PASSAGE 1

Becoming an Expert

A. Individual enters a field of study as a novice. The novice needs to learn the guiding principles
and rules of a given task in order to perform that task. Concurrently, the novice needs to be
exposed to specific cases, or instances, that test the boundaries of such heuristics. Generally, a
novice will find a mentor to guide her through the process. A fairly simple example would be
someone learning to play chess. The novice chess player seeks a mentor to trench her the object
of the game, the number of spaces, the names of the pieces, the function of each piece, how each
piece is moved, and the necessary conditions for winning or losing the game.
B. In time, and with much practice, the novice begins to recognize patterns of behavior within
cases and, thus, becomes a journeyman. With more practice and exposure to increasingly
complex cases, the journeyman finds patterns not only within cases but also between cases. More
importantly, the journeyman learns that these patterns often repent themselves over time. The
journeyman still maintains regular contact with a mentor to solve specific problems and learn
more complex strategies. Returning to the example of the chess player, the individual begins to
learn patterns of opening moves, offensive and defensive game-playing strategies, and patterns
of victory and defeat.
C. When a journeyman starts to make and test hypotheses about future behavior bused on past
experiences, she begins the next transition. Once she creatively generates knowledge, rather than
simply matching superficial patterns, she becomes an expert. At this point, she is confident in her
knowledge and no longer needs a mentor as n guide-she becomes responsible for her own
knowledge. In the chess example, once a journeyman begins competing against experts, makes
predictions based on patterns, and tests those predictions against actual behavior, she is
generating new knowledge and a deeper understanding of the game. She is creating her own
cases rather than relying on the cases of others.
D. The chess example is a rather short description of an apprenticeship model. Apprenticeship
may seem like a restrictive 18th century mode of education, but it is still a standard method of
training for many complex tasks. Academic doctoral programs are based on an apprenticeship
model, as are fields like law, music, engineering, and medicine. Graduate students enter fields of
study, find mentors, and begin the long process of becoming independent experts and generating
new knowledge in their respective domains.
E. Psychologists and cognitive scientists agree that the time it takes to become an expert depends
on the complexity of the task and the number of cases, or patterns, to which an individual is
exposed. The more complex the task,the longer it takes to build expertise, or, more accurately,
the longer it takes to experience and store a large number of cases or patterns.
F. An expert perceives meaningful patterns in her domain better than non-experts. Where a
novice perceives random or disconnected data points, an expert connects regular patterns within
and between cases. This ability to identify patterns is not an innate perceptual skill; rather it
reflects the organization of knowledge after exposure to and experience with thousands of cases.
Experts have a deeper understanding of their domains than novices do, and utilize higher-order
principles to solve problems. A novice, for example, might group objects together by color or
size, whereas an expert would group the same objects according to their function or utility.
Experts comprehend the meaning of data and weigh variables with different criteria within their
domains better than novices. Experts recognize variables that have the largest influence on a
particular problem and focus their attention on those variables
G. Experts have better domain-specific short-term and long-term memory than novices do.
Moreover, experts perform tasks in their domains faster than novices and commit fewer errors
while problem solving. Interestingly, experts go about solving problems differently than novices.
Experts spend more time thinking about a problem to fully understand it at the beginning of a
task than do novices, who immediately seek to find a solution. Experts use their knowledge of
previous cases as. Context for creating mental models to solve given problems.
H. Better at self-monitoring than novices, experts are more aware of instances where they have
committed errors or failed to understand a problem. Experts check their solutions more often
than novices and recognize when they are missing information necessary for solving a problem.
Experts are aware of the limits of their domain knowledge and apply their domains heuristics to
solve problems that fall outside of their experience base.
The Paradox of Expertise
I. The strengths of expertise can also be weaknesses. Although one would expect experts to be
good forecasters they are not particularly good at making predictions about the future. Since the
1930s, researchers have been testing the ability of experts to make forecasts. The performance of
experts has been tested against actuarial tables to determine if they are better at making
predictions than simple statistical models. Seventy years later, with more than two hundred
experiments in different domains, it is clear that the answer is no. If supplied with an equal
amount of data about a particular case, an actuarial table is as good, or better than an expert at
making calls about the future. Even if an expert is given more specify is case information than is
available to the statistical model, the expert does not tend to outperform the actuarial table.

J Theorists and researchers differ when trying to explain why experts are less accurate
forecasters than statistical models. Some have argued that experts, like all humans, are
inconsistent when using mental models to make predictions. A number of researchers point to
human biases to explain unreliable expert predictions. During the last 30 years, researchers have
categorized, experimented, and theorized about the cognitive aspects of forecasting. Despite such
efforts, the literature shows little consensus regarding the causes or manifestations of human
bias.

QUESTIONS

Choose NO MORE THAN THREE WORDS from the passage each answer
Write your answers in boxes 1-5 on your answer sheet.
 From a novice to an expert
Novice: need to study 1 ………………… under the guidance of
a 2 ………………… 3 ………………… start to identify 4 ………………… for cases within or
between study more 5 ………………… ways of doing things create new knowledge
Expert: perform task independently

Questions 6-10 Do the following statements agree with the information given in
Reading Passage 1?

In boxes 6-10 on your answer sheet, write

TRUE if the statement agrees with the information
FALSE if the statement contradicts the information
NOT GIVEN if there is no information on this

6 Novices and experts use the same system of knowledge to comprehend and classify objects.

7 The focus of novices’ training is necessarily on long term memory.

8 When working out the problems, novices want to solve them straightaway.

9 When handling problems, experts are always more efficient than novices in their fields.

10 Expert tend to review more than novices on cases when flaws or limit on understanding took
place.

Questions 11-13
Complete the following summary of the paragraphs of
Reading Passage 1, using NO MORE THAN TWO WORDS from the Reading Passage for
each answer.

Write your answers in boxes 11-13 on your answer sheet

While experts outperform novices and machines in pattern recognition and

problem solving, expert predictions of future behavior or events are seldom as
accurate as simple actuarial tables. Why? Some have tried to explain that experts
differ when using cognitive 11 ………………… to forecast. Researchers believe it
is due to 12 ………………… However attempting Endeavour of finding answers
did not yet produce 13 …………………
READING SECTION 2
You should spend about 20 minutes on Questions 14 - 26, which are based on
Reading Section 2 on the following pages.
Questions 14 - 19 Reading Passage 2 has six paragraphs, A - F. Choose the correct
heading for paragraphs A - F from the list of headings below. Write the correct
number, i - ix, in the space given for questions 14 - 19.
List of Headings
1. A legacy is established
2. Formal education unhelpful
3. An education in two parts
4. Branching out in new directions
5. Childhood and family life
6. Change necessary to stay creative
7. Conflicted opinions over Davis' earlier works
8. Davis’ unique style of trumpet playing
9. Personal and professional struggles
14. Paragraph A...........
15. Paragraph B................
16. Paragraph C...............
17. Paragraph D................
18. Paragraph E................
19. Paragraph F................
Miles Davis
Icon and iconoclast'
(*An iconoclast is somebody who challenges traditional beliefs or customs.)
A. At the age of thirteen, Miles Davis was given his first trumpet, lessons were arranged with a
local trumpet player, and a musical odyssey began. These early lessons, paid for and supported
by his father, had a profound effect on shaping Davis' signature sound. Whereas most
trumpeters of the era favored the use of vibrato (a wobbly quiver in pitch inflected in the
instrument's tone), Davis was taught to play with a long, straight tone, a preference his
instructor reportedly drilled into the young trumpeter with a rap on the knuckles every time
Davis began using vibrato. This clear, distinctive style never left Davis. He continued playing
with it for the rest of his career, once remarking, 'If I can't get that sound, I can't play anything.'
B. Having graduated from high school in 1944, Davis moved to New York City, where he
continued his musical education both in the clubs and in the classroom. His enrolment in the
prestigious Julliard School of Music was short-lived, however - he soon dropped out, criticizing
what he perceived as an over-emphasis on the classical European repertoire and a neglect of
jazz. Davis did later acknowledge, however, that this time at the school was invaluable in terms
of developing his trumpet-playing technique and giving him a solid grounding in music theory.
Much of his early training took place in the form of jam sessions and performances in the clubs
of 52nd Street, where he played alongside both up-and-coming and established members of
the jazz pantheon such as Coleman Hawkins, Eddie 'Lockjaw' Davis, and Thelonious Monk.
C. In the late 1940s, Davis collaborated with nine other instrumentalists, including a French
horn and a tuba player, to produce. The Birth of Cool, an album now renowned for the inchoate
sounds of what would later become known as 'cool' jazz. In contrast to popular jazz styles of the
day, which featured rapid, rollicking beats, shrieking vocals, and short, sharp horn blasts, Davis'
album was the forerunner of a different kind of sound - thin, light horn-playing, hushed drums
and a more restrained, formal arrangement. Although it received little acclaim at the time (the
liner notes to one of Davis' later recordings call it a 'spectacular failure'), in hindsight The Birth
of Cool has become recognized as a pivotal moment in jazz history, cementing - alongside his
1958 recording, Kind of Blue - Davis' legacy as one of the most innovative musicians of his era.
D. Though Davis' trumpet playing may have sounded effortless and breezy, this ease rarely
carried over into the rest of his life. The early 1950s, in particular, were a time of great personal
turmoil. After returning from a stint in Paris, Davis suffered from prolonged depression, which
he attributed to the unraveling of a number of relationships, including his romance with a
French actress and some musical partnerships that ruptured as a result of creative disputes.
Davis was also frustrated by his perception that he had been overlooked by the music critics,
who were hailing the success of his collaborators and descendants in the 'cool' tradition, such
as Gerry Mulligan and Dave Brubeck, but who afforded him little credit for introducing the cool
sound in the first place.
E. In the latter decades of his career, Davis broke out of exclusive jazz settings and began to
diversify his output across a range of musical styles. In the 1960s, he was influenced by early
funk performers such as Sly and the Family Stone, which then expanded into the jazz-rock
fusion genre - of which he was a frontrunner - in the 1970s. Electronic recording effects and
electric instruments were incorporated into his sound. By the 1980s, Davis was pushing the
boundaries further, covering pop anthems such as Cyndi Lauer’s Time After Time and Michael
Jackson's Human Nature, dabbling in hip hop, and even appearing in some movies.
F. Not everyone was supportive of Davis' change of tune. Compared to the recordings of his
early career, universally applauded as linchpins of the jazz oeuvre, trumpeter Wynston Marsalis
derided his fusion work as being 'not true jazz', and pianist Bill Evans denounced the corrupting
influence' of record companies, noting that rock and pop 'draw wider audiences'. In the face of
this criticism, Davis remained defiant, commenting that his earlier recordings were part of a
moment in time that he had no 'feel' for any more. He firmly believed that remaining
stylistically inert would have hampered his ability to develop new ways of producing music.
From this perspective, Davis' continual revamping of genre was not merely a rebellion, but an
evolution, a necessary path that allowed him to release his full musical potential.

Questions 20 – 26
Do the following statements agree with the views of the writer in
Reading Section 2?

In the space given for questions 20 - 26, write

- TRUE if the statement agrees with the information
- FALSE if the statement contradicts the information
- NOT GIVEN if there is no information on this
20. Davis' trumpet teacher wanted him to play with vibrato................
21. According to Davis, studying at Julliard helped him to improve his musical Abilities………
22. Playing in jazz clubs in New York was the best way to become famous..........
23. The Birth of Cool featured music that was faster and louder than most jazz at the
time................
24. Davis' personal troubles had a negative effect on his trumpet playing.............
25. Davis felt that his contribution to cool jazz had not been acknowledged..........
26. Davis was a traditionalist who wanted to keep the jazz sound pure................
Reading Practice 3
Changes in International Commerce how ethics and fair
trade can make a difference
The purpose of international commerce is to buy things from and sell things to people in other
countries. Hundreds, and indeed thousands, of years ago, this actually worked quite well. People who
travelled to foreign lands, often by ship, would take with them items for trade. Agricultural countries
would, for example, trade olive oil or wine for weapons or other worked items. All that needed to be
negotiated was a fair’price’for the items. (How many axes is a barrel of oil worth, for example?)
Currency did not enter into the first deals but, even when it did, few problems existed to complicate
matters barring disagreements over the value of goods.

Today, fixing a fair price remains at the centre of international commerce. When we look at the deal
from the point of view of the seller, market research must determine the price at which the goods will
be sold. This may vary greatly from country to country and people are often surprised to see exactly the
same item for sale at two or three times the price it sells for in another country. Taxation and local
government controls are sometimes behind this, but often it comes down to the fact that people in poor
countries simply cannot afford to pay the same amount of money as those in rich countries. These are
the things a seller has to bear in mind when preparing a price list for goods in each country.

In most cases, the purpose of setting a suitable price is to sell the maximum number of units. Usually,
this is the way to guarantee the biggest profit. One exception is in the selling of luxury or specialist
goods. These are often goods for which there is a limited market Here, slightly different rules apply
because the profit margin (the amount of money a producer makes on each item) is much higher. For
instance, nearly everyone wants to own a television or a mobile phone, and there is a lot of competition
in the area of production, forcing the prices to be competitive too. The producers have to sell a large
number of items to make a profit because their profit margin is small. But not everyone wants to buy
handmade jewellery, or a machine for sticking labels onto bottles. This enables the producer to charge a
price much higher than the cost of making the item, increasing the profit margin. But at the heart of any
sale, whether they sell many items for a small profit, ora few items for a large profit the prime
motivation for the producer is to make as much profit as possible.

At least, that was the case until relatively recently when, to the great surprise of many, companies
started trading without profit as their main objective. Ethical trade began as an attempt to cause as little
damage as possible to the producers of raw materials and manufactured goods in poor countries. This
movement put pressure on the industry to see to it that working conditions and human rights were not
damaged by the need for poorer people to produce goods. In short, it drew to the world’s attention the
fact that many poor people were being exploited by big businesses in their drive to make more profit

There have been many examples throughout the developing world where local producers were forced
by economic pressure to supply cash crops such as tea, coffee and cotton to major industries. These
people are frequently not in a position to fix their prices, and are often forced by market conditions to
sell for a price too low to support the producers and their community. Worse still, while the agricultural
land is given over to cash crops, it robs the local people of the ability to grow their own food. In time,
through over-production, the land becomes spent and infertile, leading to poverty, starvation, and
sometimes the destruction of the whole community.

Fair trade policies differ from ethical trade policies in that they take the process a stage further. Where
ethical policies are designed to keep the damage to a minimum, fair trade organizations actually work to
improve conditions among producers and their communities. Fair trade organizations view sustainability
as a key aim. This involves implementing policies where producers are given a fair price for the goods
they sell, so that they and their communities can continue to operate. Although many big businesses are
cynical about an operation that does not regard profit as a main driving force, the paradox is that it will
help them too. With sustainability as their main aim, fair trade organizations not only help the poorer
producers obtain a reasonable standard of living, but they also help guarantee a constant supply of raw
materials. This form of sustainability benefits everyone, whether their motive is making a profit or
improving the lives of the world’s poorer people.

Questions 27-31
Classify the following as being a result of A fair trade policies B ethical
trade policies C a country being poor. Write the correct letter, A, B or C.
27..................... Manufactured goods are obtainable at a lower price than elsewhere.
28..................... Harm to producers of raw materials is minimized.
29..................... Human rights are respected
30..................... Land is not used to produce food for the local population.
31..................... The local community has more chance of survival.

Questions 32-36
Complete the flow chart below. Use NO MORE THAN THREE WORDS from the
passage for each answer.
Companies carry out 32..................... to decide the price that their goods are sold at in each
country. The prices of the same goods can vary in different countries because of
33..................... or taxes. The 34..................... is finalized, depending on how much customers in
a particular market can afford. To ensure a profit, manufacturers aim to sell the 35.....................
of a particular item. Manufacturers can have a higher profit margin on luxury or specialist goods
which often have a 36.....................

Questions 37-40
Choose the correct letter, A , B, C or D.
37. According to the writer, what might early traders have disagreed about?
A the comparative values of the goods
B which currency to use for their deal
C which items they wanted as exchange
D the quality of the goods being traded
38. What is the main consequence of a product being in demand?
A higher prices
B smaller profit margins
C fewer items being produced
D less market competition
39. How might an agricultural community be destroyed?
A because companies in richer countries steal from them
B because they ask an unrealistically high price for their produce
C because they over-use the land in order to grow cash crops
D because the crops take much too long to grow
40. The word paradox in the final paragraph refers to the fact that?
A poorer people will become richer than the people who run big businesses.
B by being cynical, the big businesses have helped produce a result they do not want
C the suppliers of raw materials will sell them to big businesses for a huge profit.
D big businesses will gain from these policies although they don’t support them