-seeking,
dominant, and assertive. While those who score high
on measures of neuroticism may be described as
having low self-esteem, excessive anxiety and wide
mood swings.
AROUSAL THEORY
Adolescence are suspected that obtaining thrills are
their crime motivator. Jack Katz- seduction of crime.
EVOLUTIONARY THEORY
People are instinctively aggressive, basing
their claim on studies of animal behavior.
- KONRAD LORENZ- nature gave animals an
instinct for aggression for three reasons.
NATURE THEORY
Argues that intelligence is largely determined
genetically, that ancestry determines IQ, and the low
intelligence, as demonstrated by low IQ, is linked to
criminal behavior.
NURTURE THEORY
States that intelligence must be viewed as
partly biological but primarily sociological.