AEL Stope Blasting Handbook 2016

Stope Blasting
Handbook
Version 1.1 I 2016
Basic Blasting Techniques - “What every miner should know”
2 Stope Blasting Handbook © AEL Mining Services

DISCLAIMER AND INDEMNITY

Any recommendations given by AEL Mining Services Limited, AEL, in respect of this document are given in good faith
based on information provided. AEL does not however warrant that particular results or effects will be achieved if
the recommendations are implemented, due to potentially unknown aspects and/or conditions. AEL further does not
accept liability for any losses or damages that may be suffered, as a result of the customer acting, or failing to act, on
the recommendations given.
Stope Blasting Handbook © AEL Mining Services 3

TABLE OF CONTENTS
1. Introduction 6
2. Marking and Drilling 7
2.1 Free face 7
2.2 Hole position 8
2.2.1 Top hole position 8
2.2.2 Bottom hole position 8
2.2.3 Burden 9
2.3 Overburdened holes 10
2.4 Holes drilled off-line 11
2.5 Short holes 11
2.6 Missing holes 13
2.7 Drilling angled holes 13
2.8 Square or staggered pattern 15
2.9 Marking of “Fan” holes 17
3. Charging up and timing 18
3.1 Barring the face before charging 18
3.2 Making up of primers 18
3.3 Top, mid and bottom priming 20
3.3.1 Bottom (toe) direct priming 20
3.3.2 Bottom (toe) reverse priming 20
3.3.3 Top direct priming 21
3.3.4 Mid-priming 22
3.4 Priming, type of initiation system in use and method for treatment of 23
misfires
3.5 Charging the drill hole with explosives 25
3.5.1 Anfex® 25
3.5.2 Pumpable emulsion 25
3.5.3 Cartridged explosives 26
3.6 The correct charge 26
3.6.1 Coupling 27
3.7 Stemming (tamping) 27
3.8 Preventing damage to initiators whilst charging 28
3.9 Sequential timing 28
3.10 Burning front 28
3.10.1 Calculation of “real burning front” 29
4. Gully blasting with shock tube 30
4.1 Maintaining ASG shoulders 31
5. Choice of explosives 34
5.1 Productivity 34
5.2 Economy 34
5.3 Local conditions 35
5.4 Underground bulk emulsion UG100 and UG200 ranges 36

5.5 Anfex® 36
5.6 Magnum® watergel 37
5.7 Magnum® drygel 37
6. Initiating systems 38
6.1 Shock tube systems 38
6.1.1 Uni-delay LP 39
6.1.2 Trunkline delay 40
6.1.3 Splitter 40
6.1.4 Electric shock tube starter 40
6.1.5 NetShockTM (electronic starter for shock tube) 41
6.1.6 Blast initiation timer (BIT) 41
6.1.8 Advantages and disadvantages of shock tube systems 42
6.2 Methods of timing with shock tube in stoping 43
6.2.1 Staggered – single (daisy chain) 43
6.2.2 Box – twin (2 on 2) 43
6.2.3 Staggered – twin (2 on 2) 43
6.2.4 Diamond – combination (2 on 1) 43
6.2.5 Reverse timing 43
6.2.6 Diamond – combination (2 on 2) reverse timing 40
6.2.7 Diamond – combination (3 on 3) chevron timing 40
6.2.8 Box – combination (4 on 4) chevron timing 40
6.3 Electronic delay detonators 45
6.3.1 DigiShotTM 45
6.3.2 Electronic delay detonators system benefits 46
6.4 Capped fuse and igniter cords 46
7. Secondary blasting 47
8. Specialised blasting techniques 48
8.1 Drop and inverse drop raising 48
8.2 Pre-conditioning 49
8.3 Undercutting 49
8.4 Down-dip and Up-dip mining 52
9. SAFETY – Do’s and Don’ts 53
9.1 Storage 53
9.2 Handling 53
9.3 Application - general 53
9.4 Application – shock tube 54
9.5 Application – detonating cord 54
9.6 Application – shock tube starters 55
10. List of figures 56

1. Introduction
The Stope Blasting Handbook has been used with great enthusiasm as a reference in mine
blasting syllabi since it was first published. This new edition has been revised to provide
greater emphasis on the answers to critical questions that the miner encounters both
during his day to day blasting activities and during the unusual situations.
This booklet has been compiled by AEL Mining Services to provide a practical guide for
blasting in underground narrow reef mining operations. It has been revised to include new
products and to give greater emphasis to critical questions. The objectives of stope blasting
are to help the miner to:
• Operate safely
• Maximise advance per blast
• Minimise overbreak
• Mine within designed stoping width
• Minimise hangingwall damage
• Achieve required fragmentation
• Achieve good movement of the muckpile
• Minimise scatter into swept areas and blasting out of support
• Achieve good explosive efficiencies
These objectives are controlled by the mining operations, namely; the marking, drilling,
charging and timing of the holes. To condense this booklet we have combined marking with
drilling and timing with charging.
The mining industry has undertaken the major step of phasing out the use of capped fuse
and igniter cord in favour of the safer non electric initiation systems e.g. shock tube. This is
due to the inherent dangers associated with capped fuse and igniter cord and the fatalities
that have been experienced.
Based on practical experience in the narrow reef stoping environment, this booklet
answers most of the questions a miner might ask on the use of the range of explosives and
accessories produced by AEL Mining Services.
Advice on the most appropriate explosives and initiating products and their applications in
the specific mining area should be obtained from AEL Mining Services Office, sales support
and technical teams and/or the website.

2. Marking and Drilling
Drilling is the most critical aspect of achieving good advance in stoping and if this is not
done correctly then any attempts at improving results by changing other parameters, such
as the explosives and timing, will be wasted effort. In most cases of poor advance and
excessive overbreak poor drilling is found to be at the root of the problem.
To achieve good blasting results, the holes must be drilled in the right position, to full depth
and at the correct angle. It may be beneficial to appoint one rock drill operator who will be
responsible for drilling the cut and easer holes every day.
2.1 Free face
No blast hole can successfully break if it does not have a free face to break into. A free
face is provided by developing the gullies ahead of the face, advanced strike gully, ASG,
or created in solid rock by drilling a cut, a burn, figure 1 or a wedge, figure 2.
Figure 1 Burn cut (used in ASG)
Figure 2 Correct marking of wedge cut, used in stope faces with

no breaking point

2.2 Hole position
Every mine should have a written standard defining the hangingwall position relative to
the reef.
2.2.1 Top hole position
The position of the top holes is most important. They should break out the reef band
so that reef is not left in the hanging wall and drilled as near horizontal as practical.
They can be expected to angle upwards so that the toe of the hole is about 15cm
further out than the collar. Usually they should be collared about 20cm below top
reef contact. If the top holes are positioned too high this will result in mining waste
and weakening the hangingwall. Placement of holes in the reef band should be
avoided where practically possible as this causes loss of value due to fines creation.
(Figure 3 & 4.)
2.2.2 Bottom hole position
This will depend on the channel width and standard stoping width at the mine.
With contact reefs and channel widths less than 60cm some footwall waste may
have to be taken. The bottom holes would then be collared about 60cm below the
hangingwall horizon.
In mining to the footwall contact it would be normal to collar the holes as low as
possible to the footwall. Avoid the tendency to drill the holes down into the footwall
since this will result in mining unnecessary waste.
(Figure 3 & 4.)
Figure 3 Blasthole collaring positions for typical narrow reef stope face (1)

Figure 4 Blasthole collaring positions for typical narrow reef stope face (2)
2.2.3 Burden
AEL Mining Services defines burden in narrow reef stoping as the distance between
top holes measured along the face.
The burden should be such that the holes:
• Break to full depth

• Do not blast out excessive hangingwall and footwall waste
• Do not crater causing excessive flyrock and damage
The required burdens are determined by the breaking conditions, reef type, hole
diameter and the type of explosive used, figure 5.
The planned burden in most narrow reef stoping operations in platinum reef is
from 40 - 60cm, in the gold reefs and also in quartzite, this may be from 50 – 70cm.
Where the immediate hangingwall strata is very friable, such as the khaki shale
in the Free State, burdens may have to be reduced to as little as 50cm. (A reduced
charge mass per hole may also need to be considered.) In all cases, the mine
standard will dictate what the burden will be.
Rule of Thumb:
As a starting point in new unknown areas, burden should be taken as 50 to 60% of

the desired stoping width (except in hard rock where 40% of the desired stoping
width will be required). e.g. If your desired stoping width (in hard rock) is 1.0m,
burden should not exceed 40cm.

Figure 5 Layout of a typical stope panel, ASG and siding
2.3 Overburdened holes
The most visible and measurable effects of overburdened holes are
• Long sockets resulting from poor advance/blast

• Damage to the hangingwall and grade dilution
• Damage to support and blast barricades from blown out shots
• Increased slabbing of the face and hangingwall ahead of the exploding shots
due to excessive concussion - this could result in cut-offs of the initiation
system in use
• Bumps on the face adversely affecting face scraping and resulting in the
potential for damage to the initiation units by fly-rock in the next blast
• Holes drilled off line and any that are drilled short or left out, will all result in
overburdening
• Non-uniform fragmentation with fines and oversize

2.4 Holes drilled off-line
The most common causes of holes being drilled off-line are:

• Support in the way of drilling machines.
• Badly marked direction lines
• Machine operators attempting to drill more than one hole from a single
comfortable position
• Inaccurate collaring of holes due to drill steel slipping on the face.
• Paint marks being removed by slabbing of the face
Figure 6 Holes drilled off-line
2.5 Short holes
As can be seen in figure 7, hole number 3 has been drilled short thereby doubling the
effective burden between hole number 2 and 4. This will inevitably lead to long sockets
in holes number 4, 5 and 6 and cause a bump in the face.
The most common causes of short holes are:
• Purposely drilled short holes, for instance due to a late start in drilling.
• Blocked holes in stressed ground
• Holes not blown out properly, or stones falling into the hole during charging,
causing the explosive cartridge to jam before reaching the back of the hole

Figure 7 Drilling errors affecting face shape

• Under-gauge drill steel causing cartridges to snag

This can be corrected for example by using a length of bell wire, figure 8.
Note: Holes are shown drilled at 70°, but are also drilled at 85 - 90° to the face in
both platinum and gold mines.
Figure 8 Straightening of the face using bell wire
2.6 Missing holes
If a hole is not drilled, or not charged, it is inevitable that the following hole is severely
overburdened and will not break to full depth.
The most common causes of missing holes are:
• Not marked
• The mark is either washed off or barred off or slabbed off
• Not charged through oversight
• Support in the way of drilling machines
• Deliberately leaving out holes, to complete drilling the stope face for blasting
at the end of the shift
2.7 Drilling angled holes
Prior to the introduction of shock tube when using capped fuse and igniter cord, in
most mining conditions, a 70o horizontal drilling angle minimised sockets because this
angle helped the hole to break out, without significantly reducing advance or throwing
rock into back areas, figure 9.

When using shock tube initiation systems drilling at 90° has become the norm and is
necessary to prevent damage to the support and to capitalise from the increased throw
that shock tube systems provide. However, it must be remembered that if the burden
is stretched too far, even shock tube blasting will result in sockets and uneven face
advance, figure 10.
Figure 9 Breaking effect of angled holes (capped fuse)
Figure 10 Breaking effect of angled holes (shock tube)
It is equally important not to drill at angles smaller than 70° where angled drilling
is still required. Assuming full length breaking with a one metre hole, the effect on
advance at various angles is as follows:

Angle Loss of advance per metre drilled

(cm)
90o 0
80o 2
70 o
6
60 o
13
50 o
23
This means that “sliping holes” (less than 60o) must be avoided, as they will
inevitably result in poor advance, back area contamination and damage to support,
especially when used with shock tube initiation, figure 11.
Figure 11 Effect of angled holes on advance
2.8 Square or staggered pattern
In terms of whether the lines of holes are aligned vertically in a square pattern, or
offset to produce a staggered pattern, figure 12 compares the resulting geometry for
identical burden and stoping width. Staggered patterns are less tight-breaking, offering
wider angles of break and slightly less minimum burden distance than rectangular
patterns of the same burden and stoping width.
However, the rectangular pattern offers a better chance of recovery if one of the holes
misfires, or fires out-of-sequence, as top and bottom holes have equal initial burden,
and less tight breaking for the second hole. It also gives the opportunity of sequencing
the bottom holes always to fire first, thus reducing the burden and impact of the top
holes when Hangingwall needs to be protected.
Staggered patterns enable better efficiencies to be obtained in good breaking

conditions, but if special measures with close drilling patterns need to be adopted,
square patterns offer more flexibility.
Figure 12 Effect of square or staggered pattern

2.9 Marking of “Fan” holes
A fan is marked at the top or bottom of a “back” stope i.e. where there is no gully to
break into in order to maintain a constant face length, figure 13.
• Using the same length drill steel that the face will be drilled with, place the
point of the drill steel against the face and make a mark at the end of it on
the hangingwall
• Measure 30cm from the side of the abutment and make a mark on the
hangingwall
• At the face measure 10cm from the side of the abutment and make a mark
on the face. Measure a further two 10cm’s and make marks on the face. The
fourth hole is then marked 30cm from these holes. By connecting the marks
on the face to the mark on the hangingwall, the correct drilling angles are
obtained
Figure 13 Marking of "Fan" holes

3. Charging up and Timing
3.1 Barring the face before charging
Leave the final barring down of the face as late as possible before charging up. This
is very important as drilling loosens rock on the face, especially if the face is under
pressure. Before the blast, or as the shots detonate, loose rocks may fall onto and
damage the initiation system or cause the shock tube to be pulled out of the out-hole
connectors.
3.2 Making up of primers
In the interests of safety and sequential firing, there are some important points to
remember when making primers:
• Use an approved primer pricker to make the hole in the primer cartridge.
(This is normally a legal requirement).
• Do not attempt to force a detonator into a cartridge:
o This is a dangerous practice: if the detonator kinks at the delay crimp
this may cause premature detonation of the detonator and potentially the
primer cartridge.
• When charging with cartridge explosive products take care not to push
the detonator right through the cartridge, or to the side. There must be a
sufficient mass of explosives in front of and around the detonator to transmit
detonation through the entire explosives charge, figure 14.
• Detonators are provided in two strengths; 6D (630mg) example IED and 8D
(730mg) example shock tube and electronic detonators.
o A common misconception is that the 8D detonator is more sensitive
than a 6D detonator. The truth is that both are equally sensitive but the
detonator is twice the strength of a 6D detonator and much longer,
thus allowing it to be used as the sole initiator for Anfex® (i.e. without a
primer). Shock tube detonators are only supplied in 8D strength
so for this reason it is imperative that a primer pricker be used whenever
cartridged explosives are used.
• An alternative method of priming long holes when using pumpable emulsion,
is to insert a doubled-back section of the shock tube immediately behind the
detonator into the loading lance so that the detonator is facing forward to the
toe of the hole. When the explosives are then loaded through the lance, the
shock tube will be ejected and the explosives loaded around the detonator,
figure 15.

• It is not recommended that this method be used for holes loaded

pneumatically with Anfex® due to the following safety hazards:
o Potential for detonation of the detonator due to it impacting the toe of the
hole with force when ejected from the lance.
o Damage to the shock tube when it exits the lance, due to sharp burring
on the lance tip.
Figure 14 Inserting a detonator into an explosive cartridge
Figure 15 – Method of priming in up holes

3.3 Top, mid and bottom priming
3.3.1 Bottom (toe) direct priming
The detonator is positioned at the toe of the hole pointing towards the bottom of the
hole, figure 16.
Figure 16 Direct priming
3.3.2 Bottom (toe) reverse priming
The detonator is positioned at the toe of the hole pointing back towards the collar of
the hole, figure 17.
Figure 17 Reverse priming (must have method to deal with misfire)
Reverse priming, on a technical basis, only provides improved blasting results in

hard rock and tough breaking conditions. In such conditions it may be possible to
detect a difference between reverse and direct priming by measuring the length of
sockets after blasts. Soft and medium strength rocks will likely show no significant
difference between reverse and direct priming. If reverse priming is practised a
detonator centraliser (Mantis) could be used to keep the detonator parallel to the
blast hole for ease of removal in case of misfire.

There are a number of practical mining reasons why reverse priming is sometimes
used, including:
• Keeping the end of the detonator away from the toe of the hole when soluble
explosives such as Anfex® are used without a primer cartridge in wet
conditions
• Ease of charging up holes such as used in raises, boxhole holes and in ring
blasting
• Ease of charging with lances, when the detonator is inserted into the end of
the lance, or attached to a cradle at the end of the lance and pushed into the
blast hole
• The detonator is less likely to be pulled out of the primer cartridge, booster
during the charging process
AEL does not sanction this method unless a risk analysis and procedure for
treating misfires has been established.
A risk study must be done by the mine to ensure this practise is safe and done with
strict controls e.g. condition, type and construction of lance/cradle e.g. Mantis user
operating method, etc.
3.3.3 Top direct priming
Top priming is normally strongly discouraged for two reasons:
• There is a high risk of adjacent, earlier firing blast holes cratering and
separating the detonator in the adjacent later firing blast hole before it
has fired and initiated the main explosive column. The result is a partially
misfired hole requiring treatment, a loss of advance and poor fragmentation,
figure 18.
Figure 18 Cratering of adjacent blast hole

• Initiating a hole from the collar, where it is less confined than at the toe of
the hole, is technically inefficient and in stronger rock types will result in the
loss of advance.
3.3.4 Mid-priming
The primary motivation for mid-priming is usually cost-cutting by using shorter,

less expensive initiation system components, figure 19. The main reason for
discouraging mid-priming is the treatment of misfires. The detonator is the most
sensitive item in the explosive train and if struck by an over vigorous miner whilst
pumping out the misfire can detonate. It is essential that the misfired detonator
only be exposed after the bulk of the explosives column has been removed so that
should the detonator be struck and initiated, only the detonator will fire and not any
explosives deeper in the hole behind the detonator.
Another reason for discouraging mid-priming is because although the detonator

is better confined than with collar priming, it is still not as good as toe priming and
poorer advances can be expected in tough rock breaking conditions.
Figure 19 Mid-priming

3.4 Priming, type of initiation system in use and method for treatment of misfires
Where possible for optimum explosive performance the detonator could be placed at
the toe of the hole with the detonator pointing towards the toe of the hole (>10cm).
When deciding how blast holes should be primed two main aspects of the mining
operation should be considered:
• Type of initiation system in use

- When reverse priming a blast hole considerable strain is placed in
the initiating system component at the point where it turns through
180o typically where the detonator is inserted into
the primer cartridge.
- Shock tube is more robust and better able to withstand damage. It is also
subjected to similar strains albeit with a lower failure rate than was
typically experienced with capped fuse. The failure rate with shock tube
will depend on the material from which the tube is manufactured and
advice from the supplier should be sought.
- Electronic (and electric) detonators, the wires, can more easily withstand
reverse priming if required.
- Capped fuse has a relatively weak construction in this respect and
damage to the protective layers at the bend can occur to a significant
percentage of the fuses resulting in ingress of water to the black powder
train and subsequent misfires.
- It is recommended reverse priming not be used.
• Treatment of misfires
- Misfires are an inevitable consequence of blasting and safe practises
must be established for dealing with these. Because of the dangers
associated with pumping out of misfires the preferred method of dealing
with these is to remove the stemming material to expose the top of the
explosive column, place a fresh primer in contact with the explosive and
re-fire the blast hole.
- However this is not always permitted or possible and some examples of
such situations include:
- Where in-shift blasting is not permitted and all misfires have
to be dealt with immediately before mining operations
can continue.
- In fiery mines where the removal of the stemming material in
misfired blast holes, e.g. coal, is prohibited by regulation.
- Effect of detonator length
- When the reverse priming method is used it is very important
to understand how the length of the detonator affects safety,
figure 20. Because they contain no delay elements capped

fuse and IED detonators are quite short, (6D - ±33 mm and 8D
±49mm), whereas shock tube and electronic detonators are
considerably longer, e.g. Electronic, ±76 mm and Shock tube
±53 to 99 mm.
- When pumping out a misfire it is normal practise to firmly
but gently pull on the end of the initiating system component
hanging out of the blast hole whilst inserting a suitable
blowpipe. This ultimately has the effect of pulling the detonator
across the diameter of the blast hole sometimes causing it to
wedge.
- The longer detonators are more likely to wedge creating a
potential hazard from the detonator either snapping, being
struck by the blowpipe or hooked, due to the use of a scraper.
As detonators are relatively weak in the middle, once sufficient
explosive has been removed from the blast hole to reach
the primer a suitable blowpipe should be used to complete the
task.
- The design, material and use of the blowpipe should be such
that the operator can stand to one side of the hole so that in the
event of the detonator being accidentally initiated,
there are little or no other explosives in the blast hole and there
is a good chance that the operator will escape serious injury.
Figure 20 Detonator wedged across blast hole
“Mantis” detonator centraliser will align the detonator parallel to the blast
hole and prevent it from wedging.

3.5 Charging the drill hole with explosives
3.5.1 Anfex®
Anfex® readily dissolves in water losing power and ultimately becoming insensitive
to detonation. The drilled hole must be desludged and as dry as possible, figure 21.
When using an Anfex® loader, it is a good idea to ensure the point of the lance is
regularly “smoothed off”, to prevent the sharp end from damaging the initiation unit
and causing prill break-up.
Water resistant explosives must be used in waterlogged holes.
Figure 21 Effect of water of Anfex®
3.5.2 Pumpable emulsion
No primers are required when charging with pumpable emulsion and therefore it
is required to insert an 8D strength detonator into the hole by means of forward
priming, unless a Mantis detonator centraliser is in use.
When the pump operates it pumps the emulsion mixture into the hole which
releases the shock tube to its normal position inside the hole. The shock tube
should then be pulled not more than 10cm backwards as to ensure enough
explosives are left at the toe of the hole in front of the detonator. The drill hole must
be free of pebbles and grit. Failure to do so could make charging operations difficult
because of the lance which will get stuck whilst charging or not being able to charge
the desired length of the hole which could lead to sockets.

3.5.3 Cartridged explosives
The drill hole must be free of pebbles and grit, which could cause the cartridges
to snag or become separated. Failure to do this could result in misfires due to the
detonation not propagating across the debris filled gap, figure 22.
It is important to remember not to use excessive force when pushing a cartridge
home. This is especially true with the primer cartridge that contains the detonator.
Not only are detonators sensitive to impact, but the shock tube may be susceptible
to damage by impact. Explosives like Magnum® can lose sensitivity if tamped too
vigorously.
Figure 22 Water/Grit between cartridges
3.6 The correct charge
Stoping holes drilled with hand-held drilling machines should be charged to about 30
cm from the collar.
Rule of Thumb (Uncharged hole length):
Allow for 10 x hole diameter (uncharged) or two thirds of hole length (charged)
Overcharging can result in:
• Trunkline initiator cut-offs due to ricocheting rocks, excessive concussion or

slabbing of the face
• Damage to support
• Damage to blasting barricades
• Overbreak and damage to hangingwall and footwall
• Increased fines leading to more ore loss
• Incorrect explosives efficiencies and increased cost/m2

3.6.1 Coupling
When charging holes with either cartridged product or cartridged explosives

consideration must be given to how the cartridges couple to the hole. This is
affected by water, grit and cartridge diameter.
Overcharging is a waste of explosives, besides being a secondary cause of damage,

figure 23, compared to the primary cause being overburdened holes leading to
blown-out shots.
Figure 23 Correct charged holes vs. overcharged holes
3.7 Stemming (tamping)
All blast holes are legally required to be stemmed. Routine use of stemming will lead
to improved blasting results due to improved confinement of the explosives gases,
which is also true when using Anfex® and pumpable emulsion. An effective stemming
material, such as commercially formulated clay capsules due to the ease of use and
availability.
In damaged or weak ground conditions the use of stemming (tamping) should be

considered carefully as it may cause an increased risk exposure to the work force:
• Increased blast damage zone in hanging wall
• Longer shift time to place stemming material
- Greater exposure to risk zone

3.8 Preventing damage to initiators whilst charging
Many misfires occur as a result of damaged initiators, of which the common causes
are:
• Stepping on the shock tube or allowing loose rock or equipment to impact it,
thus resulting in a break in the tubing which contaminates the inner powder
core. Inadequate face preparation may also result in rock slabs from the face
damaging the units, despite the excellent burning front provided by shock
tube initiators. This could also be hazardous as a detonator could detonate
when stepped on, resulting in serious injury
• Using the incorrect length of unit, this may result in no slack being allowed
to accommodate the movement of the rock, during detonation. This may
cause the tubing to be pulled out of the out-hole detonator before it has been
initiated
3.9 Sequential timing
Sequential timing means that the blast holes will detonate in the planned sequence
from the point of initiation.
Except where severe hangingwall conditions exist, even with a staggered pattern it
is often not critical as to which of the holes fires first i.e. top or bottom although the
leading bottom hole is preferable. It is most important though to ensure that holes in
the same row fire consecutively.
3.10 Burning front
Burning front refers to the distance between where the out-hole detonators (200ms)
are initiating the shock tube and the in-hole detonators (4000ms) initiating the
explosives. Example: Uni-Delay 200/4000ms connected in a doubled (2 rows) square
pattern will have a 20 connection burning front. This will mean that 20 sets of holes will
be initiated before the first hole detonates, figure 24.

Figure 24 Burning front
3.10.1 Calculation of “Real Burning Front”
Burning front using shock tube may be affected by the stope drilling pattern and if
reverse timing is to be employed. The actual distance may vary depending on the
drilled burden between sets of holes. It is important to remember that the burning
front is counted/measured in number of connections and not metres. While “Daisy
chain” connections can increase the burning front, these are not recommended due
to the increased risk of failure due to single connections. Double connections are
recommended at all times to ensure protection against cut-offs.

4. Gully blasting with shock tube
To achieve consistently good advance in these narrow ends it is necessary to:
• Decide what advance you require and expect to break 85% of the drilled length. Do
not attempt more than a 1.8m advance.
• Standardise on a 5-hole cut, the narrow width makes it difficult or even impossible
to drill angled holes for a proper drag or wedge round. In some types of rock a
9-hole cut may be required to achieve full advance.
• Charge only 4 holes in a 5-hole burn cut or 9-hole burn cut (figure 25 and 26)
• Ensure that there is sufficient burning front allowed (trunk lines correctly
connected) between the ASG holes and the stope face holes to prevent cut-offs.
Trunkline or Splitter units can be used to achieve this requirement.
Figure 25 Typical ASG used in Platinum mines (cm).

Figure 26 Typical ASG used in Gold mines (cm).
NB: The figures above shall be interpreted as a

guideline only whereby in all cases, the mine standard
will dictate what the gully parameters will be.
4.1 Maintaining ASG shoulders
To prevent undue damage by blasting, it is usual to drill the first two or more holes
nearest to the ASG shoulder as a single row, close to the hangingwall and at a reduced
burden and reduced charge. This is done to prevent bottom holes damaging the footwall
and affecting the stability of ASG shoulder support. (Figures 27, 28, 29 and 30.)

Figure 27 Protecting gully shoulder
Figure 28 Timing using shock tube to protect gully ledge

Figure 29 Stoping best practise
Figure 30 Underground, minimum 0.9m

5. Choice of explosives
UG100 pumpable emulsions, Anfex®, Magnum® Buster Gel, Magnum® 365 Gel, Magnum®
Control, Magnum® Frag and Magnum® Plus (water gels and dry gels) are all suitable
explosives for stoping. The following considerations are important in making the choice:
• Productivity
• Economy
• Safety
• Stoping conditions
5.1 Productivity
Explosives affect productivity in several ways namely:
• Face advance.
• Speed of charging.
• The ability to confine the energy release to breaking the face only and not
cause extraneous effects such as hangingwall damage and blasting out
support, etc.
UG100 pumpable emulsion in conjunction with a manufacturing pump a mixer and

a lance; meets all these requirements, due to its ability to improve efficiency, face
advance and reduces the risk to legislation on explosives control and improve hanging
wall conditions.
Anfex® meets the first two requirements adequately, but in the case of the third
particularly in the larger hole diameter range, it can cause problems.
Because of the good coupling achieved in holes pneumatically loaded with Anfex®, its
breaking effect in poorly drilled or badly timed holes is superior to that of cartridged
explosives. Accurate drilling and good timing are required to achieve the same advance
using the Magnum® range of explosives. Remember that, while Anfex® is more forgiving
in good ground conditions and poor drilling, it will cause more damage if combined with
poor drilling in poor ground conditions.
5.2 Economy
The misconception that Anfex® is a clear leader on price per bag must be carefully
considered in terms of explosive efficiencies and safety. Some of the price advantage

is lost however due to less efficient use. Not only is the mass of Anfex® pneumatically
loaded into a drill hole greater than the mass of cartridged explosives that can be
pressed home, but also the fact that it can conveniently be disposed of by dissolving in
water encourages wastage. Blowback and spillage also contribute towards wastage.
A representative survey of gold mines reveals that while those on cartridged explosives
achieve efficiencies of 7.5 to 12 m2 per case, those using Anfex® record 4.5 to 9 m2 per
case. This indicates that over 20% more Anfex® than cartridged explosive is used to
break a m2.
Note:
Or if this information is not available then:-
Where: Pf = Powder Factor (kg/m3) (or tons/m3 x kg/ton)

SW = Stoping width (m)
Note:
The Powder Factor (Pf) can be calculated by using the following formula:
Powder Factor (Pf) = Kg of explosives used ÷ (Stoping Width x Panel Length x Advance)
5.3 Local conditions
Some of the local conditions which could influence the choice of explosives are:
• Crushed ground conditions

• Hangingwall conditions
• Water problems
• Mining an overstoped or understoped reef
• Stoping width and channel width
• Payability
If one or more of the above factors presents an ongoing problem on any mine, then it is
quite possible that conditions can be improved by choosing an explosive with different
breaking characteristics from the one being used.

5.4 Underground bulk emulsion
Underground bulk emulsion is a strategic innovation to change the way mining is done,
to enhance: efficiency, reduce the overall cost of mining and reduce risk. It consists of a
base emulsion and sensitiser, which are classified as non-detonable and non-explosive
respectively. UG100 is characterised as high strength. The product is suitable for
underground stoping and development.
Benefits Features
• Reduces legislation on explosives • High safety standards

control • High strength
• Improved safety of use, labour • High VoD
utilisation and logistics • High water resistance
• Only mixes the required quantity • Low fume emissions
of explosives when it is needed, • Non-detonable until loaded into the
which eliminate the possibility of hole with a sensitiser
Explosives wastage • Sensitiser is non-explosive
• Flexible, easy and reliable charging
• Uniform fragmentation to optimise
ore extraction
• Generally priming is not required,
8D sensitive
• Safe transportation, storage and
use in all underground applications
• Improved cycle times resulting in
greater face advance
5.5 Anfex®
Not all ANFOs are the same. AEL’s Anfex® is a high quality product with minimal fume
generation, controlled density and prill hardness for consistent breaking results and
efficiencies. Other ANFO’s will not necessarily give the same results.
Advantages Disadvantages
• Safe†, Anfex® is not impact • High solubility in water

sensitive • High wastage potential
• Rapid loading of holes • Difficult to control H/W conditions
• Optimal utilisation of drill steel and • Dependent on compressed air
equipment • Tends to overblast

• Varying hole diameter will result in

varying charge lengths for the same
volume of Anfex®
• Change in air pressure will affect the
loading of Anfex®
†
It should be noted that all explosives are dangerous as long as they contain a detonator. “Safe” is a relative
term and refers to the ability of the explosive to withstand rough environmental conditions and maltreatment.
5.6 Magnum® watergel
• Best product for intermediate and • Relies on more accurate drilling to

large hole diameters >38mm achieve good results
• Softer rheology allows for better • Soft composition can result in
coupling in down holes overcharging
• Can be initiated by 6D detonator or • Delivers high proportion of fines
8g/m detonating cord (Gel)
• Excellent water resistance (48
hours)
• Buster Gel and 365 are available for
easy/difficult breaking conditions in
stopes
• Good fume characteristics
5.7 Magnum® drygel
• Rigid nature prevents floppyness in • Relies on more accurate drilling to

high temperature holes achieve good results.(Control)
• Best product for small diameter • Delivers high proportion of
holes in narrow reef stoping fines(Plus)
• Allows for hangingwall control in
tight breaking conditions
• Can be initiated by 6D detonator or
8g/m detonating cord
• Excellent water resistance (48
hours)
• Control, Frag and Plus are
available for easy/difficult breaking
conditions in stopes

6. Initiating Systems
6.1 Shock tube systems
Shock tube systems consist of a length of shock tubing (also referred to as signal
tubing) with a detonator crimped onto one or both ends. Plastic connectors are pressed
onto the detonators to enable connections to other initiating assemblies by clipping
onto the tubing of subsequent units, figure 31.
Figure 31 Connecting of shock tube
Shock tubing is a narrow bore, hollow plastic tube, which is coated with a thin film of
reactive material on the inside. The type of plastic used and whether the shock tubing
has one, two or more layers of plastic, depends on the intended conditions of use.
When a detonator or detonating cord initiates shock tubing, the energy is transferred
from the detonator or detonating cord to the reactive explosive inside the tubing. The
explosive powder inside the tube explodes and a detonation wave travels along the
inside of the tube at about 2 000 metres per second, without rupturing the tube.
The detonation wave inside shock tube is able to set off instantaneous or delay
detonators and thus provide a non-electrical means of initiating detonators. This is
why shock tube products are also referred to as non-electric products.
Shock tube systems are suited to a number of underground mining operations

including development, narrow reef stoping and ring blasting operations. They offer
many benefits to the miner, namely:-

• Sequential firing
• Minimal misfire rates
• Minimal chance of cut-offs
• Good fragmentation
• Good muck-pile shape and position
• Maximum safety
The shock tube products commonly used in underground mining operations are:-
• Uni-Delay LP (6) and Uni-Delay LP (3)1

• Uni-Delay SP (6)
• Multi-SPD and Multi-LPD
• Splitter
• Trunkline
• Shock tube starter (electric starter for shock tube)
• NetShockTM (electronic starter for shock tube)
• Blast Initiation Timer (BIT) (electronically timed initiator for electric starters
such as ST Starter, IED, Shurstart)
( ) indicates number of tubes that can be accommodated by the connector

1
Changes to 5 tube variant only from 1st Quarter 2014
6.1.1 Uni-Delay LP
These units are used for timing stoping and development blasts. The Uni-Delay
LP (Long Period) is a single component initiation system which gives millisecond
delay timing without the need for numbered delay detonators. Uni-Delays are fitted
with a delay detonator at each end of the tube. The in-hole detonator has a delay
of 4000 seconds, is 8D strength and can be used alone or with a cartridge to make
a primer. The out-hole detonator has a delay of 200 milliseconds and is available
in two variations, Uni-Delay (6) or Uni-Delay (3) which currently hold a maximum of
six or three shock tubes, respectively. Note: The 3 tube connector is used in stoping
applications while the 6 tube connector is used in development ends. (The 5 tube
connector will be suitable for use in stoping applications and development ends.)
The connector block is used to initiate following Uni-Delay units and is designed
to reliably fire 6 other Uni-Delays at once. The design is such that it will produce
minimal shrapnel on detonation, to prevent cut-offs of subsequent shots.
The 4 second delay in the in-hole detonator will give an effective burning front of 20
connections/holes between the detonation of the blastholes and the initiation of the

Uni-Delays further up the stope face.
Holes are charged in the normal manner when using Uni-Delays, but connecting up
is done by clipping the connector block of one hole (the donor) to the shock tubing of
the following holes Uni-Delay assembly (the receptor).
The Uni-Delay SP is also fitted with two delay detonators; however the delays used
are short period (SP) delays. Out-hole delays comprise of four delays, namely 0ms,
17ms, 25ms and 42ms while the down-hole delays comprise of three delays, namely
350ms, 450ms and 500ms. The connector block can accommodate 6 shock tube
units and the down-hole detonator is also 8D strength. Typically, these products are
used in massive mining operations where ring blasting is practiced.
6.1.2 Trunkline delay
This unit comprises of a length of shock tubing with a detonator (enclosed in a 6

tube, colour coded, plastic connector) on one end only. The other end has a clip
(J-hook or Cobra-clip) for attachment to a detonating cord trunkline; alternatively,
the tubing at this end can be clipped into a Uni-Delay or Multi-Delay connector
block, for it to be initiated.
The delay in the detonator can be either 0ms, 17ms, 25ms, 42ms or 75ms, so that it
can be used to provide additional delay options between or within blasting methods
such as ring blasting.
6.1.3 Splitter
A length of shock tubing, which incorporates an out-hole delay detonator at each

end encased in a 6 tube, colour coded, plastic connector block. It is available in two
delays, 100/100ms and 200/200ms and is designed for splitting the blast timing in
multiple directions in underground mines.
6.1.4 Electric shock tube starter
This product is used mainly to electrically initiate shock tube in both surface and
underground applications, where capped fuse/igniter cord and electronic detonators
are not available. The detonator uses a Hi Fire Type F fusehead. The connector block
can accommodate 6 shock tubes.

6.1.5 NetShockTM (electronic starter for shock tube)
This unit comprises of a 3G electronic PCB electronic detonator assembly with

a 3G shock tube type clip allowing easy connection to shock tube. The clip can
accommodate three shock tube units.
6.1.6 Blast Initiation Timer (BIT)
The Blast Initiation Timer (BIT) is an electric replacement for the pyrotechnic
initiation systems currently used in the underground mining industry. The BIT has a
variety of advantages over a pyrotechnic system, such as the elimination of an open
flame, predictable timing and effective visual warning signals.
This new product makes use of a hand sized ergonomically designed casing
containing an electronic timer ,which once activated, allows for a pre-programmed
blast time delay or a fixed blast time delay during which it provides visual signals on
its status. At the firing time it provides sufficient voltage from the enclosed battery
to initiate a standard fuse head within an IED on electric shock tube starter.
The shock-tube units are summarised below.

Product In-Hole Delay Out-Hole delay Lengths (m) Uses
(ms) (ms)
Uni-Delay LP 4000ms 200 2 – 7m U/G stoping &
development
Note: 3 tube
connector used
Uni Delay SP 350, 450, 500 0, 17, 25, 42 3 – 35m in stoping, 6
Multi-LPD 23 delays 3 – 35m tube connector
0 – 9000ms used in
development
Multi-SPD 450, 500 3 – 35m
Splitter 100/100 1 – 2m Splitting of
200/200 blast timing
in multiple
directions
Trunkline 0, 17, 25, 42, 75 2 – 30m To provide
additional
delays
Electric ST Instantaneous 1.8m Initiation of
Starter shock-tube
NetShockTM Programmable 0.5m
Note: All initiating system units should be stored under moderate temperatures and dry conditions.

6.1.8 Advantages and disadvantages of shock tube systems
• Reduces the fire hazard of igniter • Can result in gold losses, especially
cord in brittle ore-bodies
• Consistent burning front and
guaranteed sequential firing
• All units are identical, so the need
for colour coding and correct igniter
cord inter-connector distance is
eliminated
• Greater throw of the rock away
from the face
• Improved advance per blast
• Finer fragmentation and fewer
large rocks
• Increased revenue

6.2 Methods of timing with shock tube in stoping
6.2.1 Staggered – Single (daisy chain)
Direction of initiation
6.2.2 Box – Twin (2 on 2)
6.2.3 Staggered – Twin (2 on 2)
6.2.4 Diamond – Combination (2 on 1)
6.2.5 Reverse timing

6.2.6 Diamond – Combination (2 on 2) Reverse timing
1 2 4 5 7
Trunklines
from ASG
1 3 6
4 7
Shock tube
electric 2 3 5 6 8
starter
BIT
6.2.7 Diamond – Combination (3 on 3) Chevron timing
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Shock tube
electric
starter
2 3 4 5 6 7
1
Trunklines
from ASG 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
BIT
6.2.8 Box – Combination (4 on 4) Chevron timing
3 5 7 9 11 13 15
1
Trunklines
from ASG 2 8 10 12 14
4 6
1
4 6 8 10 12 14
Shock tube
electric 13 15
3 5 7 9 11
starter
BIT
These methods of tying up with shock tube are the basic designs. Variations of
these designs can be used depending on whether the stoping widths are narrow or
wide or where protection of the hangingwall is required. Generally, timing can be
adjusted so that the bottom holes fire before the middle and top rows of holes where
the breaking angle is tighter, when carrying out undercutting of a fall of ground or
maintaining friable hangingwall conditions.

6.3 Electronic delay detonators
Currently two systems are available for use underground:
• Blastweb with NetShockTM - narrow reef stoping and development

• DigiShotTM - massive mining applications, specifically ring blasts and
tunnelling
Figure 32 ViewShotTM
6.3.1 DigiShotTM
This is a single component system which makes use of fully programmable

electronic detonators, with a timing range of 0 – 20000ms in 1ms increments, figure
33. Designed for use in surface applications, but can be used in massive mining
applications.
Figure 33 DigiShotTM

6.3.2 Electronic delay detonators system benefits
• Improved fragmentation
– Consistent and repeatable results
• Maximum face advance
• Better muckpile distribution
• Major decrease in cleaning time
• Saving of more than 30% in number of holes drilled
– Improved productivity
• System and detonators can be checked prior to blasting (only connections
can be checked in a pyrotechnic system)
• Electronics
– No out hole delays
– Ground shift or cut off of down lines does not affect timing sequence
6.4 Capped fuse and igniter cords
Historically, capped fuse and igniter cord initiating systems were developed to give
sequential firing of blasts in narrow reef stope and development ends. This system is
being phased out in favour of shock tube initiating systems for safety reasons.
Should you encounter these types of products, please contact an AEL representative at
our regional offices for more information.

7. Secondary blasting
Secondary blasting is required when the primary blast has resulted in large boulders which
cannot be transported to the ore pass or are so large that they cannot pass through the ore
pass grizzly openings. Blasting is then the means by which these boulders can be broken to
size, which includes:
• Lay on charges, cartridged explosives taped together or shaped charges (Conepak)

• Popping – drilled hole charges with cartridged explosives
Secondary blasting should only be undertaken by experienced rock breakers with the
appropriate risk identification procedures due to the hazards associated with this.
IEDs used only in combination with a shot exploder and preferably with the main blast when
no people are present in the working place. This can be safely achieved when making use of
a blast initiation timer (BIT).
NOTE: Never use shock tube as a substitute for trunk lines to connect, this will expose the in-hole
detonator which can lead to unplanned detonation due to impact from a fall of ground.
Figure 34 Secondary blasting

8. Specialised blasting techniques
Specialised blasting techniques include:
• Drop raising/Inverse drop raising

• Pre-conditioning
• Undercutting
• Down-dip/Up-dip mining
8.1 Drop and inverse drop raising
Drop raising - Normally used for orepass and boxhole development, where the entire
length of excavation is drilled down from a top excavation such as in the raise or
crosscut for example and then blasted in lifts from the bottom up. Relief holes of larger
diameter are drilled to facilitate breaking of the round.
Inverse drop raising is used in the initial excavation of the orepass or boxhole where
the entire round is drilled from the bottom of the excavation and blasted in one shot. A
slot cut or central large diameter hole may be drilled as the relief point for the round,
figure 35.
Figure 35 Drop and Inverse drop raising

8.2 Pre-conditioning
Pre-conditioning is mainly used in deep level underground mines where high stresses
exist within the rock mass, resulting in seismic activity when mining takes place.
This method makes use of holes that are drilled longer than the production holes,
at approximately 3.0m apart on strike, charged with explosives and detonated in
sequence, ahead of but together with the blast holes. This is so that any existing
stresses on the rock mass ahead of the panel face can be released prior to the blast,
thus de-stressing the panel and preventing seismic events occurring due to the
production blast. Hole lengths are typically double the length of the production holes
but are only charged to the toe line of the production holes. These holes are top primed
so that the same length of shock tube unit is used as for the production holes.
Uni-Delay 200/4000ms Pre-conditioning Holes, longer

Extender than production holes
Firing sequence of holes Same charge length as production holes,
but top primed
F 1
R
E 4 8
5 6 7 9 10
E
2
F 1
3 6
A
C
E
1 6
Figure 36 Example of pre-conditioning
8.3 Undercutting
Undercutting is the practice of re-establishing a production panel that has been

stopped due to a fall of ground (FOG) and cannot be mined further. Alternatively, a panel
at a certain stoping width has become economically unfeasible to mine and can only be
mined productively at a lower stoping width, thus the need to undercut waste that can
be left in the hangingwall. This can be done using shock tube initiators and cartridged
explosives with specific charging and timing practices. As shown in the figure below,
the advanced strike gully is driven ahead of the fall of ground position. From this point
a raise is developed on the reef parallel to the previous face, to hole into the ASG of the

following panel above or into a ventilation holing developed to the re-raise. Once this
has been holed, sliping blasts in the newly established face can be taken until such
time as adequate support can be installed, following which the face can be blasted
normally again. (Figure 37)
Figure 37 Undercutting - Re-raise
The second method makes use of modified blasting practices so as to physically

‘undercut’ the face where a fall of ground has occurred, figure 38 and 39 showing an
example of a mining sequence. These practices include:
• No Anfex® to be used, only cartridge explosives

• Lower charge mass of explosives in top holes,
• Reverse timing such that bottom holes fire before the top holes
• Additional mine standard support
Figure 38 Undercutting – modified blasting practise

Plan view Plan view
A.S.G A.S.G
Side view
Side view
2. Clean FOG, Support

1. Stoping width/FOG
Plan view Plan view
A.S.G A.S.G
Side view
Side view
3. Mine out cubbies 4. Support in cubbies
Plan view Plan view
A.S.G
Side view
A.S.G
Side view
6. Support, advance face

5. Mine cubby pillars
Figure 39 Example of mining sequence for recovery of FOG

8.4 Down-dip and up-dip mining
Conventionally, narrow reef stoping panels are mined on strike perpendicular to the dip
of the ore body. Occasionally it becomes necessary to change the mining direction to
up- or down-dip, to accommodate the re-establishment of a face or to create a pillar for
regional support, figure 40. Some mines (at shallow depth) adopt down-dip or up-dip
mining as their mining standard due to regional support requirements which require
the establishment of a set of pillars on dip. The raise lines are developed through from
level to level, at a distance which allows for a pillar to be created between panel sets
with the raise line as the central excavation. Once the pillar limits are established, the
panels on either side of the raise line can then be mined down-dip or up-dip.
Figure 40 Down-dip mining

9. SAFETY – Do’s and Don’ts
9.1 Storage
ALWAYS store initiating systems in management approved underground

explosives boxes
ALWAYS rotate stock by using older initiating systems first
ALWAYS keep explosives boxes locked when unattended
ALWAYS use detonators within 6 months of opening the original supplied
packaging
DO NOT store detonators with primers or other explosives

DO NOT unwind detonating cord from the reels when in storage
9.2 Handling
ALWAYS cut detonating cord with a sharp and clean blade

ALWAYS keep initiating systems away from combustible materials
ALWAYS transport initiating systems in a management approved container
DO NOT cut shock tube

DO NOT separate the detonator from any initiating system assembly/product
DO NOT impact on any initiating system product
DO NOT use any initiating system product to tie anything down with
DO NOT leave any initiating system where it can be trampled upon
DO NOT kink or knot shock tube
9.3 Application - General
ALWAYS use an approved method for making a hole into a cartridged

explosive for priming purposes
ALWAYS connect up only at the end of shift
ALWAYS follow the correct procedures when connecting up the blast
DO NOT try and pull a misfired unit out of a hole

DO NOT reverse prime with shock tube unless a method for dealing with
misfired holes is in place
DO NOT use the detonator to make a hole into a cartridged explosive when
making primers

9.4 Application – Shock tube
ALWAYS initiate shock tube by using a detonator (Shock Tube starter electric
or electronic) or detonating cord
ALWAYS use the connector clip (J-Hook or Cobra Clip) to connect detonating
cord to the shock tube
ALWAYS use sufficient lengths of shock tube for the specific application
ALWAYS ensure the inter-connector gap (distance between connectors at
the same connection) is at least 10cm and that they are connected with the
slot facing in opposite directions
ALWAYS ensure the donor connector is connected not closer than 30cm
from the acceptor connector
ALWAYS use shock tube in an environment lower than 80°C
DO NOT insert more than the maximum recommended number of shock

tubes in a connector block
DO NOT allow any heat source to come in close proximity of a shock tube as
it may cause melting and result in a misfire
DO NOT use shock tube with detonating cords of charge weight exceeding
10g/m
DO NOT use shock tube as a substitute for trunk lines to connect, this will
expose the in-hole detonator which can lead to unplanned detonation due to
impact from a fall of ground
9.5 Application – Detonating cord
ALWAYS use detonating cord in an environment below 80°C

ALWAYS ensure that the explosive is cord sensitive when initiating it with
detonating cord
ALWAYS ensure the end of the detonating cord is dry when initiating it from
that end
ALWAYS ensure the detonator points in the direction of the blast when
initiating the detonating cord
ALWAYS use the correct cutting tool to cut detonating cord
DO NOT try and ignite the detonating cord with an open flame
DO NOT stand around to see whether the detonating cord burns because it
does not burn it explodes
DO NOT attempt to initiate detonating cord and shock tube in the same
connector (Cluster), as this will result in the shock tube being cut off

9.6 Application – Shock tube starters
ALWAYS use the correct starter for the initiation system you are using,
electric starter for shock tube with the BIT, or electronic starters for shock
tube are the safest means of blast initiation as the exact time of blasting is
known
ALWAYS ensure the lead wires to the starter are twisted together
ALWAYS earth yourself before handling any electric starter
ALWAYS test electric detonators with approved equipment
ALWAYS wear non-static clothing when handling detonators or electric
starters
ALWAYS connect the starter to the blasting wires before connecting to the
first initiation system in sequence, with the detonator pointing away from you
ALWAYS make sure the wires do not touch after connection, i.e. short circuit
ALWAYS use the correct shot exploder to initiate the whole blast
DO NOT use near any transmitter such as a radio or mobile phone

DO NOT break or damage the electric wires
DO NOT assume that static build up only occurs in dry and low humidity
conditions

10. List of figures
Figure 1 Burn cut (used in ASG) 3

Figure 2 Correct marking of wedge cut, used in stope faces with no breaking point 3
Figure 3 Blasthole collaring positions for typical narrow reef stope face (1) 4
Figure 4 Blasthole collaring positions for typical narrow reef stope face (2) 5
Figure 5 Layout of a typical stope panel, ASG and siding 6
Figure 6 Holes drilled off-line 7
Figure 7 Drilling errors affecting face shape 8
Figure 8 Straightening of the face using bell wire 9
Figure 9 Breaking effect of angled holes (capped fuse) 10
Figure 10 Breaking effect of angled holes (shock tube) 10
Figure 11 Effect of angled holes on advance 11
Figure 12 Effect of Square or Staggered pattern 12
Figure 13 Marking of “Fan” holes 13
Figure 14 Inserting a detonator into an explosive cartridge 15
Figure 15 Method of priming in up holes 15
Figure 16 Direct priming 16
Figure 17 Reverse priming 16
Figure 18 Cratering of adjacent blast hole 17
Figure 19 Mid-priming 18
Figure 20 Detonator wedged across blast hole 20
Figure 21 Effect of water of Anfex® 21
Figure 22 Water/Grit between cartridges 22
Figure 23 Overcharged holes 23
Figure 24 Burning front 25
Figure 25 Typical ASG used in Platinum mines 26
Figure 26 Typical ASG used in Gold mines 27
Figure 27 Protecting gully shoulder 28
Figure 28 Timing using shock tube to protect gully ledge 28
Figure 29 Stoping best practise 29
Figure 30 Underground, minimum 0.9m 29
Figure 31 Connecting of shock tube 39
Figure 32 ViewShotTM 41
Figure 33 DigiShotTM 41
Figure 34 Secondary blasting 43
Figure 35 Drop and Inverse drop raising 44
Figure 36 Example of pre-conditioning 45
Figure 37 Undercutting - re-raise 46
Figure 38 Undercutting – modified blasting practise 46
Figure 39 Example of mining sequence for recovery of FOG 47
Figure 40 Down-dip mining 48

NOTES

NOTES


AEL Mining Services
1 Platinum Drive
Longmeadow Business Estate North
Modderfontein, 1645
Tel: +27 11 606 0000

Fax: +27 11 605 0000
www.aelminingservices.com

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Stope Blasting

2 Stope Blasting Handbook © AEL Mining Services

DISCLAIMER AND INDEMNITY

Stope Blasting Handbook © AEL Mining Services 3

4 Stope Blasting Handbook © AEL Mining Services

Stope Blasting Handbook © AEL Mining Services 5

6 Stope Blasting Handbook © AEL Mining Services

2. Marking and Drilling

2.1 Free face

Figure 1 Burn cut (used in ASG)

Figure 2 Correct marking of wedge cut, used in stope faces with

Stope Blasting Handbook © AEL Mining Services 7

2.2 Hole position

2.2.1 Top hole position

2.2.2 Bottom hole position

8 Stope Blasting Handbook © AEL Mining Services

The burden should be such that the holes:

• Break to full depth

As a starting point in new unknown areas, burden should be taken as 50 to 60% of

Stope Blasting Handbook © AEL Mining Services 9

Figure 5 Layout of a typical stope panel, ASG and siding

2.3 Overburdened holes

The most visible and measurable effects of overburdened holes are

• Long sockets resulting from poor advance/blast

10 Stope Blasting Handbook © AEL Mining Services

2.4 Holes drilled off-line

The most common causes of holes being drilled off-line are:

Figure 6 Holes drilled off-line

2.5 Short holes

The most common causes of short holes are:

Stope Blasting Handbook © AEL Mining Services 11

Figure 7 Drilling errors affecting face shape

12 Stope Blasting Handbook © AEL Mining Services

• Under-gauge drill steel causing cartridges to snag

Figure 8 Straightening of the face using bell wire

2.6 Missing holes

The most common causes of missing holes are:

2.7 Drilling angled holes

Stope Blasting Handbook © AEL Mining Services 13

Figure 9 Breaking effect of angled holes (capped fuse)

Figure 10 Breaking effect of angled holes (shock tube)

14 Stope Blasting Handbook © AEL Mining Services

Angle Loss of advance per metre drilled

Figure 11 Effect of angled holes on advance

2.8 Square or staggered pattern

Staggered patterns enable better efficiencies to be obtained in good breaking

Stope Blasting Handbook © AEL Mining Services 15

Figure 12 Effect of square or staggered pattern

16 Stope Blasting Handbook © AEL Mining Services

2.9 Marking of “Fan” holes

Figure 13 Marking of "Fan" holes

Stope Blasting Handbook © AEL Mining Services 17

3. Charging up and Timing

3.1 Barring the face before charging

3.2 Making up of primers

18 Stope Blasting Handbook © AEL Mining Services

• It is not recommended that this method be used for holes loaded

Figure 14 Inserting a detonator into an explosive cartridge

Figure 15 – Method of priming in up holes

Stope Blasting Handbook © AEL Mining Services 19

3.3 Top, mid and bottom priming

3.3.1 Bottom (toe) direct priming

Figure 16 Direct priming

3.3.2 Bottom (toe) reverse priming