CHEMICAL PROCESS CONTROL

1. Incentives for Chemical Process Control

A chemical plant is an arrangement of processing units (reactors, heat

exchangers, pumps, distillation columns,…….) integrated with one another
in a systematic and rational manner. The plant‟s overall objective is to
convert certain raw materials (input feedstock) into desired products using
available sources of energy in the most economical way.
During its operation, a chemical plant must satisfy several requirements
imposed by its designers and the general technical, economic and social
conditions in the presence of ever-changing external influence
(disturbances). Among such requirements are:-

a. Safe plant operation: The safe operation of a chemical process is a

primary requirement for the well being of the people in the plant and
for its continued contribution to the economic development. Thus
operating process variables e.g. pressure, temperature, concentration
of chemicals…… should always be within allowable limits.
b. Production specifications: A plant should produce the desired
amounts and quality of the final products.
c. Environmental regulations: Various laws may specify that certain
effluents from a plant be within certain limits e.g. amount of SO2
ejected to the atmosphere and quality of water returned to a river or a
lake.
d. Operational Constraints: Various types of equipment used in a
chemical plant have constraints inherent to their operation which
should be satisfied throughout the operation of a plant e.g. tanks
should not overflow or get dry, distillation columns should not be
flooded,…….
e. Economics: The operation of a plant should be as economical as
possible in its utilization of raw materials, energy, capital and human
labor.

All the requirements listed above dictate the need for continuous monitoring
of the operation of a chemical plant and control to guarantee the satisfaction
of the operational objectives. This is accomplished through a rational
arrangement of equipment (measuring devices, valves, controllers,
computer) and human intervention (plant designers, plant operators) which
together constitute the control system.

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There are three general classes of needs that a control system is called on to
satisfy:

a. Suppressing the influence for external disturbances

This is the most common objective of a controller in a chemical plant.
Example: Controlling the operation of a controller in a chemical
plant

The main operational objective is to keep the effluent temperature at a

desired value Ts (set point)

The operation of the tank is disturbed by external factors e.g. change in inlet
flow rate or inlet temperature (Fi, Ti). Thus some sort of control is needed.

If T<Ts i.e. the error ε>0 then the controller opens the steam valve so
more heat is supplied.

2
 If T>Ts i.e. the error ε>0 then the controller closes the steam valve so
less heat is supplied.
It T=Ts i.e. ε=0 the controller does nothing.

b. Ensure stability of a chemical process

If x is a process variable and at t=to x is disturbed by an external
factor, if as time progresses x returns to its initial value and stays
there then the process is stable or self-regulating and no control
mechanism is needed.

If x does not return to its original value after the disturbance the process is
unstable and thus requires external control.
As an example riding a bicycle is an attempt to stabilize an unstable system
and we attain that by pedaling, steering and leaning our body right or left.

Example
Consider the CSTR shown in figure, in which an irreversible exothermic
reaction A B takes place. The heat of reaction is removed by a coolant
medium that flows through a jacket around the reactor.

3
 CAi, Ti, Fi

FC, TCi
Coolant

FC, TCi CA, T, F

Coolant Product

CSTR with cooling jacket

The heat released by the exothermic reaction is a sigmoidal function of the

temperature T in the reactor (curve A in the figure below). On the other hand,
the heat removed by the coolant is a linear function of the temperature T in
the reactor (line B). The intersection of curves A and B yield 3 steady states.
P1 and P3 are stable, whereas P2 is unstable.
Heat/time
P3
A

P2

P1

T1 T2 T2’ T3 Temperature

The three steady states of a CSTR

It is clear from the curve shown above that if the reactor was working at the
middle stable steady state and is subjected to perturbation in any of its
conditions eg. Feed temperature, then the temperature of the reactor would
take off from P2 and will eventually reach either P1 or P3. On the contrary if
were operating at the steady state P3 or P1, the reactor would return naturally
to its initial steady state upon any perturbation in the reactor conditions.
Sometimes, we would like to operate the CSTR at the middle unstable
steady state for the following reasons:
 The low temperature steady state P1 causes very low yields
because T1 is very low.

4
  The high temperature steady state P3 may be very high, causing
unsafe conditions, destroying the catalyst for a catalytic reactor.
In such cases we need a controller that will ensure the stability of the
operation at the middle steady state.

c. Optimizing the performance of a chemical process

Once safety and production specification, the main operational objectives for
a chemical plant are satisfied the next goal is to make the operation of the
plant more profitable. Since the conditions that affect the operation of the
plant do not remain the same therefore control is used to change the
operation of the plant (P, T, ….) in such a way that profit of the plant is
always maximized.
Example
Consider a batch reactor, shown in the figure below, where the following
two consecutive endothermic reactions take place:
A B  C

Steam

Controller
A BC r
Condensate

Batch reactor with two consecutive reactions

The heat required for the reaction is supplied by steam which flows through
the jacket around the reactor. The desired product is B and C is an undesired
waste.
The economic objective for the operation of the batch reactor is to maximize
the profit .
tR
 = {revenue from the sales of B – cost of steam }dt – cost of purchasing A
o
where tR is the period of reaction.
The only variable that we can change in order to maximize the profit is the
steam flow rate Q. The steam flow rate which can vary with time, will affect
the temperature in the batch reactor and the temperature will, in turn, affect

5
the rates of the desired and undesired reactions. The question is how we
could vary Q(t) with time so that the profit is maximized.
 If Q(t) is given the largest possible value for the entire reaction period
tR , the temperature of the reacting mixture will take the largest value
that is possible. Initially, when CA is large, we will have high yields of
B but we will also pay more for the steam. As time goes on and the
concentration of B increases, the yield of C also increases.
Consequently, towards the end of the reaction period the temperature
must decrease, necessitating a decrease in the steam flow rate.
 If the steam flow rate is kept at its lowest value Q(t)=0 for the entire
reaction period tR. we will have no steam cost , but we will also have
no production of B.
In the figure below we see a general trend that the steam flow rate must
follow to optimize the profit . Thus a control system is needed which will:
a. compute the best steam flow rate for every time during the
reaction period, and
b. adjust the valve inserted in the steam line son that the steam
flow rate takes its best value.
Such problems are known as optimal control problems.
Q Steam flow rate

Qmax

Qmin = 0
0 TR

Optimal profile of the steam flow rate for the batch reactor

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2. Classification of Variables in a Chemical Process
The variables (flow rates, temperatures, pressures, concentrations,etc…)
associated with a chemical process are divided into two groups.

Variables of a chemical process

Input variables Output variables

They denote the effect of the surroundings They denote the effect of the process
on the chemical process on the surroundings

Manipulated or (adjustable) Disturbances Measured Unmeasured

Their values can be
adjusted by a human
operator or a control
mechanism
Their values are Their values are known They are not or
not the result of by direct measurement cannot be
adjustment by a directly
human operator measured
or a control mechanism

In the example of the tank heater system in page 2 the inputs Fi and Ti are
disturbances and Fst is the manipulated input. The output variable T which
can be easily measured is the measured output.

The figure below summarizes all the classes of variables that we have
around a chemical process.

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3. Design Elements of a Control System

a. Define control objectives:

At the beginning the control objectives are defined qualitatively;
subsequently, they are quantified, usually in terms of output variables.
In the example of the stirred tank heater the control objective is to
maintain the outlet temperature at the desired value. The quantification of
the control objective is direct and straightforward: that is T=Ts.

b. Select measurements:
Whatever our objectives are we need some means to monitor the
performance of a chemical process. This is done by measuring the values
of certain processing variables. It is evident that we would like to monitor
directly the variables that represent our control objectives and this is done
whenever possible. Such measurements are called „primary
measurements‟.
In the stirred tank example since our objective is to keep the temperature
of the liquid in the tank constant at T=Ts consequently, a thermocouple
was used to measure the output temperature.
Sometimes the control objectives are not measurable quantities. In such a
case we measure other variables which can be easily measured
(secondary measurements).Then a mathematical relation is developed
between the unmeasured output and the secondary measurement.
Example
Consider a simple distillation column separating a binary mixture of
pentane and hexane into two product stream of pentane (distillate) and
hexane (bottoms). Our control objective is to maintain the production of
a distillate stream with 95mole% pentane in the presence of changes in
the feed composition.
The two control schemes shown in figures (a) and (b) below depend on
the composition analyzers. However, such measuring devices are either
very costly or of very low reliability for an industrial environment. In
such cases we can measure the temperature of the liquid, at various
trays along the length of the column reliably using simple
thermocouples. Then using the material and energy balances around the
trays of the column and the thermodynamic equilibrium relationships
between liquid and vapour streams, we can develop a mathematical
relationship that gives the composition of the distillate if the temperature
of some selected trays are known. Figure c shows such a control scheme
that uses temperature measurements (secondary measurements) to

8
estimate or infer the composition of pentane in the distillate (i.e. the
value of the control objective).

Cooling water
Condenser
Reflux
Distillate

Composition
Analyzer
(a)
Feed Controller Set point

Steam

Reboiler
Bottoms

Cooling water
Controller
Condenser

Distillate
Composition Reflux
Analyzer

(b)

Feed

Steam
Reboiler

9
 Set point

Controller
Cooling water

T1 Condenser
Computer: using
Ts estimates T2 Distillate
distillate Reflux
T3
concentration

(c)
Feed

Steam
Reboiler

c.Select manipulated variables:

We have to select the manipulated variables, from the available input
variables, that are to be used to control a chemical process. This is a
crucial step as the choice will affect the quality of the control action.

d. Select the control configuration:

A control configuration is the information structure that is used to
connect the available measurements to the available manipulated
variables.
Later we are going to study different types of control configurations.

e. Design the controller:

The controller is the active element that receives the information from the
measurements and takes appropriate control action to adjust the values of
the manipulated variables.
In the example of the stirred tank heater where the problem is controlling
T when the inlet temperature Ti changes. Our measurement will be the
liquid temperature and the manipulated variable the rate of heat input Q
provided by the steam In this case we want to develop a control law that
defines how should Q change in order keep T constant when Ti changes.
Later we will study the characteristics of various control laws.

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4. Hardware Elements of a Control System
a. The chemical process: It represents the material equipment together
with the physical or chemical operations that occur there.
b. The measuring instruments or sensors: Such instruments are used
to measure the disturbances, the controlled output variables, or
secondary output variables, and are the main sources of information
about what is going on in the process.
 Thermocouples or resistance thermometers, for measuring the
temperature.
 Venturi meters, for measuring the flow rate.
 Gas chromatographs, for measuring the composition of a
stream.
A mercury thermometer is not a good measuring device to be used for
control since its measurement cannot be readily transmitted. On the
other hand, a thermocouple is acceptable because it develops an
electric voltage which can be readily transmitted. Thus transmission is
a very crucial factor in selecting the measuring devices.
c. Transducers: Many measurements cannot be used for control until
they are converted to physical quantities such as electric voltages or
current or pneumatic signal i.e. compressed or liquid, which can be
easily transmitted. Transducers are used for this purpose, e.g. strain
gauge which are metallic conductors whose electric resistance
changes when they are subjected to mechanical strain, thus they are
used to convert to convert pressure signal into an electric one.
d. Transmission lines: They are used to the measurement signal from
the measuring device to the controller. Previously transmission lines
were pneumatic but now with the expanding use of computers for
control transmission lines carry electric signals. Many times the
measurement signals signal coming from the measuring device is very
weak and cannot be transmitted over a long distance.. In such case the
transmission lines are equipped with amplifiers.
e. The controller; It receives the information from the measuring
devices and decides what action should be taken, according to the
control law. Today, with the increasing use of digital computers as
controllers, very complicated control laws can be implemented.
f. The final control element: It implements the decision taken by the
controller. The control valve is the most frequently used encountered
final control element. Other typical final control elements for a

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 chemical process are; relay switches providing on-off control,
variable-speed pumps and variable-speed compressors.
g. Recording elements: They provide a visual demonstration of how a
chemical process behaves. Various types of recorders (T, P, C,…..)
can be seen in the control room. Owing to the introduction of digital
computers, recording opportunities have expanded through video
display units.

5. Types of Control Configurations

5.1. Feedback Control (closed loop)

Consider a process with an output c, disturbance u and available
manipulated variable m.

u
Final
r e Control c
Controller Process
Element

b Measuring
Device

Elements of a feedback control loop

If the disturbance u changes in an unpredictable manner, our control

objective is to keep the value of the output c at desired level. A feedback
action takes the following steps:
1. Measures the value of the output using appropriate measuring device.
The value indicated by the measuring sensor is b (primary feedback
signal)
2. Compares the indicated value b to the desired value r (set point) of the
output. The deviation (error) is e.
3. The error e is supplied to the main controller. The controller in turn
changes the value of the manipulated variable m through sending a
signal p to the final control element (usually a control valve).

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 Thus feedback control configuration uses direct measurements of the
controlled variables to adjust the values of the manipulated variables. The
objective is to keep the controlled variables at desired levels (set points).

Disturbances

Manipulated variables Measured outputs

Process (controlled variables)

Unmeasured outputs

Controller
Set points

General structure of feedback configuration

The following represent some typical feedback control systems which are
often encountered in chemical processes where:
1- Flow control in figures a and b controlling the flow rate F at the
desired value FSP.
2- Pressure control in figure c controlling the pressure of the gases in the
tank at the desired pressure PSP.
3- Liquid-level control in figures d and e which show two feedback
systems used for the control of the liquid levels at the bottom of a
distillation column and its condenser accumulation tank.
4- Temperature control in figure f controlling the temperature of exiting
hot stream at the desired value TSP.
5- Composition control in figure g where composition is the controlled
variable in the blending system.

13
Examples of feedback systems

14
To simplify the presentation of a feedback control system, we usually
replace the diagrammatic details of a controller mechanism with a simple
circle. Thus figures b and d above could be replaced by the following two
figures.

The following figure shows the block diagram for the generalized closed
loop system.
U GD(s)

+
V M E M + C
A(s) GC(s) Gf (s) G(s)
+
-

B
H(s)

Block diagram of generalized closed-loop system

15
where A(s), GC(s), Gf(s),G(s), GD(s) and H (s) are the transfer between the
corresponding inputs and outputs.

C= M.G(s)+U.GD(s)

U GD(s)
+
V M E M D C
A(s) GC(s) Gf (s) G(s)
+ +
-

B
H(s)

Block diagram of generalized closed loop control system

C= M.G(s) + U. GD(s).G(s)

The series of blocks between the comparator and the controlled output
constitutes the forward path, while the block H(s) is on the feedback path
between the controlled output and the comparator.

5.1.1. Servo and Regulator Operation

For every feedback control system we can distinguish two types of control
operations: the servo and regulator operations.
If the controlled variable is normally constant (no disturbances) and it is
required to make the controlled variable change in a definite manner, i.e.
follow the changes of the controller set point (Reference input), the
operation of the control loop is termed servo operation.
If it is desired to maintain a constant value of the controlled variable inspite
of disturbances or load variations, the operation of the control loop is termed
regulator operation.
The process should be designed to give maximum controllability which
depends largely on the type of operation required. It is therefore important to
consider the type of operation expected from the control system when a
controllability study is made for the process. Not only is the type of
operation important for the specification of the process parameters, that will

16
give optimum controllability, but more over, the controller action required to
give best response is not necessarily the same for both types of operation.

5.1.2. Lags in feedback control loops

Consider the feedback control system in page 6. All the dynamic

components of the loop may exhibit significant time delays in their response.
1. Process Lag: The main process may involve transportation of fluids
over long distances or include phenomena with long incubation
periods.
2. The measuring device may require long periods of time for
completing the sampling and the analysis of the measured output (e.g.
gas chromatograph).
3. The signal may require time for transmission from instrument to
controller.
4. The controller might take some time to take an action.
5. The signal might take time to be transmitted to correcting unit.
6. The final control element may need some time to develop the
actuating signal.
This dictates that whenever an input variable of a system changes, there is a
time interval during which no effect is observed on the outputs of the
system..

As seen there are two types of lags in the feedback control system:
a- Transmission or distance/velocity lags whose magnitude depend upon
the length of transmission lines and type of transmission (electric,
hydraulics, pneumatic, etc…..) as in 3 and 5
b- Transfer function lags that depend on the transfer functions of the
different units in the loop as in 1, 2, 4 and 6.

5.1.3. Distance/velocity Lags

Consider the flow of non-reacting fluid through a pipe as shown below. At
steady state Tout=Tin . Assume that at t=0 Tin changes as shown by curve A,
Tout will remain the same until the change reaches the end of the pipe. Then
we will observe Tout changing in the same pattern as Tin. This happens with a
distance velocity lag of td seconds.

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 (a) Pipe flow; (b) delayed response of exit temperature
to inlet temperature change

If U is the average velocity of the fluid over the cross-sectional area of the
pipe and L is the length, then the distance velocity lag could be calculated as
follows
L
td 
U

5.2. Inferential Control

It uses secondary measurements to adjust the values of the manipulated
variables.
The estimator uses the values of the available measured outputs, together
with the material and energy balances that govern the process, to compute
mathematically the values of the unmeasured control variables. These
estimates are used by the controller to adjust the values of the manipulated
variables.

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 Disturbances

Manipulated variables Measured outputs

Process

Unmeasured outputs
(controlled variables)

Set points
Controller Estimator

Estimates of the
unmeasured controlled
variables

General structure of inferential control configurations

5.3. FeedForward Control

It uses direct measurement of the disturbances to adjust the values of the
manipulated variables

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 If we return to the tank heater example, we realize that in the above figure a
different control arrangement than the one used before is applied. Here the
temperature of the inlet stream is measured and the steam valve is opened or
closed to provide more or less steam.
We notice that feed forward control does not wait until the effect of the
disturbances has been felt by the system, but acts appropriately before the
external disturbance affects the system anticipating what its effect will be.

Disturbances

Controller

Manipulated variables Measured outputs

Process

Unmeasured outputs

General structure of feedforward control configurations

The figure below shows examples of feedforward control of various

processing units.
a. Figure a shows feedforward control of a heat exchanger. The
objective is to keep the exit temperature of the liquid constant by
manipulating the steam pressure.
b. Figure b shows feedforward control of a drum boiler. The objective is
to keep the liquid level in the drum constant. The two disturbances are
the steam flow rate from the boiler and the flow of feed water which is
also the manipulated variable.
c. Figure c shows feedforward control of a distillation column. The two
disturbances are the feed flow rate and the composition. The
manipulated variables are steam pressure in the reboiler and the reflux
ratio. The compositions of overhead or bottom product is the control
objective.
d. Figure d shows feedforward control of a CSTR. The two disturbances
are inlet concentration and temperature and the two manipulated

20
 variables are the product withdrawal flow rate and the coolant flow
rate. The objectives are to maintain constant temperature and
composition.

5.3.1.FeedForward-Feedback Control

The table below shows the advantages of feedforward and feedback control.

Advantages Disadvantages
Feedforward
1. Acts before the effect of a 1. Requires identification of all
disturbance has been felt by the possible disturbances and their
system. direct measurement.
2. It is good for slow systems 2. Cannot cope with unmeasured
disturbance.
3. It does not introduce instability in 3. Sensitive to process parameters

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 the closed-loop response. variations
4. Requires good knowledge of the
process model.
Feedback
1. It does not require identification 1. It waits until the effect of the
and measurement of any disturbances has been felt by the
disturbance system, before control action is
taken.
2. It is insensitive to modeling errors 2. It is unsatisfactory for slow
processes or with significant dead
time.
3. It is insensitive to parameter 3. It may create instability in the
changes closed-loop response

Although feedforward control has the potential for perfect control but due to
the weaknesses stated in the above table, purely feedforward systems are not
generally used. Actual control systems are either feedback systems or a
combination of the feedforward and feedback schemes in what is known as
cascade control

5.3.2.Ratio Control
Ratio control is a special type of feedforward control where two disturbances
are measured and held in a constant ratio to each other. It is mostly used to
control the ratio of flow rates of two streams. Both flow rates are measured
but only one can be controlled. The stream whose flow rate is not under
control is usually referred to as a wild stream.

“Wild” stream

Desired
FT Ratio

Ratio
Divider GR Controller
Measured
Ratio
FT

Controllable stream

Ratio control is used extensively in chemical processes with the following as

the most commonly encountered examples:

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  Keep a constant ratio between the feed flow rate and the steam in the
reboiler of a distillation column.
 Hold constant the reflux ratio in a distillation column.
 Keep the fuel: air ratio in a burner at its optimum value .

5.4. Cascade Control

Consider the CSTR shown in figure. The reaction is exothermic and the heat
generated is removed by the coolant in the jacket. The control objective is to
keep the temperature T constant at a desired value.
Possible disturbances: Ti, TC
Manipulated variable: FC

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Figure a shows a conventional feedback control system. Measured variable
is T and manipulated variable is FC.
We can improve the response of the simple feedback control to changes in
the coolant temperature by measuring TC and taking control action before its
effect has been felt by the reacting mixture.
Thus we have two control loops using two different measurements, T and
TC, but sharing a common manipulated variable, FC.
Notice that:
a- The loop that measures T is the dominant, or primary, or master
control loop and uses a set point supplied by the operator.
b- The loop that measures TC uses the output of the primary controller as
its set point and is called the secondary or slave loop.

To generalize the discussion above, consider a process consisting of two

parts; process I and process II. Process I (primary) has its output the variable
we want to control. Process II (secondary) has an output that we are not
interested in controlling but which affects the output we want to control. For
the CSTR above process I is the reaction in the tank and the controlled
output is T, process II is the jacket and its output TC affects process I
(reactor) and consequently T.

Thus it is clear that the major benefit to be gained by cascade control;

Disturbances arising within the secondary loop are corrected
by the secondary controller before they can affect the value of
the primary controlled output.

The following figure shows some examples of cascade control.

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a. Figure a shows a cascade control of a heat exchanger. The control
objective is to keep the exit temperature of stream 2 at a desired
value. The secondary loop is used to compensate for changes in the
flow rate of stream 1.
b. Figures b and c show how cascade control is employed to regulate the
temperature (and consequently the concentration) at the top and
bottom of a distillation column. In both cases the secondary loop is
used to compensate for flow rate changes.
c. In figure d cascade control is used to regulate the temperature of a
process stream exiting from a furnace. The secondary loop is used to
compensate for flow rate changes (fuel flow rate).

In the following sections we will concentrate mainly on feedback control

configuration.

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 6. Modeling of Chemical Processes

The goal is to develop a control system for a chemical process which will
guarantee that the operational objectives of the process are satisfied in the
presence of ever changing disturbances, thus we need a simple description
of how the process reacts to various inputs i.e. we need a mathematical
model.

Example
In the feed forward arrangement, we measure value of disturbance and we
anticipate what its effect will be on the process output. In order to keep the
output at the desired level we change the value of the manipulated variable in
order to eliminate the impact of the disturbance on the output, thus we must
know the following 2 relations which are provided by a mathematical model.

Output = f1(disturbance)
Output = f2(manipulated variable)

Therefore without good and accurate mathematical modeling we cannot

design efficient feed forward control systems.
The mathematical model of any chemical process could be obtained by the
application of the conservation principles of the following fundamental
quantities: total mass, mass of individual components , total energy and
momentum.
The principle of conservation of a quantity S states that:

Acc. of S within a system/time = flow of S in the system/time

- flow of S out of the system / time
+ amount of S generated within the system/time
- amount of S consumed within the system

The generated equations are differential equations. However, if state

variables do not change with time, i.e. rate of accumulation = 0, the
equations are algebraic,
In addition to the above balance equations, we need other relationships to
complete the mathematical modeling which are:
 Transport rate equations: They describe the rate of mass, energy and
momentum transfer between the system and the surroundings e.g.

26
 amount of heat Q supplied by steam to a liquid inside a tank heater
(transport phenomena)
 Kinetic rate equations: They describe the rate of chemical reaction
taking place (chemical kinetics).
 Reaction and phase equilibrium relationships: They describe the
equilibrium situations reached during a chemical reaction or by two
or more phases (thermodynamics).
 Equations of state: e.g. ideal gas law and van der waal‟s equation.

6.1. Input-Output Model

In order for a mathematical model to be convenient for process engineers
and control designers it should be in the form of an input-output model

i.e. the model should have the following general form for every output.

Output = f(input variables)

yi = f(m1, m2, ………………..mk; d1, d2,……….dl)

i.e. describes directly the relationship between input and output variables of
a process.
This could be easily done using Laplace transforms

L[f(t)] = F(s)

It is very simple method for solving linear or linearized differential

equations resulting from mathematical modeling of chemical processes. It
transforms linear differential equations into algebraic equations that could
be easily solved.

f(t) y(t)
Process
input output
Laplace
Transform

F̂(s) G(s) Ŷ(s)

Block diagram

27
G(s) is the transfer function and is equal to [output(s)/input(s)].
i.e. we use Laplace Transform to provide directly the relationship between
inputs (disturbances and manipulated variables) and outputs (controlled
variables).
The obtained T.F. describes completely the dynamic behavior of the output
when corresponding input changes are given.
Thus for a particular variation of the input f(t) we can find its transfer F(s)
and thus,

Ŷ(s) = G(s) / f̂ (s)

Take the inverse Lapalce of G(s) / f̂ (s) and you obtain the response y(t) in the
time domain.

N.B. To find the T.F. of a nonlinear system it must first be linearized around
the st. st.

6.2. Degrees of freedom and number of controlled and manipulated

variables

Number of degrees of freedom (F) could be defined as:

“The independent variables that must be specified in order to define the

process completely”

F=V-E

V= number of independent variables describing a process.

E= number of independent equations relating V variables.

“In order to specify a process completely the number of degrees of freedom

should be zero”

F=0

28
According to the value of F, we can distinguish the following cases:

Case 1: If F=0, the solution of E equations yields unique values for the
variables. In this case we say that the process is exactly specified.
Case 2: If F>0, multiple solutions result from the E equations. In this case
we say that the system is underspecified by F equations (i.e. we
need F additional equations to have a unique solution).
Case 3: If F<0, we have more equations than variables and in general there
is no solution to the E equations. In this case we say that the system
is over specified by F equations.

It is clear from the analysis that sloppy modeling of a process may lead to a
model that does not include all the relevant equations and variables or
includes abundant equations and variables.

The presence of a control loop in a chemical process introduces an

additional equation between the corresponding measured and manipulated
variable, thus reducing by one the initial number of degrees of freedom for
the process.

There are two sources that give additional equations to reduce the number of
degrees of freedom:
1- External World: Values of certain input variables e.g. an input coming
from an upstream unit that feeds the process.
2- Control systems: relationships between controlled outputs and
manipulated variables (feedback) or between manipulated
disturbances and manipulated inputs (feedforward).

Thus:
Number of variables that could be controlled=
F- number of externally specified inputs

29
Example
Consider the example of a stirred tank heater shown below

To model such a system

Mass Balance:
dh
Fi  F  A
dt
Heat Balance:
Q dT
 Fi (Ti  T)  A.h
C p dt
Upon solving the mass and heat balance equations simultaneously, we can
find how h and T change with time.

E=2, V=6[h,T, Fi, F,Ti, Q]

(A,ρ, CP are parameters with given constant values)

F=6-2= 4

N.B.
- F>0 the system cannot be solved.
- F>0 the system has an infinite number of solutions

30
In the above case there is an infinite number of solutions, we can specify
arbitrary values of 4 variables and solve the above 2 equations for the
remaining variables.

In this case we need 4 additional relations to make the system completely

specified. These are provided from the following considerations:-

a- Fi and Ti are the main two disturbances for the heater and they are
both specified by the external world (e.g. unit that precedes the
heater). Although Fi and Ti may not be known to us nevertheless they
exist and removes 2 degrees of freedom.
F= 4 – 2 = 2
b- Acceptable operation of the tank requires that the liquid level (h) and
the liquid temperature (T) in tank heater may be maintained at desired
value. These two control objectives can be achieved by the control
loops shown in figure.

Where :
Controlled variables (h,T)
Manipulated variables (F, Q(Fst))

We observe the following:

a- The external world by specifying the values of disturbances removes
number of degrees of freedom= number of disturbances.

31
 b- The control system required to achieve the control objectives
removes:
No of degrees of freedom = No of control objectives

N.B.
During the reduction in F for a chemical process care must be experienced
not to specify more control objectives than it is possible for the system.
Therefore in case of the example above when we attempt to have 3 control
objectives F<0 i.e system is overspecified.

Important Remarks
- Let K be the number of controlled variables calculated, then if
actually controlled variables n>K then there are (K-n) process
variables will change „wildly‟ in an uncontrolled manner and may
cause problems to the operation of the process. But if the effects of
these uncontrolled variables on the operation of the process are
acceptable it is perfectly legitimate to have n<k.
- It is impossible to have n>k.
- F for a process at dynamic state is usually > than at steady state. This
is due to the presence of the accumulation term.
e.g. consider the simple liquid hold tank shown in figure:
Unsteady state M.B. yields Fi
dh
A  Fi  Fo
dt
E=1 A h
V=3(h, Fi, Fo)
A is a given value.
F=3 – 1 = 2
Since Fi is specified by the external world thus we can have only 1
controlled variable. This suggests the conventional feedback loop
between h and Fo.
N.B.: In this case we assume that the outlet flow rate was obtained
using a valve or a pump and is independent of h.. If it is to
discharge to the atmosphere thus the number of variables will
decrease by 1 .

If we examine the st. st. balance: Fi

dh
0
dt
A h

32
 V=Fi, Fo
E=1
F= 2-1=1
Therefore no controlled variable.

V=h, Fi since Fo=f(h)

Example: Determining number of controlled and manipulated variables

for a flash drum
Consider the flash drum shown in the figure below. The feed is composed of
N components with mass fractions Zi, i=1,2,…….N. The feed is flashed
from high pressure Pf to lower pressure P of the drum. This results in vapour
in equilibrium with the remaining liquid. Steam in the coil supplies heat for
maintaining the desired temperature in the drum.
Total M.B.

dh
Ff  (Fv  FL )  A
dt

Component M.B.

d(hx i )
Ff z i  (Fv y i  FL x i )  A
dt

Heat Balance:

Ff C Pf Tf  (Fv C Pv T  FL C PL T)  UA s (Ts  T)
d(hT)
 C PL A
dt

Vapour Liquid Equilibrium Relationships:

yi=Ki(T,P)xi i=1,2,…………N

From the above relationships

E= 1 + (N-1) + 1 + N

33
 = 2N+1

V= 3N+5

and can be specified as:

Tf, Ff, zf (N-1), Fv, FL, P, T, h, Ws xi (N-1) , yi, (N-1)

F= (3N+5)-(2N+1) = N+4

However, No of externally specified variables=N

which can be classified as: Tf, zi(N-1)

Thus no. of controlled variables= N+4-N= 4

Notice that the number of unspecified variables = 3N+5-N=2N+5

But which 4 of the 2N+5 unspecified variables will be selected as controlled

outputs

- Operating requirements dictate that T and P should be kept constant to

achieve desired separation.
- For constant production Ff should be maintained at the desired value.
- h should remain within certain bounds

T, P, Ff, h → controlled variables

All 4 can be measured directly using simple and reliable sensors.

Therefore measured variables are (T, P, Ff, h)

Now we have to select from the (2N+5)

unspecified variables the 4 manipulated variables
(Ff, Fv, FL, Ws)

34
6.3. Generation of Alternative Loop Configurations

After identification of the controlled and manipulated variables we need to

determine the configuration of the control loops.

For a system with N controlled and N manipulated variables there are N!

different loop configurations.

The figure below shows 2 possible loop configurations for a process with 2
manipulated inputs and 2 controlled outputs.

As N increases the number of different loop configuration increases rapidly

e.g.
N=3 : There are 3!=3x2=6 different configurations
N=4 : There are 4!=4x3x2=24 different configurations
N=3 : There are 3!=5x4x3x2=120 different configurations

Various criteria can be used to select the best coupling among the controlled
and manipulated variables.

a- Choose the manipulation that has a direct and fast effect on a

controlled variable.
b- Choose the couplings so that there is a little dead time between every
manipulation and the corresponding controlled variable.
c- Select coupling so that interaction of the control loop is minimal.

35
Example
In the previous example:-
Number of controlled variables=4
Number of possible configurations = 4! = 24

All possible configurations are shown in the table below.

36
 a- Effect of Ff, Fv and FL on temperature T are indirect and slow while
that of Ws is direct and faster.
Thus only 1,3,7,9,14,18 look promising for efficient T control.
b- Effect of Ws and FL on P are indirect and slow while FP and Fv are
better manipulated variables for controlling P.
Thus only 3,7,9,14 remain.
c- Among 3,7,9,14 only 3 seems to be best because it uses F L to achieve
fast h control and manipulate Ff directly and it uses Fv for direct and
fast regulation of P.

Systems with Interacting Units

In the present section we extend the study to systems composed of several

interacting processing units as encountered in a chemical plant.

Consider a process composed of N units.

1- Divide the process into separate blocks. Every block may contain
processing unit with an inherent, common operation goal.
Eg. * distillation column + condenser + reboiler
* 2 neighbouring heat exchangers in series or parallel
* a reactor + feed preheater
2- Determine F and the number of manipulated variables for each
block.
3- Determine all feasible loop configurations for each block and then
choose the best loop configuration for each block.
4- Recombine the blocks with their loop configurations.
5- Eliminate conflicts among the control systems of various blocks.

37
Example
The heart of the process shown in figure is the CSTR where A→B takes
place. The reactor feed is preheated first by hot reactor effluent and then by
steam coolant flowing through a jacket around the reactor moves heat
generated by the reaction in order to maintain the temperature of the reacting
mixture at the maximum allowable (for highest conversion). The coolant is
provided with two branches; one cooled and the other heated. The rate of
cooling and heating (QC and QH) are constant. With this configuration we
can fine tune the temperature of the coolant (increase or decrease) before it
enters the jacket of the CSTR. The reactor effluent is first cooled by the feed
in the feed effluent Heat Exchanger and then it is flashed in a flash drum.
Cooling water is provided to regulate the temperature in the flash drum. We
would like to develop alternative loop configurations for this process to
satisfy the following objectives.
1- Keep conversion in the reactor at its highest permissible value.
2- Maintain a constant production rate.
3- Achieve constant composition in the liquid product of the flash drum

Solution

38
1- Divide the process into 4 blocks (see figure).
2- Determine F as well as number of controlled and manipulated
variables for each block. Determine the best configuration for each
block.

a- Coolant System

2 controlled variables requiring 2 manipulations.

From operating requirements
FC and TCO are the 2 controlled variables
FC and TCO are the 2 measured variables
2 manipulated variables can be selected from the set (FC, FC1,
FC2, FC1+FC2, , FC1/FC2)
The loop shown below is selected.

39
b- Feed preheating system

Controlled variable (Ti) requiring 2 manipulations.

The only manipulated variable is Ws (steam flow rate) thus
yielding 1 loop configuration

c- Reactor

40
 2 controlled variables (Tr, CA).
For manipulation (Fi, TCO or FCO)

d- Flash drum system

Similar to previous example..

4 controlled variables (Fi, Pf, Tf, h)
4 manipulated variables (Fi, Fv, FL, Fw)
The loop shown below

3- Recombine the 4 blocks

41
 4- Eliminate conflicts between control loops of various blocks.

a- FC is used as manipulated variable by two different loops;

Temperature cascade loop of the reactor and feed forward flow
control loop of the coolant system. Thus delete the feed forward
flow control in the coolant system.
b- Fi is controlled by 2 different system loops. Feedback
concentration control loop in the reactor and feed forward
control loop in the flash drum.. Delete the flow control loop in
the flash drum

Now final control configuration has no conflicts.

Solved Problems

1- Determine the maximum number of independent controllers that can

be used for the following systems:
a- The heat exchanger shown
Qh
below containing no boiling of liquids
(Qh and Th are externally Th1
Th2 specified)
QC
TC1 TC2
42
 V=6
E= 1 (heat balance)
F= 6-1=5
No. of controlled variables = 5-2=3

b- A binary mixture (benzene and toluene) is to be distilled at

atmospheric pressure.
Q= overhead flow
T= overhead temperature
Q= heat input rate
To condenser, q, T

Q, heat in

V= 3
E=2 (M.B. & H.B.)
F=3-2=1
No. of controlled variables = 1

43
 2- Consider the mixing process shown in figure

Two streams 1 and 2 are being well mixed in a well stirred tank producing
stream 3. Each of the two streams is composed of 2 components A & B with
molar concentrations CA1, CB1 and CA2 , CB2 respectively. F1 and F2 are the
volumetric flow rates of the two streams (m3/min) and T1 and T2 the
corresponding temperatures. Finally let CA3 , CB3, F3 and T3 be the
concentrations, flow rate and temperature of the product stream. A coil is
immersed to supply heat to the system with steam or remove heat with
cooling water. Write the equations describing the system and compute the
number of controlled variables if F1, T1, F2, T2 and CA2 are externally
specified variables.

Overall M.B.

dV
 (F1  F2 )  F3 (1)
dt

C.M.B. on A

44
 dC A3 V
C A1F1  C A 2 F2  C A3 F3 
dt
dC A3 dV
V  C A3  C A1F1  C A 2 F2  C A3 F3
dt dt
dC
V A3  C A3 (F1  F2  F3 )  C A1F1  C A 2 F2  C A3 F3
dt
dC
V A3  (C A1  C A3 )F1  (C A 2  C A3 )F2 (2)
dt

Heat Balance
dT
VC P 3  F1C P (T1  T3 )  F2 C P (T2  T3 )  Q
dt

V= 11 (V, F1, F2, F3, CA1, CA2, CA3, T1, T2, T3, Q)

E=3

F=11-3=8

Number of controlled variables=F-5=3

3- For the following system find:

a- Number of degrees of freedom
b- Number of independent control objectives you can specify.
F5 is independent on h3 and F1 is an externally specified variable

System A:

45
 E=3 ( mass balance on each tank)
V=5(h1, h2, h3, F1, F5)
N.B. F2, F3 & F4 are dependent on h1, h2 and h3
F=5-3=2
Number of controlled variables=2-1=1

7. Automatic Controllers

Between the measuring device and final control element comes the
controller. Its function is to receive the measured output signal and compare
it with the set point to produce the actuating signal in such a way as to return
the output to the desired value (set point).

7.1. Control Action

The action of the controller is defined as the relationship between error e(t)
which is the input signal to the controller and the corresponding change in
the output signal p(t). The error is the deviation between measured output
signal and set point.

e(t) Controller p(t)

The output signal p(t) of a controller depends on its construction and may be
a pneumatic signal (compressed air) for pneumatic controller or an electrical
signal for electronic controllers.

7.2. Control Modes

Control modes are broadly classified into discontinuous and continuous

control actions.

I. Discontinuous Controllers (On-off or two-position)

46
It is the simplest type of control which is commonly experienced. An
example is thermostatically controlled domestic heater. Depending on the
temperature of the water in the tank, the power supply is either connected to,
or disconnected from, the heater. The figure below shows the relation
between controller input and output.

On

Off

On-off controller performance

II. Continuous Controllers

There are three basic types of continuous control actions: Proportional (P),
Integral (I) and Derivative (D).

a. Proportional action:
A proportional feedback controller changes the output signal in direct
proportion to the error signal.
p(t)-poα e(t)
p(t)=KC e(t) +po

where :
p(t) = the output signal that goes to the final control element, (valve)
po = the output signal when error equals zero.
KC = controller gain
e(t) = error.

The transfer function of the proportional controller could be given by:

GC(s)=KC

47
It is clear that the larger the gain KC , the more the controller output will
change for a given error e, i.e. the higher the sensitivity of the controller.

However, many industrial controllers are expressed in terms of proportional

band (PB) which is defined as the span of the values of input which
corresponds to full or complete change in output. It is related to KC by
1
PB  x100
KC

Thus wide bands (high % PB) corresponds to less sensitive response and
narrow bands (low %PB) corresponds to more sensitive response.

Figure below shows the response of a closed loop system with proportional
control to a unit step change in set point.

We notice that the ultimate response, after t→∞ never reaches the desired
new set point. There is always a discrepancy called off-set.
The off-set is a characteristic effect of proportional control. It decreases as
KC becomes larger and theoretically

offset = 0 when KC →∞

However we cannot use extremely large values of KC as the process

becomes underdamped and eventually unstable.

48
 Effect of the value of KC of a proportional controller

The gain may be made +ve or –ve . A +ve gain corresponds to having
control output increase when process signal decreases which is known as “a
reverse-acting controller”. For –ve gain the output decreases as the process
signal decreases “ direct-acting controller”.
As an example suppose we are controlling the process outlet temperature of
a heat exchanger by throttling steam through a valve. When the temperature
goes up we want steam to decrease therefore the controller should be reverse
acting.
If we are cooling instead of heating we would use direct acting controller.

b. Integral action (reset):

Here the integral action moves the control valve based on the time integral
of the error.

1
p( t )  p o ( t )   e( t )dt
I

49
where τI is the integral or reset time (minutes).

The transfer function of the integral controller is given by:-

1
G C (s) 
 IS

If there is no error the controller output does not move. As the error goes
+ve or –ve the integral of the error drives the controller output either up or
down (reverse or direct).
The integral action causes the output to keep changing as long as an error
exists in the process. Therefore such a controller can eliminate even very
small errors.
Thus the basic purpose of integral action is to drive the process back to its
set point when it has been disturbed. This is called “zero steady state error”
or “zero off-set”. The smaller the τI the faster the error is reduced, however
this tends to make the control loop more oscillatory and moves towards
instability if τI is too small.

c. Derivative action:

The purpose of the derivative action is to anticipate what the error will be in
the immediate future and applies a control action which is proportional to
the current rate of change in the error.

de
p( t )  p o ( t )   D
dt

where τD is the derivative time (minutes).

The transfer function of the derivative controller is given by:-

G C (s)   D S
Lags are reduced in derivative controllers, and it brings stabilizing effect to
the system, however:-
de
- For a response with constant error it gives no control action 0
dt

50
 - For noisy response with almost zero error it can compute large
derivatives and thus yield large control action which is not needed.

The table below summarizes the effects of the different control modes on the
response of the system:

Control Mode Effect on Response

Proportional Control a- Accelerates the response of a
controlled process
b- Produces an offset
c- If the KC is increased to decrease
the offset the system becomes
oscillatory and might lead to
instability
Integral Control a- Eliminates any offset.
b- Produces sluggish, long oscillating
responses.
Derivative Control a- Anticipates future errors and
introduces appropriate action
b- Decreases lags in the process
c- Produces unneeded control action
in case of noisy responses.

7.3. Commercial Controllers

The used commercial controllers are combinations of the 3 above described
actions:
a. Proportional (P): just proportional action. The proportional controller is
easy to tune since there is only one parameter to adjust. It provides good
stability and very rapid response and is dynamically relatively stable.

b. Proportional Integral (PI): with proportional + integral action. The

addition of the integral mode eliminates the offset but results in a sluggish,
oscillating response.
 1 
p( t )  p o ( t )  K C e( t )   e( t )dt 
 I 
1
G C (s)  K C (1  )
 IS
Its tuning is more difficult than P alone as there are two parameters that
need adjustment. The origin of the term reset for Integral control could be

51
made clear. Consider that the error changes by a step magnitude ε. The
response of the output of a controller is shown in figure below.

Response of a PI controller to a step change in error

Initially the controller output is KCε (the contribution of the integral term
is =0). After a period of time I the contribution of the integral term is
I
KC KC
 e( t )dt   I  K C
I 0 I
i.e. the integral control action has repeated the response of the
proportional action. This repetition takes place every I minutes. Thus
reset time is the time needed by the controller to repeat the initial
proportional action change in its output.

c- Proportional Integral Derivative (PID): with proportional +integral

+ derivative actions. Addition of the derivative mode with its stabilizing
effect allows the use of higher gains which produce faster response
without excessive oscillations
 1 de 
p( t )  p o ( t )  K C e( t )   e( t ) dt   
 I D
dt 

52
 1
G C (s)  K C (1    S)
 IS D

The figure below shows the response of a controlled process to a unit step
change in the load with different types of controllers. When the load
changes, the response deviates and the controller tries to bring the output
again close to desired set point.

The response of a process to unit step change in load with

different types of controllers

It is clear from the figure that PID controller should be the best. It offers
flexibility to achieve the desired controlled response by having three
adjustable parameters. However its tuning is complex. Tuning is the
selection of values to be used for its adjustable parameters.

The following table summarizes the characteristics of the most

commonly used controller modes:

Control Mode Characteristics

On-Off - Inexpensive.

53
 - Extremely simple
P - Simple
- Easy to tune.
- Experience off-set at steady state
PI - No-offset
- Better dynamic response than integral
alone
- Possibilities exist for instability
PID - Most complex
- Most expensive
- Rapid reponse.
- No offset.
- Difficult to tune.
- Best control if properly tuned.

7.4.Rules of Selecting the Most Appropriate Controller

1- If possible use simple proportional controller: This can be used if we

can achieve acceptable offset with moderate values of KC. This type
of control is used for pressure or liquid level control
2- If a simple P controller is unacceptable use PI: This can be used
when P alone cannot provide sufficiently small off-sets. This type of
control is mostly used in flow control, the response of which is rather
fast. Thus the speed of the closed loop system remains satisfactory
despite the slowdown caused by the integral control mode
3- Use a PID controller to increase the speed of a closed loop. This is
used for processes whose response are very sluggish. It is
recommended for temperature and composition control.

54