Structural Engineering Documents Jérg SCHLAICH Hartmut SCHEEF CONCRETE BOX-GIRDER BRIDGES International Association for Bridge and Structural Engineering 1ABSE ‘Association Internationale des Ponts et Charpentes AIPC Internationale Vereinigung fur Briickenbau und Hochbau —IVBH erg SCHLAICH Born 1956 a Stoten .R oasr Seutgor. Sues of Arenteetre tnd Gil Enginering, Ona of “echnical University Born, Mester ot Stance of ave Teh, lesan Usa, snd Dr-Ing of Unity Sugar Protsir and Directo of the to Stutgart. Teen Sturge, Fed. Selected Stacia tounrs9¢ Kit and KB, (Cablenat rat Yor Munich Olympics, {Cabienat coling tera Sohme- un, Cablestayed bride oer ‘hve Hooghly In Esleuta, Solar (Chirmey at Manzanares. Heremot SCHEER Bom in Sutgortin 1048. attr ‘omplating nt Chall Engnering Studies atthe University of stuttart ‘Stutigur Since 1978 ne nar been Involved in esehing ard esearen the inate fr Mateo, Unive fityof Stuttgart. His research ie ‘ote manly te computerised Pontinearaniy of rally ‘Seterminaterinforane and preStructural Engineering Documents Jérg SCHLAICH Hartmut SCHEEF CONCRETE BOX-GIRDER BRIDGES International Association for Bridge and Structural Engineering IABSE Association Internationale des Ponts et Charpentes IPC Internationale Vereinigung fir Briickenbau und Hochbau_IVBHCcopyiant © 1982 by Toterntionl Asodation for Gridge and Structural Engneering [Al rights retrved. No part ofthis book may be reproduced in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, esordng, by any information strape and retrieval stam, without parmition In tring from the publisher sn 2857480919 Printed in Sotzerian TABSE = AlPC -1VaH ETH = Honagerbers (CH8008 Zorn, Switzerand ‘als 01/977 2647 ‘olox: 822 186 48S cH “ele TABSE, CH-8003 ZurichFOREWORD ‘The box grdoris tay the most widely used superstructurein concrete bridge construction, That fact {ustifes the suggestion made bythe Commission Il of the ABE that « comprehensive survey be ‘writen concerning this particular bridge type Th authors proceed from the sumption, however its contonts wil st be drawn upon when a posible design aiteratives forthe petcuar bridge pre {ecthave been thoroughly examined, and the box iter has been proven appropriate. Their im sess that of encouraging the one-sided propagation of box girder bridges but rather much more that of co: {sibuting tothe Improvement ofthe quality of such bridges. They hope to contribute to ths by exten ‘vey roving te engineer of the study of today’ hardly surveyable mass of iterature onthe subject 50 that he can better devote tha ime tthe actual design othe bridge. That oxpaine wy ths paper is kopt shor, why in panicular casos the readers refered tothe Merture, and why subjects not por taining tothe contal theme are only touched upon and not handled exhaustively, tet For grater clones the survey follows the sequence of practcl bridge design process by dividing Itself into twee main parts, namely, "Design", "Suucturl Arlyis end DDetaing” each section with it individual numbering and Maretre ist ‘Tis survey directs itself especially to the design engineer, wiich manifests its, for fact thatthe construction methods ere handled ont briefy and in the section “Design, because thoy \docsvaly infance the design at the very beginning Major contributions to Section Il, “Structural Analysis, were made by Prof. Dr-Ing. Kurt Schéfer, aco league ofthe authors inthe Institut fir Massivbou atthe Unversity of Stuttgart. In this section tho _tiemt is made to portray the calculation of the box gtd actiona forces resulting fom eccentric vehicle loads with consideration of the flded plete action or profi deformation to comprehensively ‘that ts not onl easily understood but also rapaly applic inthe design office. This thereby elimi natos the often discussed, controversial queston as to whether the effort involved inthe “exact” caleu- lation ofthis leasing case is actualy worthwhile or whether sn estimation ofthe trenavere led dat Lion would not suc, ‘Te authors would kot tke this opportunity to thank Pofeetors . Fevre, Lausanne, and C. Mena, rich, for their ertical examination of te paper. They ae indabted to Mrs. Paechter and Mrs, E ‘Schnee for ther conscientious preparation ofthe manuscri; and Mr. Kuta fr his emipathoical ‘translation of ther German orginal into English ‘Stuttgart, Jonuary 1982‘TABLE OF CONTENTS. Pert! DESIGN aes ‘Terms, Symbols Introdvetion Historical Development Over Al Design 441” Design Prncipies ‘41.1 Tho Role and Sequence ofthe Ds 412 Remarks as to Ferm 413 Coste ‘42. Construction Matheds 43° Supersructre 431" Goneral 432 Longiusinal Direction 433 Tranovere Direction 44 Compete System and Supports 45 Subsvuctue 451" Abutments 452 Piers 453. Foundations terete Prt ll STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS 1 2 a Introduction Loads and ExtemalInflences ‘Structural System 31” Final State 82 During Construction Critical Loadings and Sectional Forces 41" Longitudinal Direction 42 Transverse Direction. : ‘Simplified Structural Analyse of the Superstructure 51" General 52 Analysis Procedure 53 Analysis inthe Longitudinal Direction 1531” Sectional Forces dve to Loads plus Restraints 1532 Time-Depondent Alteration ofthe Sectional Forces by Creep 54 Analysis inthe Transverse Direction 541" Sectional Forces Acting on the Flangos 542 Anahsis asa Frame 1543 Transverse Banding Moments in the Haunch of Vrisble-Depth Girdors 155 Folded Pate Action 551. Fundemental Concept 1552 Solution by Means of the Analogy of «Beam on en Elastic Foundation 58 Multiple-Cell Box Girdors : 187 Curved and Skew Box-Gider Bridges Computer-sied Analysis ofthe Superstructure 18.1" Theory of Prismatic Folded Plates 811. Hinged Folded Pitos 812, Fold Pas i Fhe 62 Finite Stipe (63. Finite Elemonte B2BBBRSs BEIRRRSRSLISLSSSSSSHA HSS BRE B7. Abuatmenta a Pen... 81 Losdings 82. Effective Length 183 Moments According to 2 Order Theory 8. Foundation 10. Uterature Parl DIMENSIONING AND DETAILING 1. troduction 2 General Detailing Principles 3. Praetressing . 31” Tho Lovel of Prestrass '32 Tendon Prof inthe Transverse Direction 321, Top Flange 322. Prastrssing of the Webs 323. Bottom Fiange 33. Tendon Prof inthe Longitudinal Dection 331" Inthe Webs 882. Inthe Top and Bottom Flanges 44 Transfer of Concentrated Prosress Forces ‘35 Construction Joins and Coupling Joints ‘4 Dimensioning ofthe Top and Bottom Flanges 5 Dimensioning and Reinforcement ofthe Webs ‘51 Dimensioning fr Shosr, Torsion, and Transverse Bening 82. Web Reinforcement 6. Traneverse Diaphragms 7. Abutments, Piers and Foundations 8. Bridge Bearings 81” Bearing Types 82 Installason and Maintenance 83 Design of Bearings 9. Bridge Finishes 81 Expansion Joints 82 Bridge Raling 83 Roadway Surface 94 Drainage 10, Userature Note: n 2 2B m BR RBIGRS eee weressssasesss 107 107 107 108 arts | I. and Ill form a whole and are only divided for eganisation reesons. Should the reader be referred to a figura, 8 section, of refecence in one of the ether para, he will find thet the Roman numeral ofthe other part of the text i placed before the Arabic number: for example, Figure I oF Section il, 81Part! DESIGN 1, TERMS, SYMBOLS 2 SECTION a-a Fig. 1 Sections through a typical simple box-girder bridge t Tor mere bearings) 20 Bye be H 2 el apraen a Ho type ras s Hy Searig (ean bed or a SDowimevenest an 8 Sqneon jot By and large the text and formulas u nt opening {2 ans lentaewr section ‘gna ease CEB or 1S0 symbals.2 Design 2, INTRODUCTION ‘Though box-girder bridges are indeed often not the only solution to a bridge project they are, however,seldom the absolutely false one and really only excluded in the case of very small apsns or sharply akewed bridges. This ‘universal applicability they owe, from the point of view of load-carrying, to their indifference as to whether the bending moments are positive or ne- gative and to their torsional stiffness; from the point of view of economy, to ‘their suitability for a factory-like construction sequence; and finally, from the point of view of form, to their sleek lines with which they fit into every Jandscape and surroundings. He, though, who expects a structure to reflect the flow of forces within it ‘through Its outer shape will regret the above-mentioned neutral load-carrying behaviour of the box-girder bridges, especially those of today. As a result of the need to construct the bridges economically, the development has tended towards bridges with constant depths, even for varying spans. Box-girder bridges therefore deserve special care and attention with respect to pleasing proportions and conscientious shaping of their detaile, ‘The above mentioned characteristics have made the concrete box-girder bridges the most widespread bridge type today. ‘The, fact that this develop- ‘ment will continue for some time justifies this survey concerning a topic that {1s certainly much too specialised for he who does not like to see his design possibilities restricted, Therefore let one be reminded that the box girder {a only a part of the entire bridge atructure and that the directly supported box girder continuous over the supports is only the standard case. ‘The box girder can also be found in portal frame bridges, arch and bow bridges, and cable-stayed and suspension bridges of all kinds (Fig. 2). TTT FTN OE fee, aaa ae port: trome ‘rch 1 bow ‘supension | cable-stoyed Fig. 2. Bridges with the box girder as main structural elementHite! Dovetpment 3 3, HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT ‘The first bridges of reinforced concrete were built as were their predecessors of stone, They were arch bridges with a gravel fill for the road surface between the two bridge parapets over the arch, Later the gravel fill w replaced by a transverse roadway slab, and the transition to a box girder wi achieved, ‘The world’s first reinforced concrete bridge, an arch bridge, was built in 1875 [1]. Probably the first box-girder bridge was Hennebique’ s Risorgimento Bridge in 1911, a 8-hinged arch (see Fig. 3) SECTIONG-al SECTION b-b asob{a dod aso Com nA) Fig. 3. Risorgimento Bridge Due to improvements in the quality of concrete and steel as well as a better understanding of the material behaviour of reiaforced concrete, the arch lost more and more on importance as a load-carrying system to that of the beam Joaded in bending. The longest span simply reinforced bridge to~ built in 1999 at Ville-Neuve-St. George, a three -celled, thin-walled, vary- Ing-depth box girder of three spans with a 78 m middle span, It was only with the development of high-strength prestressing steel that it became possible to span longer distances. The first prestressed concret bridges, most of 17 oF I-cross-section, were built towards the end of the ‘The great breakthrough was achieved only after 1945, The Sclayn bridge over the river Maas, which was built by Magnel in 1948, was the first continuous prestreased box-girder bridge with 2 spans of 62. 70 m(see Fig. 4) In the following years the ratio of wages to material costs climbed sharply. This thereby shifted the emphasis of development to the construction method. — 62,70 mn —— b}-———aa2.0 ! pressing cable witout bond section a-a Fig, 4 Sclayn Bridge over the river Maas; Prestressing by means of straight, large bundles of parallel wires without bond4 aon Important development stages were the following: = cantilever construction in situ: the bridge over the river Rhine at Worms in 1989 with a main span of 114 m, the Hamana bridge in Japan in 1978 with a main span of 230 m, the cable-stayed Brotonne bridge in 1978 with a main span of $20 m ~ cantilever construction with precast elements: the Chillon Viaduct in 1969 with a main span of 104 m, the cable-stayed bridge over the Columbia River {n the USA in 1980 with a main span of 300 m = construction with a travelling scaffolding: in situ (bridge on the Kettiger Hang in 1959, with equal spans of 39 m each) or precast (Rio Niteroi Bridge in 1974 with equal spans of 80 m) - incremental launching method: Rio Caroni Bridge in 1962 with equal spans of 96 m and the Taubertal Bridge in 1965 with spans of 84 and 60 m. ‘The box-girder cross-section evolved structurally from the hollow cell deck bridge or the T-beam bridge. The widening of the compression zone that be- gan as a structural requirement at the central piera was in the end extended throughout the entire length of the bridge because of the advantageous trans. verse load-carrying characteristics, ‘The firet box- girder cross-sections possessed deck slabs that cantilevered out only slightly from the box portion (see Fig. 5, a - e). With prestressed concrete, the length of the cantilever could be increased. The high form- work costs caused a reduction in the number of cells (sce Fig. 5, f and g). In order to reduce the construction loads to the minimum possible or to require only one longitudinal girder in the working state even with multiple traffic-lanea, the one-celled built-up cross-section constructed in modular fashion emerged ag the last development (see Fig. 5h ). This allowed the Semorile Viaduct to be built by first incrementally launching the U-shaped portion of the box girder and adding the deck slab afterwards by means of precast elements and insitu concrete infilling (see Fig. 6). Some precast ‘elements were built in before launching to provide stiffness. In the case of the Hschachtal Bridge (Fig. 7), the closed box girder was first constructed with only short cantilever deck slabs using the balanced cantilever method with erection girder. In the follow-up stage of constructions, the main can- tilever deck portion was added in insitu concrete and supported by precast ‘concrete struts, The Kochertal Bridge and the Liesertal Bridge were simi- larly constructed, In the case of the West Gate Bridge in Melbourne however, ‘the cantilevered portion was built entirely of precast elements which were covered later with only a thin conerete topping. A further reduction in the construction loads was only possible by dividing the bridge longitudinally as done for the Hammeramith Flyover in London (Fig. 8).ital Delopment 5 Tie eee VITO CIT Hoos ST = aa el Fig. 5 Development of the box-girder cross-section [-—s209— xX Fig. 6 Semorile Viaduct [3] Fig, 7 Eschachtal Bridge (4) 4 tengitudinal Drestressing strand ¥ Diver component inst concrete pint 4 fontilever component pier Fig, 8 Hammersmith Flyover in London (1) Fig. 9 Brotonne Cable-Stayed Bridge with centerline cable attachment [5]© etgn ‘The concrete box girder with streamlined cross-section has also been succes ful recently in the case of cable-stayed bridges. Its high dead load favorably. influences the dynamic stress amplitudes of the cables and the necessary long- itudinal prestressing steel. A torsionally stiff box girder is required #0 handle the torsional moments incurred by attaching the cables to the bridge’ s centerline (see Fig. 9). Attaching the cables to both sides allows a much« reduced section depth. A case in point was the Columbia River Bridge where the side cells of the approach span cross-section (Fig. 10 ) were only requi- red in the area near the cable-stayed portion of the bridge, and transverse diaphragms were added only where the cables were attached to the cross section. A further area of application for box girders arose from noise and automobile ‘emissions control for inner city elevated highways (Fig, 11). Fig. 10 Columbia River Bridge (8) : a) cabl wyed bridge, b) approach span glazes openings {or natural. ighting Fig. 11 Closed box girder for inner oity elevated highways [7] Even though the structural development of the box girder cross-section is prob- ably close to an end, it will continue to retain its firm place in bridge con- struction for some years to come.Design Pincpee 7 4, OVER ALL DESIGN 1 Design Principl 4.1.1 The Role and Sequence of the Di ign Process ‘The over-all structural and architectural design {s the most important and, for its designer, the most stimulating and beautiful stage in the creation of a structure, Problems during detailed analysis and design and during construe- tion as well as defects arising during its use ean be traced in most cases to 8 faulty overall design. Design entails finding an optimum compromiae among the particular objective and subjective boundary condition® of an individual structure. That is why no bridge, even a box-girder one, can be like another. ‘Much latitude remains for creative fantasy ani considerations of quality and responsibility. The design engineer must be conscious at all times of the fact that he is irrevocably changing an area’ s environment with his bridge. ‘Therefore, not only considerations of stability, serviceability, and economy count, but of equal importance are the bridge shape, the bridge’ # harmoni- zation with the surrounding landscape, and its impact on the preservation of the quality of life of man and nature. ‘The optimum solution, always and exclusively @ subjective evaluation, ean only be found through the comparison of many alternative olutions with a different assessment of the individual boundary conditions in each case, The entire planning process from the sketched design to the planning of the con- struction is a cyclical process of increasing refinement (Fig. 12), It ta to be emphasized that the development of the structural detaile should be inclu- ed in the earliest phase of the design process, whereas the computer caleu- lations range at its end and should confirm only whether the roughly deter- mined dimensions suffice, Construct on ie carried out according to drawings, not calculations. Above all, it would be a great mistake to believe that the computer could relieve the engineer of the design of a bridge, 4.1.2 Remarks as to form Jn contrast somewhat to arch, suepension, or cable-atayed bridges, the box- girder bridge fits into almost every surrounding, be it varied or monotonous {8}. Just because of its simplicity, the observer finds every imbalance in ite proportions and uncleanness in its lines to be disturbing. Realizing well enough that, fortunately, it is not possible and perhaps even detrimental to put forth generally valid rules for aesthetics, a few remarks fon the subject will nevertheless be hazarded here. It has served its purpose well if the fact that a separate section in this paper is devoted to architectural design and form promotes the sharpening of the consciousness among engineers with respect to this subject, That will even be achieved in the event that the Feader finds the following guidelines or oriencation aids to be false and in this ‘manner critically grapples with the questions of form (Compare especially [8 10, 11] as well as [8, 12, 13])8 Design Fig. 12 Planning: a continuous refining process = Order in the structural system: Retain the selected structural system (beam, arch, frame, suspension or cable-stayed) and only combine it with another syatem if the topografical boundary conditions change signi- flcantly along the length of the bridge (e. g. widened river bed or approach). = Harmony: Strive for balanced proportions among the length of the spans, the construction depth, and the depth of the valley; and between the supporting and supported structural elements. The span/depth ratio , 1/4, alone is no guaranty for a light and elegant appearance (Fig. 13). = Order in the lines: Restrict the characteristic lines to a few directions and avoid their intersecting. A straight line should merge smoothly intoime Te a ——4 CLL roy Fig. 18 Although 1,/4, is greater than 1,/d, , (b) appears lighter than (a) al i! = Simplicity and clearness: Allow the functios of the structural element and the necessity of the material to be perceived, and avoid unnecessary frills, = Integration into the environment: Bither gubordinate the bridge to its surroundings; or, if the landscape 1s monotonous or the surroundings are disorderly built up, make a feature of the bridge. = Pay attention to the order of scale between the bridge and its surroundings land the bridge and the individual person, A long bridge, especially if it passes through hilly terrain, should never be set out in a straight alignment but harmonically pick up the movement of the terrain and the lay-out of the curves of the highway. An odd number of spans which decrease in length in the direction of the abut- ments are found to be pleasing (Figs. 14a, e, and f). Very irregular span lengths produce a feeling of uneasiness (Fig. 14b). Many spans of equal length produce a boring effect, and the valley appears to be walled in (Figs. 14e and d), although @ design in the form of Figure 14d with very slender in- dividual piers can be a viable solution. The harmonic division of a line accord- ing to the "golden section" commonly used in antiquity is limited by various hindrances and the soil conditions and therefore can only seldom be realised (Pig. 140, oS “NUT 4 oN TY = Soe ao Fig. 14 On the selection of span lengths10 Design Should the bridge gradient follow a trough or a crest, L.e. the upper charac- teristic line is curved, then a satisfying appearance can be best achieved by means of a constant depth, d, of the box-girder for the entire bridge. Especially for inner city elevated highways, the depth should be as small as possible and the corresponding reduction in the lengths of the spans be reopen ae oD — i tle o dt A ETS sleeker than (a) ‘The length,a,of the cantilevered deck slab and the form given to the fascia beam and railing determine the side view of the bridge a8 follows: - For a/d < 1 no shadow effect is created, but for a/d> 9 the shadow is very noticeable, and for a/d >2 it can be usefully employed as an element of form (Fig. 15). For varying bridge depths, however, the shadow should not be allowed to extend beneath the soffit of the box girder, = A deep, if necessary white-painted, fascia beam reduces the perceived depth of the box girder (Fig, 16). Suitable values are the following (8, 10): 4/4 1/5 to 1/4 but always < 1/3 44/1/20 to 1/80 for tong bridges 4, = 200mm, ‘An inclined fascia beam appears even lighter because of the angle at which ‘the light falls on it (Fig. 17). In addition, the wind is also deflected to ad- vantage. In the case of bridges near residential areas, the fascia beams can be placed higher to act as noise barriers (Fig. 18), Varying inclina- tion cause light-dark effects that give the bridge a slecker appearance. With an appropriate design such deep fascia beams can be used as Ioad- bearing members together with the box-girder. PE Fig. 17 An inclined fascia beam Fig. 18 Fascia beam as noise barrier ~ Great care should be employed with the shape and structural details of the guard rail, Sufficient protection for the pedestrian plus an unhindered view for the driver of the motor vehicle are achieved with a hefty ero beam mounted onto slender vertical standards placed at intervals of approximately 150 mm.Design Principles 11 Egpecial care should also be taken with the proportions of the piers with respect to the bridge superstructure, If the piers are too slender, the super- structure will appear too heavy, especially if she bridge cross-section is increased in depth from @ minimum at mid-span to a maximum over the piers. ‘There the piers should never be any narrower than the box-girder bottom Mange which they support. Round piers appear boring compared with prismatic ‘ones with at least eix eides, The abutments should be placed high in the embankment and be only marginally exposed. In order to assess the appearance of the bridge, it is important to compose @ “picture” of it, This means making sketches st first and later drawings to scale. Along with a plan view, cross-section, and elevation, at least one per- spective drawing is necessary in order to obtain an impreasion of the bridge in its surroundings. With an inclined view one cen best determine if the super- structure and substructure are in harmony with each other, Of great help in this respect is the photomontage, which is really not so costly, or a model. ‘The model must include a sufficient portion of the surroundings. Not only should fone not attempt to evoke a favourable impression of the structure by choosing fan unrealistic standpoint from which to observe the bridge,but one should design bridge that is found to be harmonically proportioned even when viewed from the worst possible perspective. 4.1.3 Coste In letting the contract for a bridge one should not overlook the fact that the total costs include not only the costs of construction but aleo the follow-up costs of maintenance and the ensuring of proper functioning of the bridge for at least 50 years. Unfortunately, even in the rich industrialized nations of the world, bridges are predominantly let on the basis of the lowest bid, One -1dom prepared to pay a bit more for a good architectural design and form Jong-lasting quality. ‘The growth of costs shown in Fig. 19 are valid for Central Europe, Depending up the regional construction materials at hand, the qualifications of the wor- ers, the ratio of wages to material costs, the extent of mechanization of the construction industry, and the climate: the particular cost analysis yields dif- fering results. The course of costs over time portrayed in Fig. 20 shows that ‘an economical solution is only achieved today :f the labour-intensive work is i- mited through repetition of the same operations or construction under factory conditions. Cost optimizations with specification of the most favourable span length or the like, as is so often found in papers are questionable for the most Part, because they can never take every possible parameter into consideration. ‘They often only consider material expenditure Only if the ratio of labour costs to material costs is less than 1 do savings of material gain significance. One can observe from Fig. 19 that inflated calculations of savings of mild steel reinforcement, approximately half of which is required as minimum reinforee- ment anyway, do not change the total cost of the bridge to any great extent, Lar- ge savings are only achieved if an element of the design is changed, euch ae a Jess expensive foundation or a less labour intsive construction method.ae em services. ‘structucl work finish wort op oo oo 7 Te “o0%. 7-—- 309% 200] min aoe BS 7 are eroweff erin = ae amet Popa danpice ow 85 morass For a bridge with average span lengths and a span/depth ratio, 1/d~ 18, one can proceed from the following values for the superstructure (from [14]}: - m® concrete per m” bridge surface area, expressed as an average thickness 16m] 2 3),2 0,354 SAS TL C8 ny ‘quantity of reinforcement (mass of steel/m® concrete) normal reinforcement ~ 110 ‘ke/m®] prestressing steel for the ease of predominantly : Continuous prestressing tendons ~(4,5+0, 04m? fxg/m'] ~ average cost of falsework and formwork = 60 % of the expenditure for ‘concrete and steel. 4.2 Construction Method: ‘The method of construction influences the design and its details in both the ongitudinal and transverse direction, In the last 20 years construction me- thods have experienced a stage of rapid development. They appear today, however, to have reached the end of this stage, Box-girder bridges are con- structed today on stationary falsework (Fig. 21), if at all, only in the extreme cage of a small number of spans or when the superstructure is not at a great height above the ground. For some of the large bridges highly mechanized constructions methods are used, By means of construction rhythms and many repetitive construction operations, these methods reduce construction time and formwork (Figs. 22 and 23) For the foreseeable future one can expect that Jong bridges will be construc- ted using either launching girders or segmental cantilever construction. For medium-Jength bridges between 200 m and 500 m the incremental launching ‘method and classical balanced cantilever method or cantilever method with Jaunching gantry will be predominantly used,= ae , Ace Ts Boallion aaa Fig. 21. Baste formwork for a box-girder cross-section 4) classical balanced cantilever constrection (Rhine Bridge ) b) cantilever construction with auxiliary cables ( Lahntal Bridge ) 4) launching girder (Krannenberg Bridge ) aes 4 ©) ineremental launching method ( Taubertal Bridge ) Fig. 22 Construction methods14 Design GaRETON SEAN TENGT TROGE LENGTH FERSTROCTON PRORESS NETHOO) aoswmpwoen|| mm a, ww aml DD oo anh Tit rT INCREMENTAL cane Fig, 28 Classification according to construction method, span length, total bridge length, and construction progress (from [15]) 4.41 Superatructus 4.8.1 General ‘The box girder often is more advantageous than say at -beam due to = {te high bending stif Mess combined with a low dead load, yielding @ favorable ratio of dead load to live load; = {ts high torsional stiffness which allows freedom in the selection of both the supports and bridge alignment; and = the possibility of utilizing the space inside the box girder. Several of the following aspects apply to both the box girder and 7 -beam, however. ‘The superstructure should always be designed as a complete entity. However, in order to provide a better overview, the longitudinal and transverse direc- tion are handled separately here. 4 .2 Longitudinal Direction Because of excessive bending deformations even under constant Joads and in order to avoid cracking under repeated loading, most box-girder bridges are prestressed, As short a epan as 20 m is more economical and possesses more favorable load-carrying characteristics when partially prestressed than if it were simply reinforced. Under 20 m is a box-girder cross-section no longer sensible anyhow. The limit for mild steel reinforced bridges of single span ies at approximately 35 m: for more than one span at « maximum of 60 m, Today practically all box-girder bridges are prestressed, ‘The selection of the span lengths should mainly follow from aesthetic aspects (compare with Section 4.1.2). From the structural point of view, the span Tength ratio of end span to its neighboring inner span should be Ip/ly ~ 0.75 but not < 0.40 0 as to avoid uplift at the end span supports, Most end spans with Ig /iy ¥ 0,8 do not look good.Superstuctre 15 Especially important for the form and the dimensioning of the bridge is the selection of the bridge depth. Up to a span length of about 90 m, a constant bridge depth is sensible (16, 17), whereby beginning with a span length of approximately 50 m it is expedient to inereage the thickness of the bottom flange over the piers on the inside of the box girder where this can not be seen from the outside. For span lengths, 1, in the middle range and constant bridge depth, d, the following ratios are normally used: + mild steel reinforced: single span Law a7 multiple spans 1/d~ 18 - prestressed: single spans A/d~ 21 multiple spans I/d~ 25 If not done earlier for aesthetic reasons, it is structurally and economically Advantageous to vary the bridge depth in the longitudinal direction beginning with span lengths of about 60 m onwards. For span lengths over 150m this cannot be avoided. According to [18], the depth, dg,over the piers should vary so that it is about 3 times as large as at mid-spen, dy. ‘The depth of the box girder should vary in the longitudinal cirection between the piers and mid-span in such a way that the forces in the tensile and compressive chords increase linearly and therefore the shear forces in the webs remain roughly constant throughout the span. Suitable ratios are: dp = 33 to 50 I/dg ~ 12 to 20 Should the bridge be placed high above the valley, aesthetics dictate that, de- pending upon the width of the piers, the ratio dg/dy is better chosen some- what smaller than the structural analysis indicates as the optimum. Much larger slenderness ratios can be achieved in the case of suspension aid cable-stayed bridges, as the depth of the main girder is not determined by the total span length but by the spacing of the hangers, which act as spring supports. For small hanger or cable intervals of from 6 m to 15 m, which also prove suitable for the free cantilever construction of cable-stayed bridges, the depth of the main girder when suspended from both sides ie in principle determined only by ite strength in the transverse direction, When the girder is suepen- ded from the center,the necessary torsional strength or torsional stiffnet plays a decisive role as well, Skewed single celled box-girder bridges with g 15° (Fig. 24) can be designed fas if they were orthogonal bridges, For larger 8 the angle of skew must be considered (e.g. [ 19, 20}). 1 =, \eSy ws Fig. 24 Skewed bridge Fig, 25. Curved bridge16 Design ee eras eee suas cee? acta Cag reong peernipetenirar earn po ore Bere aie ceases masts ter es aus us aan oe Ce ae at a rece ane nee bridge, i.e, to neglect the Coupling effect of the two upon each other (e.g. (au, 22)): 4.3.3 Transverse Direction Figure 26 portrays the factors influencing the cros are all approximately of the same importance. sectional form, They roe Seats TCOMETRUCTION METHOD | | Tee etree riage Fig. 26 Influences on the design in the transverse direction ‘The use to which the cross-section is put determines its form, especially the width of the top slab. No standards exist for the necessary width of foot bridges. ‘That must be determined according to the expected number of pedestrians for the particular location in question [23]. In order to provide Ample space for at least 2 baby carriages plus one pedestrian and to impart a feeling of safety and well-being to pedestrians, a minimum width of 3.5 mn between the hand raila should be provided, Should the bridge possess light, open balustrades or carry pedestrians over major traffic arteries, the width should be chosen expecially liberally. For railway bridges, the railway clearance profile (in western Europe as in Fig. 27) determines the width of the upper flange and the distance bet- ween the webs, as the loads should act on the box girder as near to the webs a9 possible (Fig. 29), Should the rail traffic be transferred to the inside of the box girder , the railway clearance profile would then determine the widthSeperseuctue 17 e4 ‘on ett Fig. 27 Railway clearance Fig. 28 Double-track railway: Place the webs as nearly as possible underneath the paths of the loads, ‘and height of the box girder as well (Fig. 29). The details of the slab earry- Ing the tracks depend in addition upon whether the ballast bed is continued over the bridge or whether the sleepers are placed on vibration-absorbing pada sitting directly on the structure, For highway bridges the bridge should maintain the normal highway cross-section (e. g. Fig. 30). Should later widening of the highway be planned, the additional lanes should be constructed for the initial bridge etage and the areas not planned for initial commissioning blocked off, This avoids expen- sive reworking of the bridge in the future, Ser] |_| Lo) 375375 || 00 375 | 752m) | 462 oa Fig. 29 Design of the Metro in Lyon Fig, $0 ‘Typical cross-section (from [24)) of a 4-lane Autobahn (R Q 29)18 Design ‘The box-girder cross-section shown in Fig, 31 has proven itself with regard ite form and structural characteristics, Many variations of this "standard jection" are possible, Fig. $1. Typical single-cell box-girder cross-section (1/d~20:see Fig. 43) If the available depth of the girder,d,is greater than from 1/6 to 1/9 of the bridge width sbyiay (= roadway slab width), a single-cell box girder is in order, If d/bgiuy < 1/6, a 2-cell or multiple-cell box girder is more sen- sible (Fig. 52/[26]. For wider bridges the vehicle loads acting on the canti- lever alab can be distributed longitudinally by means of a pronounced edge beam, enabling the cantilever length to be increased (Fig. 38). Fig. 32 Double-cell box girder with Fig. 88 Load-distributing edge support in the middle beam ‘The number of cells should be kept as small as possible even for wider bridges with a amall depth in order to minimize problems in construction. As can be Seen in Fig. 34, no substantial improvement in the transverse load distribu~ tion {s achieved with 3 cells and beyond, For economic reasons, today more than 2 celle are rare. If 2 or more box girders are placed next to each other it is advantageous to connect their top and bottom Manges in order to achieve a better transverse Joad distribution (Fig. 35 b), If only the top flanges are connected, they will bbe hightly atreased due to bending moments in the transverse direction with ‘out being able to effectively distribute the stresses in this direction (Fig. 35 It is then better to separate the two box girders.Superstuctue 19 100 KN single toad at A 100 KN uniformly. distributes Seale ons otal 180 Fig. 34 Longitudinal bending stresses o at mid-span in relation to the number of cella: (example for 1/418 trom [26]) Fig. 35. The coupling of box girders ‘The combination of extremely wide roadway decks with slender piers can be accomplished with a box girder by aupporting the cantilevers with precast struts (Fig, 36), This is also advantageous for the construction. At the inner supports of continuous long span bridges it is usually neces increase the thickness of the bottom flange to take the compression stret (Pig. 91), The center of gravity is thereby lovered towards the bottom flange, Fig, 36 Kochertal Bridge at Geislingen Fig. 87 Thicker bottom Mange for a 4-lane Autobahn (from (27) over the support (Pine Vatley Creek Bridge, ‘trom (28))> eign affecting favorably the moment arm of the prestressing force. However, the increased stiffness also causes an increase In moments over the supports. ‘The bottom flange should be gradually thickened over a distance of 1/10 times the span on both sides of the inner support. With varying bridge depth and inclined webs, the box-girder soffit is wider in Pee Ge ec nately Splat ete {in this case, vertical webs are therefore often selected (Fig. 38). cross section c20ss-secton ‘er the supports ‘tbe span ban — bes 1 Fig. 98 Felsenas Bridge, single- Fig. 39 Oléron Bridge with ver celled box girder with Heal webs and two sepa~ Inclined webs Fate box girders Especially in the case of inner city elevated highways, exit lanes often begin on the bridge, requiring a widening of the bridge top slab. If the widening is not too great, it can be handled by extending the length of the cantilever por- tion (Fig 40a). Its soffit must however be carefully designed (Fig. 41). If the widening of the roadway is not symmetric, an equal cantilever length for both ‘idea of the box girder can be achieved by offsetting the center line of the box girder (Fig. 40b). The torsional moments are thereby reduced as well, ‘The formwork costs are substantially increased however. In extreme cases (Fig. 42) the distance between the webs or the number of, cells can be increased. The possible position of supports thereby influences the number of webs more in most cases than the maximum cantilever length of the top slab or the maximum span of the top slab between the webs. 4 Gols tootsie | = 1 a) symmetrical widening ») unsymmetrical widening: equal cantilevers achieved through a curved aligament of the box section Fig. 40 Widening of top slaba) simple design but too ») extensive formwork but in ‘stubby in the normal region return a well-proportioned cantilever slab in the normal region Fig. 41 Extension of the cantilever slab Fig. 42 Widening for exit lanes ‘The following = advantageous proportions = minimum dimensions = aesthetic and structural suggestions are intended to facilitate the preliminary design but should in no way restrict the scope of the design possibilities (Fig. 43). special form f Ling of prestres Fig. 43 Design aids for the cross-sectional dimensions the coup- ing tendons 5 0.2 (to ekmplify the formwork, a value of Tyaunen/letgy * 0-8 1 Fecommended) = tylty + from 1:2 to 1:3 Tnaunch! Metab2 design = slab thickness t, > 1,/30, otherwise the slab must be stiffened in the ‘compression zone by means of transverse ribe at intervale of a (This also applies for t,). * = minimum dimensions: deck slab ty = 200 mm; t, = 200 mm webs ty = 900 mm or (200 + 2-H. o)) pottom slab ty = 150 mm (ith the utmost of care in construction, e.g. pre- ‘east elements, these values can be decreased by ‘5 much as 50 mm). ‘The ratio 1,1, shown in Fig. 43 is very much dependent upon the transverse bending stiftneés of the slabs and the webs as well as the maximum possible ‘eccentricity of the vehicle loading as defined by the sidewalk. For normal cross-sectional dimensions, 80% to 90 % of the fixed-end moment of-the can- tilever slab is transmitied into the web and 20 % to 10 % into the deck slab between the webs. The optimum cantilever length 1; lies between 2.0m and 3.5m. 1; should be so selected that no negative moments in the span occur in the dedk slab between the webs. In order to minimize the width of the pier and the span length of the bottom slab between webs, the webs should be given an inclination of from 4: 1 to 3: 1 for a constant bridge depth, The traneverge tensile forces in the deck slab must be accepted thereby. In order to facilitate rainwater run-off, the roadway should be transversely inclined as follows for a straight alignment: = 2.5% for curves, depending upon the radius of curvature 2.5% 06%, For narrow bridges the transverse gradient can be achieved by varying the road surfacing thickness, In general though, the deck slab should be given a gradient itself. The possibilities to achieve this are shown in Figure 44. a) rotation of the b) a rhombic cross- ©) differing web cross-section section with vertical heights and a about the axis webs of equal height horizontal bottom through point A lab Fig. 44 Transverse gradient of the roadway (from [14]) ‘The other elements and structural details of the bridge finishes are handled {in Section 1,9.Complen System and Suppor 22 Diaphragms hinder the construction of box-girder bridges in most cases. They are sensible in the span only for the case of very long spans, if then. Over the piers they can take the form shown in Figs, 45 and 46, depending upon how the cross-section is supported. ‘They can be omitted if the bridge bearings are placed directly underneath the webs, This maées it more difficult to replace a bearing however. section 14 1a) most common form: b) for a central support ¢) for very stiff with access opening box girders locally thickened webs suffice Fig. 45 Diaphragms over the piers peg pee 4 WT a) small longitudinal displacement _b) very large longitudinal displacement Fig. 45 Design of the diaphragm dependent upon the movement allowed by the bridge bearing 4.4 Comple' yn and Suppor' ‘The superstructure is acted upon by both horizontal and vertical loads which must be carried into the foundation by way of the bearings, piers, and abut- ments (Fig, 47), ‘Transverse horizontal forces acting on the superstructure and pers include mainly wind but also earthquake forces, In exceptional cases, impact forces from vehicles or ships and ice pressure should be considered, Longitudinal horizontal forces include forces from vehicle acceleration and braking, resistance to deformation of the suprorts or piere, and earthquake forces. For very long bridges, longitudinal wind forces should algo be borne in mind as well as the dead-load components cf bridges with longitudinal gra- dents, as long as the bridge bearings are positioned with the same inclination ‘and not horizontally as shown in Fig. 58.2 omin po eiShat ated rics Be 7 oe ~ +t + - + + teeedle = = ee i Som an Sa oe Fig. 47 Typical longitudinal and transverse support schematic for a medium- length (L™ 300 m) box-girder bridge with short or medium high piers Up to a bridge of medium length, the fixed point should be at one of the abut- ments, as the abutment is heavy anyway and can take the horizontal forces more economically than the piers. In this cade the bridge also needs only one expansion joint (Figs. 47 and 48 a). For long bridges st can be more advantage- ous to place the point of fixity somewhere near the middle of the bridge in order to halve the horizontal movements to be accomodated by the bearings on the piers and by the two expansion joints at the bridge ends (Fige, 48b and c). This point of fixity should lie at a pler with a large vertical load in the case of short piers. For a bridge with tall piers, several piers near the middle of the bridge may be _monolithically connected with the superstructure, yielding @ floating ‘support. The stability of the entire system should, however, bb examines Piers constructed integrally with the euperstructure are not only advantageous because the vulnerable bearing can be done away with,but also because they then possess the shortest effective Euler buckling length (Fig. 49). One should therefore take advantage of the deformability of tall piers, If the final fixed points are not located at the abutments or the bridge construe- ‘lon is advanced from both abutments, the fixed points must be moved during the construction (Fig. $0). This requires a careful determination of the initial set-up positons of the bearings (see Section 11,8 ).Complat Sytem and Supports 25 fixed point point of fixity Tr a Fig. 48 Support possibilities in the longitudinal direction thee a a A eM fo 7 TAN t =r nT i HE fk =i ie Moye MSS Maem ye My Myo Mo*0 ree fx ee ee ele Ore oe See cepacia Se For extremely long bridges it can be more economical to provide intermediate Joints in the superstructure and therefore several fixed points, as the bearings become more complex and costly the heavier the loads they are required to handle and the larger the movements they are required to accomodate simul- taneously, i.e, the higher and wider the "trees!" of Fig. 51 for the particular bridge.8 Go 0 300 4 scm xed point a tot int ‘tne pon Fe i ST witout nt po it > — ee ese oe load carried by movable support yt R tines support § monolithic connectionhointenance fee) smpertructore deod loads Terperalore induced movement Fig. 51 Load vs movement depending upon the support condition in the lon- situdinal direction (from [29}) ‘To increase the number of joints because of an unsubstantiated fear of differential settlements to the point that the effect of continuity is lost (Fig. 52) should, however, be rejected. The best detailed expan- sion joint will always be much worse than the continuous superstructure. In addition, the structural reserves ff the continuous system are lost by the multiple-epan statically deter- minate system. Fig. 52 Superfluous arrangement of jointsComplete System and Supports 27 ‘The torsionally stiff box girder enables the skewed abutment and pier walls to be avoided for the case that the bridge must cross over an obstruction at a skew (Fig, 53). LE TA Fig. 63. Skewed crossing with a torsionally stiff bridge constructed at a right angle ‘Torsionally stiff box-girder bridges built on sharp horizontal curves and sup- ported by at least 3 individual columns located under the middle of the cro Section are stable even without the bridge ends being fixed (Fig. $4). This permits very transparent support systems, which are especially welcomed in the inner city, Nevertheless, in order to be able to use the normal expansion Joints, the bridge ends are fixed torsionally stiff attemgthe Fig. 84 Support of sharply curved box-girder bridges In the case of long lightly curved bridges, the columne can be alternatingly placed off-center to the bridge axis (Fig. 95a) if the bending stiffness of one or all of the columns is not to be utilized (Fig. $58), Of couree a fixed end as shown in Fig. 53 auffices for short bridges Fig. 85 Support aystem for long lightly curved box-girder bridges2 bevgn ‘As curved bridges experience horizontal deformations due to prestressing and ‘creep parallel to the bridge axis and deformations due to shrinkage and tempe- rafure radially from the fixed point, bearings capable of accomodating move- ment in any direction are to be preferred over roller bearing: ‘This requirement of freedom of movement in any direction produces difficul- ties for the free bridge ends. Therefore in most cases the movements there are restricted to one direction, and the piers or abutments are designed for the unavoidable restraint stresses (Fig. 56). Vow Pig. 56 Longitudinal movement in the direction of the bridge axis can be brought about by horizontal restraint forces (érom [9]) For bridges with tranaverse or longitudinal gradients the bearings can be placed as shown in Figs, 57 and $8, The tranaverse diaphragms should be placed vertically, Beginning with gradients a greater than 3°, the gradient must be considered. Fig. 87 Placement of Fig, 58 Placement of bearings for a longitu- bearings for a inal gradient avoiding horizontal transverse gra- forces on the piers dient (from {i4])Subewuctre 29 4.5 Substructure ‘The loads of the superstructure are carried icto the soil by the following: = abutments 4.5.1 Abutmente ‘The abutment provides the transition between :he earth embankment and the bridge superstructure, Its wing walls secure ‘he embankment and its back wall holds a space free for displacements of the superstructure, The super- structure is supported here by bearings mounted on the bridge seat into which the loads are carried into the support walls and they in turn into the founda- ton and the soil. In Fig. 1, two abutment types are sketched, For small bridges the spill- ‘through abutment is sufficient. A box abutment large enough for access inside is normally provided for large bridges. The earth fill behind the abutment should be well compacted. As the abutments even for small bridges possess large dimensions, they should be covered as much as possible by the slope or embankment. The sloped area underneath the superatructure ends should be ‘covered with dark paving stones, ae no plants will grow there. ‘The view into the access chamber, where the bearings and any drainage lines are located, should be concealed by the end diaphragm. The end diaphragm should, how ever, leave a gap of approximately 100 mim between it and the soffit of the box girder. 4.5.2 Piere For low bridges, especially those for elevated highways, two individual columns are more transparent and therefore more advantageous than pier walls. It can be more aesthetically pleasing to set the columns back somewhat from the outside edge of the bridge cross-section (Fig. 595) and to forego the more efficient carrying of the loads directly from the webs into the columns (Fig. 59a).1n any. case, good uniform soll conditions are necessary in order to prevent differential settlement between the columns standing s0 close to each other. Otherwise a common fourdation should be provided, on piles if necessary, ‘Should it not be necessary to handle any torsion moments, 4 single column underneath the middle of the cross-section appears more ele- gant than two (Figs. 59. to e). However, this is only sensible for one or two- celled cross-sections (Fig. 594). By inclining the webs more a smaller bottom slab is thereby possible (Fig, 59). The single columns should be de- signed sufficiently robust, as columns that are too slender do not convey @ fecling of safety underneath a large box-girder (Fig. 59). Round, elliptic, or octagonal cross-sections should be preferred above aquare or rectangular ones because of their better appearance (Fig. 50). Even for extremely wide, multiple-celled cross-sections, not more than 3 individual columns together should be used, as the skewed view through them produce an unsettling effect. ‘Massive pier walls (Fig. 60 and 61) should only be used for low bridges, By breaking up the walls or varying their width, te squat shape produced ean be lightened,UU st -t -@§e08800 0 Se ED ==> Gz=D — D> Fig. 60 Cross-sectional shapes for piers (from [9] } Fig. 61 Comparison between pier and twin columns for multiple-celled bor girders For piers in a river, the top of the pier can be wider than the bottom slab of the box girder (Fig. 62a), In general, though, the top of the pier should elther be set back underneath the cross-section (Fig, 62b) or set flush with the bottom aides of the bottom flange. If the pier should be protected from abra- sion, hard natural stone can be used as protection and as an addition to the bridge’ s appearance. > Fig, 62. Pier shapesSubervctre 31 For high bridges over valleys the piers should also be designed with one or two-celled box cross-sections (Fig, 63). ‘The walls should be at least 200 mm. to 300 mm thick in order to permit the use of slipforms or climbing formwork. Co ocr a al oo ! Fig. 63 Box piers Fig. 64 Pier design ‘The piers should be lightly tapered from the bottom upwards, at least for one dimension (Fig. 64a). Stiffening diaphragms sre not normally required or desired because of thermal stresses, The top of the pier (Fig, 646) should be designed compatible with the construction method of the superstructure, In the longitudinal direction of the bridge the width of the top of the pier depends upon the type of bearings selected, the span between the bearings, and the dimensions of the jacks necessary to replace the bearings, It varies between 1,20 m and 2.0m. 4.5.8 Foundations ‘The simplest type is the shallow spread foundation which is used if good soil conditions are found at « shallow depth. The foundation slab is constructed on top of an 0. 1 m thick sub-bage, The slab thickness should be 80 chosen that shear and punching reinforcement can be avoided. ‘The bottom of the founda~ tion must lie below the level of frost penetration, Should adequate soil conditions be found only at lower levels, an excavated pile foundation or one on drilled or driven piles should be selected. In gene- ral this type of foundation is provided with a pile cap with whieh the pier is, connected, Depending upon the loads to be carried, the piles are either dri- ven (for loads up to ~ 1 000 KN) or drilled (up to ~ 9 000 KN). In the case of pile foundations for single columns, it is better to carry the forces directly {into the foundation by means of large drilled piles or wells rather than for- cing them to travel a roundabout way through @ pile cap on top of several small individual piles and its complicated reinforcing arrangement (Fig. 68), If unfavourable soil conditions are encountered or the foundations are into a hillside, it can be necessary to carry out open excavations down to a suitable soil layer or to sink caissont ‘The pler can then either be placed directly on Fig. 65 (a) is more the bottom of the excavation or on top of the favourable than (b) excavation or caisson wall.22 Deion Palsework foundations should be locally widened pier foundations (Fig. 66 b) in order to prevent one-sided settlement (Fig. 66.) and the resulting dange- ous tilting of the faleework, The falsework should also be statically deter minate in order to clearly define its structural behaviour, as its stifines: lies between only rough limits. oy when alheeise Srectly, feuded on Fig. 66 Careful attention should be paid to the falsework foundation 5, LITERATURE » See er — egies, Bangin 3, Mah, SererPert ll STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS (Co-author: Kurt Sehéfer) 1, INTRODUCTION ‘This part deals with the structural analysis i.e, the computation of the sectional forces or stress resultants of box-girder bridges. It is based upon the elastic theory. For statically indeterminate reinforced and prestressed concrete structures, however, the underlying assumptions of the elastic theory only agree with the real conditions for a low range of stresses. Therefore one may be of the opinion that a separation of the analysis from the dimensioning does not make much sense. Nevertheless, as explained more fully in Section TI 2, this manner of structural analysis 1s the only method which can simultaneously con- sider all of the effects to be found in connecticn with box- girder bridges and their interactions with each other. Other more realistic and consistent methods of analysis and determination of the dimensiors and properties of the structure have not yet reached a satisfactory stage of development, Moreover, the method of calculating the sectional forces according to the elastic theory and thereafter of dimensioning of the critical sections for the Limit state of failure satisfies the lower bound eriteria of the theory of plasticity, thereby always supplying an ultimate load value that lies on the safe side. in the case of complicated static ally indeterminate syetems acted upon by high restraint stresses one should in Addition to the elastic approach, always determine the real ultimate load capa- city of the entire structure by means of the theory of plasticity (Fig. Il, 2) With these facts stated, a few critical preparstory remarks should be made ‘concerning the structural analysis, especially the computer-aided analysis, a8 follows: = Garbage in---garbage out, A structural andlysis is only as good as the structure’ idealized model, the properties assumed, and the input data, = The results should always be drawn up so as to be able to visually check the variation of the sectional forces throughout the structure, ~ Computer results are not automatically correct results. One should therefore always check them by means of a simpler analysis, Stiil better is to plump for a computer analysis only after having first conducted a rough analysis by hand so as to know approximately what reault to expect ~ The amount of computer print-out {s not proportional to the aecuracy of the analysis ~ Because of the ratio of labour costs to material costs, a straight-forward, clear-cut structural detailing and method of erection produce a greater effect on the total costs of the bridge than any amcunt of refinement in the analysis and dimensioning, ‘The engineer with experience in the analysis of box-girder bridges will per- haps see an inconsistency in this report between the extent devoted to the cal- culation of sectional forces due to eccentric live loading and the effect that these have upon the total stresses, On the other hand, precisely and only this, part of the analysis is particularly difficult for the less experienced. The literature dealing with this topic ie alao extensive and often not very easy to4 Strutt Anais understand, The detailed explanation included herein should alleviate this difficulty, Formulae are derived which are not only suitable for hand cal- culation but also for small computer programs. With enough experience so gathered in this area, one can later on appropriately estimate the effect of this loading and forego the exact calculation, 2, LOADS and EXTERNAL INFLUENCES ‘Those loads to which a bridge is subjected in the structural analysis are generally specified in the applicable code of practice for a particular country, ‘As the design loads should not be given consideration independent of thetr respective safety concept and as the live loads vary greatly indeed from country to country (Fig. 1), only the general basis for the consideration of loadings is, given here as follows: sas btbtisas 2 ay: normal reinforced eqperete Yq * 25 kN/m®, Iighwelght relnlossed coneretd yy q" 161021 )N/mé ~ Dead loads of the bridge finishes, gp: rondway surfacing (asphalt) y~ 22 KN/mn°, acta beams Welntoreed Conereie) y= 25 kN/m3, bridge railing ~ 0,22 KN/m, guard railing ™ 0.28 - 0.35 KN/m. ~ Live loads: In most codes a single-vehicle loading with a series of wheel foadsQjsand a uniformly distributed load , qj (main lane, secondary lanes), is given. Railway bridges are loaded wit the propriate long cofigors- tion for each track (e.g. UIC 71 [2]). Impact is considered by increasing portions of the live loads by meana of system-dependent impact factors. The machinery employed in constructing the bridge should also be included as live loads. In contrast to the assumed vehicle loadings however, these loads act with 100% of their actual magnitude, a fact to be taken into account in ‘the safety concept for the design, = Resistance to movement of the bridge bearings: Depending upon the maximum SGelficient of friction of the bearing (See the bearing’ s performance approval specifications), horizontal loads act upon the box-girder bottom flange and the piers,a Fig, 2. Notation used for the determination of wind loud from Figure 3 Ta aa a ae [ Teo a rine ae Sa 2 2 [wie tie ood My = Fig 3d a Fe 3b smewalh en] seyaben | cw 4 ow fwithoat tive ead Fig. 3¢ 33 = eyaeh saad -h | cy sFig. at % = [wih ive food cys Fig. 3F f a Ayewalhert] s08-ab-h | aye Fig ar a 18 oy ” 10 rest etn — yr 105 store Sea nap by pk 8 ew 2 05, [ects tom] contilever — |-1wlt = op Fig. 3 tty Tee. = 054 = yt ee [webs uff = 104 = Tee. 10 = win Bolton Tange a Fig. ah ‘a & to ee fal Fig, 9. Determination of wind loads (from [])8 Sct Anais Wi With the cross-sectional dimensions (Fig. 2) and the dynamic bi 'g, obtained from the wind velocity, v [m/sec], according to the formula q (kN/m?]~ v2/1600, the wind loads, W and M, on the entire cross-section can be determined from Figures 32 to f and the localized wind loads, w, from Figures 3 g to i, Information concerning the maximum. wind velocity can be taken from the applicable Code or obtained from a local weather station, If constant contact is maintained with the weather station during conatruction the design wind loads for the erection phase can be re~ duced, depending upon the expected duration of the particular erection,any- where from 0,2» max W(< Iday) to0,7 max W(> 3 days), ‘The eritical wind velocity causing such vortex-shedding phenomena as flutter or galopping vibrations can be estimated with Figure 4 and the formula (from [4]) y22rbh a[to(£ -05)/ ER] where f,, = fundamental natural = frequency of flexural aoe 2 Mibration for the rn crite shape 0.3 HH05-0.5b fundamental natural Sine. frequency of torsional ae wee as vibration for the critical shape Sone 01-07 pees Foig-098 | oy rm = mass per unit of length So oe 1° radius of gyration Fig. 4 Factor a derived from wind De ee tunnel tests = factor from Fig. 4 derived from wind ‘unnel teats [A more exact analysia requires wind tunnel teste in most cases. Bridges of normal dimensions continuous over fixed supports are generally not critical, Suspension or cable-stayed box girders could be, however. ~ Braking and acceleration forces, Fy: ‘These forces act horizontally on the Srldge bearings st he Taxed points of the briage and are degressively dependent upon the entire vehiole loadings {.e. the longer and wider the bridge the smaller is the chance that all of the vehicles simultaneously accelerate or brake (According to the German Code, Fy = 3/20. Lb but Fy is at least = 0.3 + 0 roadway CN] (L200 m), Sheavy vehicle ~ Temperature: A uniformly distributed heating or cooling of the super- a hh its mean temperature at the time of construction only affects the movements to he accommodated by the bearings and possibly the sub- structure, ‘The magnitude of such temperature changes can be takentheo Ine bx ger Fig. § Large temperature gradient due to the cement’ # unfavourable heat of hydration development and low temperature of previous- ty concreted section (from (5) Loads and External infences 37 from the climatic conditions of the region, In central western Europe, for example, the temperature varies from + 20K to = 30 K from a construction temperature of + 10°C (283 K). Heat of hydration (Fig, 8) and shrinkage in thick parts of the cross-section, especially between ‘thick and thin paris of the structure and between young and old concrete, can give rise to large localized residual stresses which exseed the tension strength of young concrete, ‘As a good crack distribution in young conerete cannot be achieved, even with a finely distributed reinforcement, erack- ing can enly be reduced or prevented by cooling the aggregates and/or the water used oF by insulating oF heating the forms. ‘The insulation of the concrete should be maintained in position from 2 to 4 days, depending upon the thickness of the structural component and particularly for construction joints. ‘The temperature gradient between the top and bottom of the roadway slab as well as that between the top and bottom of the box girder produce deformations, When the system is statically indeterminate, restraint stresses are algo pro- duced. During the course of a day, the temperature in the inside of the box girder remains within about 2 K because of the absence of air circulation, whereas the roadway slab, particularly underneath its black surfacing, can heat up very significantly. A linear temperature gradient can be assumed for the top and bottom slabs between the webs. ‘The temperature gradient in Figure 6 comes the closest to describing the actual gradient in the cantilever portion of the top flange and the webs. (See a'so [8] and (8] for more detailed information), As such a nonlinear temperature distribution is not very suitable for a practical analysis, a linear one is often chosen, For central western Europe AT = 10 to 15 appears appropriate, of eee vo |} Scene | | ti iL a tl mpocas © al Tarpon a Fig, 7 Magnitude of the restraint i. ‘moments due to temperature, Fig, 6 Temperature gradients used iM, in relation to the size of in dimensioning from [7] the load acting at the same time‘m8 suet Anahse ‘The magnitude of the restraint sectional forces is dependent upon the stiffness Aistribution, Those sectional forces determined for State I are maximum values which can be sharply reduced in State II. That ie why an additional restraint moment acting simultaneously with a large loading is much emaller than if it acted together with a smaller loading (Fig. 7). Alternatively, a reduced AT (e.g. only 5K according to DIN 4227) is occasionally used in the calculation of the State I condition, It is, however, strongly pointed out here that it doos not make sense to calculate the temperature stresses with the elastic theory so exactly or to attempt to handle such stresses by increasing the prestress force and thereby forcing the structure to remain in ite State I condition. It is more sensible to employ partial prestressing in combination ‘with sufficient mild steel reinforcement and allow the reduction of restraint sectional forces to occur. Through the mild steel reinforcement one should ensure that the cracks are finely distributed. (See Part Il.) Solar radiation on a web can also produce large horizontal deformations (Fig.8) which are either accomodated by the bridge bearings or taken by the eubstruc- ture in the form of restraint stresses, pia “SF “aT pf ar aed Fig. 8 Horizontal movements ‘8: Should one analyze and dimension a box- sible differential settlement in the State I condition, ‘one would obtain meaningless results [10]. As with the case of temperature, with poor foundation conditions one must design for more realistic State Il conditions. This is allowed with partial prestressing. Further, the fact ‘that settlement occurs over a period of time and that the restraint stresses are reduced by creep over time should not be forgotten (see Section 5.3.2). I necessary, the bridge bearings should be able to be suitably adjusted, It 4s false, though, to select statically determinate single spans in order to avoid these restraint stresses, as the increased number of joints means a greater possibility of trouble with the durability of the bridge. ~ Earthquakes: Only for very small and rigid bridges does it make sense to ffest of an earthquake into account by means of @ horizontal equi- valent force that is proportional to the bridge mass, For large bridges realistic dynamic analysis is required, (See for example [11] to (18}.) ~ Impact: Instead of dimensioning the piers for the very high impact loads {fom Vehicles (~ 1 000 KN concentrated load) or even ships, it is better to provide them with energy-absorbing barriers or fenders, See Section 7. See Section 8.Sructal System 38 3, STRUCTURAL SYSTEM 1 Fins ‘The box-girder superstructure can be part ofthe most varied of systema (Fig. 1, 2). Here the standard case of a directly supported box-girder bridge continuous over the columns or piers is considered, ‘The superstructure and the piers form a framework in case they are monolithically connected (see Fig. 1, 48). The stiffness of the box girder, Ely, is generally much larger than that of the pier, Plp. When Elp/? = 302ip/1p the superstructure can be analyzed separately from the substructire'as & continuous beam on freely rotating supports (Pig. 8). bi For the structural analysis of the piers, rope te morenaha a tae pea % SStrouiens afte apersorueeeé mast ; aerate ent peas ‘The type of support also affects the structural analysis, A beam with more than one span with inner supports along its centerline behaves as a continuous beam in bending and shear but as a single-span beam in torsion. Should the box girder be reduced to 2 single-span beam between the abutments for a simplified analysis of the system subjected to horizontal wind loade and not analyzed more exactly as a continuous beam on elastic aupporte (Fig. I, 47), then the piers should most definitely be investigated for stresses in the trans- verse direction, 3.2 During Construction ‘The structural system is changed many times over during conetruction, depend- ing upon the particular construction method employed. For example with the cantilever method (Fig. 10), the statically determinate cantilever (Fig. 108), which can be additionally supported by cables at critical loading stages (Fig. 10), becomes a one-column or multiple column framework upon the closing. ft oy ») “TT ‘TTT Fig. 10. Tho transformation of the structural system with the progress of cantilever construction oN Sasa va wee )20 Strctaal Anis of the span in the middle (Fig. 10 ¢) or a continuous beam with the appropriate Support or pier stiffness, respectively. ‘Temporary supports, cable truss arrangements, or auxiliary cable hangere ccan in special cases increase the system diversity during construction even further (Fig. 11), Time-dependent influences (shrinkage and creep) should not be forgotten here, A variation of support conditions during construction ccan also alter the structural system (Fig. 1, 50). Further, post-tensioned tendons are often still unbonded in the construction phase, which reduces the ultimate load and makes the system internally statically indeterminate, “Tt-*.TtdTt 4} Contier method wih erection getty ) Incremental lounching method Fig. 11 The number of spans, and if the occasion arises, the varies with the progress of construction 4, CRITICAL LOADINGS AND SECTIONAL FORCES In order to determine the critical sectional forces or sectional force combi- nations, all of the loads listed in Section 2 in their possible combinations in the final state and during construction should be considered. Except for the vehicle loadings on the superstructure, this requires no further explanation. Longitudinal Direction ‘Those sectional forces necessary for the dimensioning of the bridge in the ongitudinal direction (Fig. 12a) should be obtained from the influence lines (Fig. 126) at the 1/10 points and at other critical positions (Fig. 12%) for vehicle loads. For the calculation of the critical sectional bending moments, Mg, and their associated V,, and Mz: in view of the flexural dimensioning, ‘the bridge 1s loaded over its &itire width but with the main traffic lane at the side, The most unfavourable position of the main traffic lane with respect to the folded plate action can be handled as explained in Section 5,5, ‘The di- mensioning for shear, Vx, and torsion,My, should be carried out both for the maximum shear, with the associated "M, and My, for the scction, and for the maximum torsional moment due to a che-sided loading with its sssociated My and V,.(Citcal Leedings end Seconl Foret 41 on ae x ac 8 At "LT pax IM, mox Me a ey iin ey ey ) Longitudinal sectional b) The minimum of sectional fore: forces required for the dimensioning fx load position forthe : Siciniioe ae ~ Po lergest moment, in te spon heavy lorry coootitereees longitudinal boding (See Fig 18) SSS Nhe may load position fr the om = Pr tarsest shear torce a fete ges Shear cee Vy Zo ttuence ine tor tne ‘sociated manent ad pein rhe bss Beat inary fl 5 ee ech 3 = Tybee soir br te L Ree ee mer FF tc in iol 7 i ©) Influence lines and loading positions lumns Fig. 12 Determination of sectional forces for vehicle loadings2 Sovctel Anais 4,2 Traneverge Direction In general it is sufficient to determine the critical sectional forces for the dimensioning of the flanges (Fig. 13) from the loading positions of Figure 14, ‘This holds true in spite of the fact that due to the folded plate action (Section 5,5) the zero lines of the influence surfaces do not lie in the longitudinal axis of the bridge and npt over the webs or even parallel to them. aa (ae anton roraverse "ay | fection y rH | Las see Mey 5 may7 " mays Moy Maytd May whe He ng, bot get bade % 1 section a) PLAN 1 Fig. 13 Sectional forces required for the dimensioning of the flanges, eT ee max mg TAM ming many Mp. OK My hy MOL My cS Neen ery ain me mm me sn nga hy Fig. 14 Critical loading 1m general 5, SIMPLIFIED STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS OF THE SUPERSTRUCTURE 5.1 General ‘The box girder represent: Te Joade are always carried three dimensionally. The analysis of the sectional forces to which the structure is subjected can be handled with the aid of the following: (see Section 6). = analogy of a beam on an elastic foundation = folded plate theory with the use of seri = finite strip method = finite element method expansionsSimplfed Struct Anas of he Supertuctue 43 Ag the last three approaches produce voluminous data and therefore are great- ly susceptible to error in the evaluation of their regults, even today more reliable and clearer and still sufficiently accurate analyses for box-girder bridges are to be expected from the first approach as described in Sections 5.2 t0 5.5, With this approach, the box girder loaded symmetrically in the trans- verse direction can be analyzed longitudinally as & beam and transversely as a frame independent of each other. ‘This is valid if the box girder’ s slender- nese ratio, 1/d = 4, if the span lengtha, 12 1,5. b (Fig, 15), and if the disturbance zones af the introduction of the applied forces are separately handled, ‘The particular problematic nature of the simple analysis approach to the behaviour of a box girder under load arises with unsymmetrical loading in the transverse direction, In this cage the longitudinal and transverse stresses are connected with each other, @ connection which shall be designated in what follows here as the folded plate action. This connection is taken account of through the formulation of the condition of compatibility between the ‘separately analyzed longitudinal and transverse directions. Warp resisting supports and diaphragms or discontinuous eccentric loading produce warping torsion along with St, Vénant torsion, The additional stresses due to warping torsion die away rapidiy or are small in comparison with other Stresses, however, and therefore can be neglected according to (17). ‘The analysis procedure suggested here is so selected that the results are increasingly refined the further one proceeds. If desired, one can break off ‘the analysis without considering the folded plate action, One can also include that action sufficiently accurately for a critical loading case and extend the results to the other loading cases by means of a uniform factor. Lastly, one can systematically follow the method through for every case, 5.2 Analysis Procedure ‘The analysis presupposes that the and the design Weare 1) The loading of the top flange 0 8 to) The loading of the top flange a0 as produce the largest torsional moment to praduce the largeat moment, M, or the largest shear,V,respectively Fig. 15 Pos tioning of vehicle loading in the longitudinal. direction4 Sucre Anata Firat the bot girder is analyzed in the longitudinal direction asa beam, ive. with the assumption of a rigid cross-section (Section 5.3). All transverse loadings are integrated together to form point loads or line loads (Fig, 15), With these loads the longitudinal bending moments and shears are determined, and the accompanying or least favourable torsional momenta of the entire cross-section are determined with the eccentricities, yj of the load resultant, gp. = Afterwards the box girder is analyzed in the transverse direction with the actual load distribution (Section 5. 4), whereby the top flange is firs assumed to be rigidly fixed at the webs (Fig. 16a 1). ai ip tange ei 7 edge lads "igialy Ties symmetric. ontsymmetic Sy RR RA D iG DR mom em my =k bil S/RRETEl pot b2) Atigypmaticl prt tergindina! bending: beom Wronsverse bending: frome ee 56H}, Te Rl mR “Th ete Poh ar cigee Wyn Euan Secliond forces ft 9 ops il Stittened {rome ‘only transverse bendrg longitudinal ond Transverse bending Fig. 16 Splitting up of the structural system and the loading of @ box girder, All arrows drawn represent external loads, The cantilevers are partially omitted for greater clarity.‘Sinpled Smuts Anas of he Suparercire 4 ‘The resultant reactions, qq and gp, and the fixed-end moments, mg and mp, act at the edges at A or B, respectively (Fig. 16 a2). They are divided into $ symmetrical part (Fig. 16b 1) and an antisymmetrical part (Fig. 16b 2). A sirip of length dx = 1 is taken from the bridge and analyzed as a frame sub- jected to the symmetrical part of the load (Fig. 17a). ‘The strip is eupported in this analysis by the shear force differences from flexure in the longitudinal Airection (Fig. 24). Adding the transverse beading moments calculated in this manner to the symmetrical part of the moments (Fig. 16a 1) yields the final transverse moments due to symmetrical loading. ‘The torsional part (Fig. 16c1) of the antisymmetrical load effect (Fig. 16 b2), which was taken into account in the longitudinal analyeie, having been split off from the rest, a state of equilibrium with the applied loading as shown in Fig. 16 2 is left in every cross-section Were one to investigate this state in the same manner as the symmetrical loading by analy sing a trangverse strip, one would obtain results far removed from reality, for the idealized frame with edges free to displace(Fig. 175) does not consider the carrying of the loads Iongitudinal- ly in the plane of the plate. Nevertheless, neglecting the carrying of the anti- symmetrical loads in the plane of the plate presents a clear limiting case. Another limiting case is provided by the analysis of a frame strip whose edges are held fixed by the diagonal force, 5 (Fig, 1d 1). The resulting transverse bending moments, after their superposition with those from Figures 16a.1 and 1, generally Iie on the safe side in comparison with the actual transverse bending moments. In the analysis of the folded plate action,which follows in Section 5,5, the longitudinal beam and transverse frame action are connected together for the antisymmetrical loading part.This is achieved by no longer foreing the shape of the cross-section to be maintained by means of the diagonal force, S, (Fig. 16 42). ‘The longitudinal and transverse sectional forces due to this force, , are obtained from the analysis of the elastically bedded web panels, The super- position of these sectional forces due to $ with those from Section §.9 or 5.4, respectively, yields the total sectional forces. ‘This satisfaction of the conditions of compatibility increases the longitudinal stresses and deformations of the web immediate to the loading and decreases them for the web away from the loading. The frame deformations and moments lie between the two limit cases mentioned above, They lie nearer to the Limiting case of a freely distorting frame, if the loading changes lite in the longitudinal direction and the transverse stiffeners are far removed (see Sec- ‘ion 5.5.2). On the other hand, for the case of the heavily loaded vehicle or in the vicinity of a transverse disphragm, the limiting cage of a fully rigid frame is closer to reality. Formally the analysis takes the following steps: ~ determination of the loading in the longitudinal and transverse direction, respectively (Figs, 15 and 21) ~ analysis in the longitudinal direction as for « beam with a rigid cro: section (Section 5.3; alao Fig. 12), yieldingM,, V,, Mp and 0,4 Stuer Ansie = division of the eccentric fixed-end reactions into symmetrical and anti- symmetrical parts (Figs, 16b 1 and b2) = frame analysis in the transverse direction for the symmetrical edge loads (ection 6.4; Fig. 27), yielding (m, , Veymm, = rigid frame analysis of the antisymmetrical edge loads (Fig. 28: Section 5.4), yielding (m, 0, Wantisymm, 9 ¥ell as S = superposition of the sectional forces in the transverse direction, yielding m, an, and v = analysis of the elastically bedded web panel loaded with q, due to the diagonal force, 8, (Section 5.5) yielding longitudinal stresses, oy) and transverse Bending moments, mg, (Pigs. 29 and 286, respectively) ~ superposition of 9p with og and mg with, yllding he acta longitudinal and transverse stresses, réspectivel Frame analysis yields only transverse bending. ‘The edges do not displace with respect to their positions from the beam analysis Frame analysis yields edge displacements to- gether with the trans- verse bending (shown for unrestrained edges) »b) Becentric loading (torsional deformation not shown) Pig. 17 Connected beam and frame action‘Simpled Structural Anahsla ofthe Superevuctae 47 5.5 Analysis in the Longitudinal Direction 5.8.1 Sectional Forces due to Loads plus Restraints For the vehicle loads as prescribed by the German code DIN 1072 (Fig. 1) and ‘medium span lengths of approximately 40 m tke total sectional forces not con- sidering prestress and restraint are produced to about 5% by the concentated vehicle loads (characteristic 600kN heavy lorry),to about 40% by uniform vehicle loads, and to about 55 % by dead loads. With increasing span lengths the in- ‘uence of the vehicle loads and thereby the necessity of their exact analysi diminishes. ‘The sectional forces of the beam (bending moments, shears, normal forces and torsion) due to external loads and imposed deformations (as described in Section 2) can be obtained with known methods of the theory of structures, Normally @ small to medium-sized computer suffice Should areas of the box girder be normally in the cracked State II, even under working loads the sectional forces determined using the ‘elastic theory can be redistributed and the sectional restraint forces thereby reduced. ‘This redistribution of forces is dependent upon many parameters and can only be obtained iteratively, whereby superposition is no longer possible. The extent of reduction of the sectional restraint forces depends upon the magnitude of the sectional forces due to external loads that act upon the section at the e Fig. 7). With sufficient rotaticnal capseity, the restraint has no influence on the ultimate load-carrying capacity (see Sections 1 and I11,2). 5.8.2 Time-Dependent Alteration of the Sectional Forces by Creep Sectional forces due to external loads are only altered by creep if componenta acting together within the structure contain concrete of varying ages of varying composition, The i indeed the case for segmental constriction Gig, 18), For 2 ufielenty exact calculation of the final time-dependent momenta, the fllow- Sng equation taken trom [ 18) can be used: (see advo [19] and ZO}) 1 = EM +My ZIM) tes gym nt Ma EM Hy EMG): Fe pe | Aaa REEDS % where Ms,1,2,3, .moments at the time ot stripping of te — feasework of the differ- Mes cent segments, i.e. moments due to self- weight plus prestress 2 eam moments assuming that the entire bridge is 53 constructed at the same point in time creep factor at timeso relaxation factor taken ES from Figure 19 © Fig. 18 Development of the bending moments from the construction stages48 strc Anse If the time of loading, tg, 1.. the time from the concreting of the section until it {s prestressed, ‘ie lees then 10 days and the construction rythm used in producing the individual segments, At, is loss than 21 days, then the values produced by this approximation do not vary from the exact values by more than 15 %, In consideration of the unavoidable inaccuracies of the analysi assumptions and the fact that the results do not influence the safety of the structure, this is perfectly sufficient for the normal case, Should te or at, respectively, deviate grossly from the above values, the Limiting'values of the moment redistribution at time t = o> can be estimated i tha, = FER ile The values for kgrk(tg) or k, and P, for t," tptBt for the youngest or oldest (lor HeMieh) 4400 or He) aah ee o_o ‘8 a ‘a ost) oa} oft, “4 a eet a, Tat ao ae Or Sake me TTT cor thee we oT ‘reek a) >) rk ao SSF Fig, 19 Factors for determining the effect of creep in the analysis (from{i8)) As long as individual construction segments are not prestressed very early or to extremely high values of prestress, the changes in the sectional forces due {6 proviress este reaultof shrinkage and creep can be caleslated with sufelent accuracy as a untform reduction in prestress,d,,.(0,up (etelEs + apt toNcty. + 6, Est A ae AR slt)= Bee eet BW2] rere; = E/E, and ep (tyt,) ..+ strain due to shrinkage within the time span (t to) The values are dependent upon the humidity of the air, ete, and lie between - 0,1 % and - 0.5% (see [66]) E,, Eg... modulus of elasticity for prestressing steel and conerete, respectively‘Simoliiec Struct Anais of the Supersvucture 48 Att)... creep factor (the values are dependent upon the time : ‘span (t-t,), the humidity of the air, ete, and lie bet- ween 1 and 4, see [66)) stress in the concrete at the position of the tendon due to self-weight and other dead loads (compression negative) initial stregs in the concrete at the position of the tendon due to prestress alone (compression negative) {initial stres {In the tendon due to prestress alone Sectional restraint forces due to differential settlement, temperature, and shrinkage are greatly altered by ereep even without cracking. Suddenly occurring restraint stresses (c.g. due to differential settlement in sandy eoile) are gre: ly reduced (Fig. 20). According to(21] , the elastically caleulated moment Me, in State I ie reduced to o> Ya: FE) =-(4- He M1) = ae 1 EER A For restraint stresses that occur gradually at a rate approaching Enatof ereep (ecg. setioment tn Claye, shrinkage) ine moment that fe produced instead of Mey to only F(t) ME) = Mee TEA AT ‘That ie why it ie falee to reverse the effects of a pier settlement that has occurred slowly by suddenly adjusting the bridge support to the full magnitude of the settlement, + 0 wo 10 =o Fig. 20 Creep-induced change of restraint moments result- ing from support settle- ment 5.4 Analysis in the Traneverse Direction For the vehicle loads as prescribed by the German code DIN 1072 (Fig. 1), the sectional forces in the transverse direction are a result of an appreximately 10% contribution from the uniform vehicle loadings of the main and secondary lanes, an approximately 70 % contribution from the concentrated vehicle loads of the characteristic 600 kN heavy lorry, and an approximately 20 % contribu. tion from dead loads. 5.4.1 Sectional Forces Acting on the Flanges For the practical analysis, the clearest method is first to analyse all flange sections as if they were rigidly fixed at their junctures with the webs (Fig. 16 al)50 Strctrt Anatis and then to redistribute the total moments acting at these junctures according to the frame's stiffness (see Section 5.4.2). White the sectional forces due to dead loads, prestress, temperature, and tniform vehicle loadings over large areas can be determined a acting on {ange strips (or also acting directly onthe frame), influence surfaces must generally firat be evaluated for concentrated vehicie loads (ig. 21.0), Wheel Tondo can be distributed under 45° to the middle plane of the flange (Fig. 21a) and the uniform loada can be integrated sufficiently accurately to concentrated Toads as shown in Figure 21b. In[ 29]. the influence wurtaces are supplied in table form for the majority of sectional forces, whereby the limiting moment dingram can be estimated ts shown in Figure 22. ‘The trangverse distribution of the concentrated loads on the cantilever portions of the flange depends largely upon their structural details (Fig. 23). ‘The moments occurring in the top slab due to a temperature gradient, AT, between the flange surface and its underside are constant between the two fixed ends and are given by the following: m2 img =p OTE 12/42 (tor State) roodway wearing sxtace 2s (op sab f . SS Z AS Bebe y g/t CBS a size 2 th % ») Fig. 26 Redundant forces (a) for symmetry, (b) for antisymmetry ical Loadi For symmetrical loadings the frame is statically indeterminate to the 204 degree (Fig, 26a), because no shear is possible in the plane of eymmetry. Figures 27a and b portray the moment and in:ernal axial force diagrams resulting from the loads and moments, respectively, acting at the rigidly fixed junctures of the box with the flange, for such a cross-section a8 shown in Figure 25. In addition, Figure 27¢ portrays the moment and axial force diagrams rebulting from an increase in the length of the top flange,(lo, over the bottom flange. This allows the possibility of considering, for example, a uniform increase in temperature of the top flange ([.,) over the bottom flange (Ty) a Ale # (TET 044 sche shorting fh op ang eto anvere preteens, , E z 1 old be nested nee tat 3, sted net be mated wth rep factor for the statically indetermingte analysis as long as the creep conditions are approximately the same throughout the entire cross-section. Aly Due to the effect of the forces resulting from the curvature of the longitudinal Prestressing tendons (see [27)) upon the wets, shortening [sl of the webs cceurs, which with the value di, = 2|ag| sin , can be converted to the case of Figure 27c, ‘This is onl necessary to be considered if the radii of curvature of the tendons in the webs are small and the angle, ©, is large. Figure 27 also provides the sectional forces from moments at the rigidly fixed junctures, mp /2, acting on the joints of the lower flange with the webs such as those moments arising from self-weight of the lower flange and webs. One need only turn the cross-section upside down and change the subscripts in the formulae from denoting the top flange to denoting the bottom flange.BA Sever! Anais at nso {7g 0 os eas REF? eee, ha fe vy 2am mae 7 cos S 2602 MG Foie red ete ne tae Be 7 Ns tye gee, no + isles, pb 28 ty 2d % soot Geeta) 10 = ne «ote Fig, 27 Eifect ofthe symmetricat pact of the loading ona frame: a)Nodal Toads Nodal momento e)Tomperature-induced inereeae in Length of top flange or prestress-induced shortening Varying thicknesses of the flanges and webs can be approximated with constant thicknesses, providing the same cross-sectional areas, In extraordinary cases or when the separation of moments into those moments acting at rigidly fixed junctures and those on a frame is to be avoided, one can of course carry out f thorough frame analysis by the usual methods, The shear and normal force deformations can thereby be neglected, with the exception of the ®, values from prestressing, A metrical Loading For antisymmetrical loading the moments and normal forces are zero in the planewf symmetry, The sectional forces acting on the transversely stiffened frame (Figs, 28a and b) can be determined on a sysiem that is statically indeterminate to the 254 degree if the symmetry of the system is maintained by means of the antieymmetrical diagonal forces $/2 as shown in Fig. 26b . ‘The sectional forces acting on the freely deformable frame, which is statically indeterminate to the first degree, are given in Figures 28 ¢ and d for comparison. They provide a limiting case, which may be of interest now and then (see Section 5.2). If the folded plate action is considered as di Section 5.5, the sectional force diagrams due to the diagonal force, Figure 28 ¢ are needed.Sinpliied Structural Analysis ofthe Superevuctore 5 uonoe overd paproy 01 onp g soox0.4(9 ‘sapou arqeusozop AqO93} WHIM ouresy w YO syuOWONT TEPOK(P PuE SPLOT TePON(9 !Sopou poms 4) = The plate thicknesses are small in comparison to their widths = The box girder is aymmetric about its vertical axis. A constant cro: section { maintained throughout the length cf the girder (Fig. 25). - The thicknesses of the flanges and webs remain constant in the transverse direction. (The influence of haunches can be neglected according to (31)) = The principle of superposition is valid here Having handled all symmetrical loading effecte plus the antisymmetrical ones ‘a8 far ag torsion and transverse bending on the diagonally stiffened frame are concerned in Section 5, only the partial loading of Figure 16d 2 remains to be investigated, The imaginary diagonal forces, 8, which were determined ‘as shown in Figures 28a and b as acting on the stiffened frame become the external londs with reversed signs on the bor girder. = Sbulg 7 FS big . a uF lg Fig. 81 The resolution of S$ into forces acting in the planes of the plates (notation defined in Figure 25) Under the applied load, S, which can be mentally resolved into the components Gg, 4, and q, acting in the planes of the plates (Fig. 31), the webs and ‘ffangés deform not only in the longitudinal direction (flexural behaviour) but also in the transverse direction (frame behaviour), because the deflection of the plates are coupled with the displacements of the joints of the cross-section (distortional deformation) (see also Section 5.2), The load, S(x), is there- fore partly carried in longitudinal bending as in a simple beam, Sx}, and partly by the resistance of the frame to distortional deformation of the cro section, 5 (x): Sex) Six) + Sex) 4.00) = Gh) + Fen G1)0 Stretual Anata 5.5.2 Solution by Means of the Analogy of a Beam on an Elastic Foundation ‘The solution, vp (x), sought for the web must not only be a function that satis fies the differential equation (5. 6) but also one that fulfills the boundary con- ditions of the structure being analyzed, For example, a simply supported beam with transverse diaphragms at the supports can be represented as the eystem shown in Figure 24a, The basis for the aolution of euch a ayatem ie the infinitely long beam on an elastic foundation (Fig. 34b). It is subjected to all loads of the form, 44(x) =S(x)-bg/g » Which as shown in Figure 16 d1, arise from the reaistanée to the diagonal deformation, where § is derived as shown in Figures 28a and b, Moreover, the beam is loaded with unknown additional forces, Q, andQy, and additional moments, My and Mp, at the Supports which are determisied from the support conditfons, Fig. 34 Systems for the beam on an elastic foundation: a)in reality b) basic syatem with equivalent loading For example, for the beam in Figure $4a at the supports, x=0 and x-1, the deflections, v_,and moments, M,, due to the loads, additional forces, @,,@z,and moments, iysMg, are required to be zero, For @ continuous beam with diaphragms over the innér sports, the condition of vg = 0 at these supports requires an unknown additional force, Q, but no moment, at each of the inner supports in the basie system. Diaphragms in the apan algo compel vg * 0 at that point and the corresponding unknown additional force Q. Should the warping of the cross- section be completely hindered at some point, the condition of dvg/dx * 0 applies there, which ean be achieved by means of an additional moment at that point, The influence of the resistance to warping by transverse diaphragms land frames can be neglected here, however. For a supporting condition with out transverse stiffening, the antisymmetrical part of the bearing forces Should be handled as external loads (Fig. 35) as correspondingly shown in Figure 16. This translates into a large concentrated load, Q,, in the plane of the webs for the beam on an elastic foundation and not a support condition, Se 4 Fig. 35. Loading at a support without transverse stiffeningSimplied Sacral Anaya he Superiore 61 ‘The solution to the differenti damped vibrations as follows: equation (5.6) takes the form of strongly Aix) =€™: (cosAx + sindx) Buy=e™. sin Ax Cx) =e (cosdx sin dx) Day-e*. cos ax where and L.= characteristic length ‘The effect of a change in loading or in the support reactions can be seen to die away to only a few percent of their original values at a distance of 3 L to 4 L 50 that loads or aupport conditions for distances greater than 4 L from the point under consideration can be neglected, For the same reasons, transverse stiffening i.e. diaphragms to prevent distorticnal deformations in the span is, only worthwhile, if at all, if such stiffening is placed at intervals 8 2 L, The sectional forces and deformations acting on a beam on an elastic foundation are handled in detail in the literature such a8 [33]. Loadings as shown in Figure 34 produce the following: yore Pe {QyAa + QrAU-n) + QeAUK-aal)} + +B fo, Ben + MpBa-n} + + Pie fe [Dea,-x) ~ Dea, a,-x)] + ¢,[2-Dex-a4) ~Dra,ea,-x)] + +6[Dix-ay-a,) ~Dix-aelj} where cyt q=ty=0 for axe y Get Cencyn0 2x ara, Get G=C20 42x < L myere [QC + Oy Cun) + Qy-Cax-anl)} + +£leDoo +m; Da-w} + +BebclBearn -Beavea,-x) +04[Bex-a) + Beay-a,-x)] ~ ~G[Btx-a,-0,) ~ Bex-a]}2 Seu sie Ya + {7 0, Dor) * Gy Dil-x) + cy: QeDeK-aspy} + +eeMAw + MyAU-x)} + +e fel Cian) Cla,+a,-n] + ¢,[Cax-a,) ~ Cca,a,-x)] ~ ~64[Cex-a4-04) ~ Cox-ani}} G=4 for x#a, G74 for x¥ a, ‘The unknown additional forces and moments can be obtained by plugging in the boundary conditions given, or from the following formulae (see also [19}): My = Be-Car — fee [Bray ~Bea,ray] My * Bo Cea) +e [Brayeay) ~ Bray] ve 2 Aca +e [Dian ~ Diayra,)] Up =H Au-a.) ~ fe [Dia,ea,) ~Dias)] nos ios XZ cosh al ecosal ? ¥2* 2° cosmAL = cOsAT QW = ALLL (Mot Myo) BU ~ 42° Elsi (Vo* eo) + DULY] } GQ" aR ate Mio Meo) BUY +42 Elej Ve oll ~ DIL} Me see f-UMo® Mao) *AllN]+ 2 Elsi Mw * Yel [t * CNT} == ata{ (Meo~ Maw A ~ACU]~2A Els (io ~ Voll ~ CU} Q=@+Q” a= @’-a" M, =P +M” M,=M'-M"‘Simplied Seva Anlst of he Superetuctue 63 ‘The transverse moments obtained from the folded plate consideration are proportional to the web deflection, vg. The influence lines for vg take the form of Figure 36 in the transverse direction and in the longitudfnal direction are proportional to the elastic curve of the beam on an elastic foundation sub Jected to a point load at the section under investigation (8, = by). In order to determine the critical positions of the loadiags, one, however’ rather seeks orientation from the known shapes of the influence surfaces for the plate effect and the influence lines for the fixed frame effect, This yields sufficient accuracy as the transverse moments from the folded plate action play only @ minor roll. ‘The influence line (Fig, 36) has ite maximum generally between the webs. Only in the case of very deep box girders with Figid flanges can the maximum ie at the end of the cantilever arm, In order to avoid calculating the folded plate action for every individual load- {ing position in the transverse direction, it normally suffices to calculate the longitudinal stresses for the folded plate (fp) action due to one characteristic loading position only (Fig, 36). A ratio is ther determined between these stresses and the longitudinal stresses for a aymmetrical loading of the same magnitude. This factor, ffp, is used to increase all eccentric loads for the ‘analysis in the longitudinal direction, « stress due to the foree 5 from the antisymmetrical a/2 (folded plate action) + stress due to the sym- metrical q/2 Fig. 86 Influence line 1 for vg, where the position of max | is dependent upon the cross-section. For the normal case yq~ 0.4, For normal box-girder cross-sections, fm lew between 1.1 and 1.3 for unt- form loads (main lane; qy a8 in Fig. 15) nd between 1.3 and 1.5 for concen trated loads (characteristic heavy lorry). As long as the folded plate action is not neglected in calculating the transverse bending moments it should be separately considered for every eccentric loading.ot Structural Anais 5.6 Multiple-Cell Box Girder: Basically the same is true for multiple-cell box girders as is for single-cell ones, With increasing degree of statical indeterminacy an analysis by hand becomes too time consuming. In Section 1, 4,8.8 comments are made con- ceming the design of multiple-cell box girder As multiple-cell box girders are only constructed in special cases, the design engineer ia here referred to the literature (29]{f, 26] as well as Section 6.2 for further information concerning their analysis, 5,7 Curved and Skew Box-Girder Bridges In horizontally curved bridges the longitudinal bending moments, Mp, and the torsional moments, Mp, mutually influence each other. Some sectional forces for a single-span girdér are compiled in Figure 37, For special supporting systema and multiple-span girders, the reader is referred to [25] and (34 to 36) According to [38], two-cell box girders can be roughly analyzed by using factors for the longitudinal and tranaverse bending moments, the shear force and the deformations taken from an idealized straight bridge. Skew box-girder bridges are in principle not sensible, as in most cases the bor-girder can instead be supported perpendicular to its longitudinal axes by affording a minimal increase in length (Fig. 1,58). [37] contains a method of analyzing a skew box-girder bridge. bec fe Ta poe i ‘fears of 9) |G] \ ses] 14-04 Fig. 37 Support reactions and sectional forces acting on a single- torsionally fixed at both ends (from [25, 34])Comeutersided Anahi ofthe Supersructra 6 6, COMPUTER-AIDED ANALYSIS OF THE SUPERSTRUCTURE. 6.1 Theory of Pr Folded Plate: A folded plate is a 3-dimensional structure of thin plane plates joined together ‘long their longitudinal edges, Normally an analysis of a continuous box- girder bridge by means of the folded plate theory is too Involved to be carried out by hand, The following presentation is therefore not intended for practical implementation but rather serves the main purpose of calling to mind the basis upon which a computer program using this theory is bullt. ‘The loads to which the folded plate is subjected are carried by the plates both parallel and perpendicular to their planes to the end diaphragms serving a end supports, A simply supported prismatic folded plate (Fig. 38) is here ‘used to present the fundamentals of the analysis as according to [38] . The following assumptions are made: = that ordinary bending theory is used ~ that the section under investigation is at a sufficient distance from the end iaphragms - that a maximum of two plates or diaphragms meet at an edge. ‘The loading is expanded in the form of a Fourier series (Fig. 39) as follows: gin aE ghsinax where = Mi panna tay Fig. 38 Simple folded plate Fig. 39 Fourier coefficients for the ‘most important loading cases In the following, the analysis is portrayed for the m'® loading term. For simplicity, however, the index, m, is dropped in the discussion that follows.8 Souctrl Ansiis 6.1.1 Hinged Folded Plates ‘The system is idealized here as a number of prismatic plates joined together by hinges which induce no moments into the statically indeterminate system (Fig, 40). ‘The applied loads on the plates are reduced to loads, Q,, acting at the edges of the structure, whereby the edges are at first asumied to be rigidly supported, The edge loads are resolved in the directions of the plan of the plates as shown in Figure 41, The dead load becomes, for example Ele Pree + Gor Ba) an Sit Yen [Sit You ‘This results in a load inthe plane of the plate, n, of Jn* GE Sin 0X = Sunee ~Snegn Fig. 41 Resolving the toad i. z Fig. 40 Hinged folded plate aubjected into ite components in the directions of to dead load the planes of the plates Ae the member edges, edge si librium on an cannot deform independently of each other along their mutual ar forces, T, and T,, y, are necessary. Requiring equi- lement, dx, of the plate, n (Fig, 42) yields Vn = - FAX ; ANq=(Tn- Troe) AX dM Wye - ET Tarslbn dx OH Integrating, one obtains We Wicosax ; MysNisinax Myx Misinex 5 T= Trhcosax 2 gens with the fixed values T," and hae bgt Newt HT) Fig. 42 Sectional forces (63) eo Jn the plane of the yt yt - fe nt eT) member‘Computed Anais of the Supersvuctue 67 ‘The condition that the strains and therefore also the resulting stresses of the adjacent plates along the edge, n, are equal is given by From this plus Bat obtained as follows: Bite te * Botte) ees 7 le + 6.2 and 8.3 the "three-chear equation” for edge, n, i ti) ‘This yields one equation per edge: 1.e, for a single-cell box girder, four equations for its four edge shear forces, and with Eqs. 6.2 and 6.2 the sectional forces, M,, N,, and V,, for each plate.” The deflections in the planes of the — follow ffom the ‘differential equation of the beam by substituting vA sin ox as follows: eng witch yietde we aga 1G Cit Tat): 25%] ‘The edge deformations, w, perpendicular to the plane of the plate can be determined as shown in Figure 43. ward tab ~ EI Me oC Sin OX , 2 o % Fig. 43 Geometrical relationships of the deformations, e. g.on edge 2 6. 1,2 Folded Plates with Rigid Joints In order to remove the rotations of the hinged plates in relation to one another, the redundant moments, Y¥,* YX sina x, are applied at the joints (Fig. 44), ‘The associated support redttion® of the plates AQ, = age Xe8 stacey create the additional plate edge loads : AQros J Gn =~ A Qn(cot Ya cot Yee) ~ one ae rom this one can determine the moments, Mr the normal forces, Nye the shear {okbeawv", the edge shear'Yorees, Ty and the defotlastions, vq and wnee shoe shove: They are aif dependént upon Ta tora to. ‘The 4 determining equations for ¥y to ¥g fare obtained from the condition that eveity angle between two adjoining plates does Fig. 44 Edge loads, 0Qn, rot change. due to the edge moments, Y,, ‘The rotations in the hinges due to transverse bending of the plates are determined as for a beam, The load due to self-weight, qn, yields for example (Fig. 45a) Uninet = Onan = EB —sin 2 ‘The redundant force yield (Fig. 486) adie In and Ysa = EEE (2 Yow * Xa} ‘The angle produced by the deformation of the plate loaded in its plane (Fig. 45c) is Vonee =~ Uhegn = Aneta At Fig. 45 Angle of rotation at the edges With the above, the compatibility condition for edge, n, takes the form ance Oninse * Fined * Mines Baca * Bina =OComer aided Anaya of the Supersuucture 68 ‘By substituting the values determined above, all moments Y, all sectional forees, and all deformations can be determined, Asa closed summation of the Fourier series :s not possible, separate calculat- ions for several periods (for m = 1,2,3.....) must be carried out in order to achieve sufficient accuracy, Wien this can be seen the limits of the manual folded plate caleulation. Influences such as diaphragm stiffness, plate wall shear deformations, or continuous folded plates are not even considered in the above presentation. For theoretical lavestigations, the reader {e referred to the extensive literature (e.g. in {40)). Of practical significance are those methods prepared for the computer. The extended folded plate theory of {41} is transformed into a computer program in (42) and (43). 6.2 Finite Strip: Analysis by means of finite strips lies somewhere between the rigorous folded plate theory and finite elements, In order to decrease the amount of calculation Fequired and especially to be able to analyze folded plates with any sort of boundary conditions, the boundary conditions are satisfied here in the longita- dinal direction by periodic functions (Fourier Sertes) and in the traneverse direction by simple polynomial functions (44, 45] « For long girders, often only a few cones Ey sem strips are necessary. For short girders land for greater accuracy, the number of strips is increased (Fig. 48). With further refined strip elements {46}, any boundary conditions, multiple spans, and transverse diaphragms can also te considered (see also ( 47] ). Fig. 46 Dividing the box girder into strip elements (from {46} ) Analysis by means of finite strips or strip elements is advantageous for multiple- cell (44, 45, 46] or curved [48] box-girder bridges, while for single-cell Straight bridges an analysis As deseribed in Sections 5.2 to 5.5 {8 sufficient in most cases, 6.3 Finite Elements With the finite element method, the two-dimensional partial differential equations are reduced by discretization to a two-dimensional system of algebraic linear equations. The structure is eivided into elements that are only connected at their nodes (Fig. 47).70 Struct! Anais Fig, 47 Finite Element analytical model (from [49] ) ‘The forces and moments acting on each element (Fig. 48) are reduced to forces and moments acting at the nodes (Fig. 49). The conditions of equilibrium ‘and compatibility supply the n equations in n unknowns, whereby n depends, upon the number of elements and the number of degrees of freedom of each node, My Toy POY Membrane Forces Slab Forces Fig. 48 Popitive internal forces and Fig, 49 Nodal point forces, 8, isplacemente in a finite and displacements, ¥, for element (from [49]) ey, f finite element (from(49)) t f f 3 Fig, 50 Triangular elements (a)with 3 nodes, and (bjwith 6 nodes for 4 refined analysis (from [50]) Along with rectangular elements, predominantly triangular elements are used (Fig. 50). In order to avoid numerical difficulties, triangular elements should not be given too small an angle. Parallelogram-shaped elements have been developed for skew bridges. A survey Sa given in (90). Recently the development of 2- or 3-dimensional finite elements capable of simulating the actual nonlinear behaviour of reinforced concrete after the formation of cracks has made considerable progress. [ 81] and (52) contain examples of this. Figure 51 portrays the results of such an analyaia in which the large deviation of the actual behaviour from the elastic theory can be seen when the structure is heavily loaded,Computer sided Anais ofthe Supersiuctre Tt co -ee- th A stittened B unstittenes ‘) Failure mechanism of an _b) Loading and stiffening at mid-epan unstiffened box girder Lood $9 (mt 0 OP, 7 | 4 2 ee earn aaa) oa) 2 ts Gk os os o7 Detection tm) Loos PIMNy — box girder A stitenes soe" bor girder B urstffened ©) Relation of the deflection _) Relation of the angle of rotation to the to the load at mid-span oad at rid-span Fig. 61 Influence of nonlinearity on the deformation at mid-span of @ box girder (from [53]) A uniform gridwork for the closed analysis of an entire box girder should be avoided because of the associated effort involved, especially that for the evaluation of the computed data, It can be moze sensible to analyze the structure using a rough grid in the area of no particular discontinuities and a refined grid only in those regions where there are abrupt changes in geometri- cal or statical condition: For an introduction to the fundamentals of finite element analysis, the reader 4s referred to such literature as [54] or (55]. In (56], [57] and [58] box- girder bridges are analyzed by means of finite elements, Because of the extensive input data required in using finite element programs, especial emphasis should be placed upon the ease of use of auch programs. This trans- ates into the requirement that the gridwork is automatically generated for some regions,