Intro To Electrical Wiring

The University of the West Indies
B. Sc. Mechanical Engineering

MENG 3030 – Electromechanical Energy Conversion
Electrical Systems Design
Introduction to Electrical Wiring
By
Keron Seebaran
26Oct2015 kseebaran@gmail.com 1
Agenda
• Transmission Systems
• Distribution Systems
• Underground Systems
• Circuit Breakers
• Branch Circuitry
• Grounding
• Lighting
• Conductors
• Standby & Continuous Running Generators
• Electrical Inspections
• Renewable Energy Systems
• Electrical Wiring Design
Transmission & Subtransmission Systems
• The T&TEC transmission system is that part of the
Power Grid that that interconnects the generation
stations. It consists of mainly overhead line circuits and
some underground cables. In a transmission system the
direction of power flow can be altered by the generation
pattern.
• The subtransmission system is that part of the Power
Grid where the direction of power is not altered by the
generation pattern, but by the load demand.
• The transmission & subtransmission circuits are
energised at 33 kV, 66 kV, 132 kV & 220 kV. 220 kV is
the newest transmission voltage to the Power Grid
mainly connecting TGU power station to Union Estate
substation.
New & Existing Transmission Infrastructure
Distribution Systems (I)
• The T&TEC distribution system is that part of the
Power Grid that that interconnects the substations to the
end users. It also consists of mainly overhead line
circuits and some underground cables. In a distribution
system the direction of power flow is only in one
direction which is towards the load.
• The distribution system is consists of mainly radials
and some rings.
• The distribution circuits are energized at 12 kV at the
substation and are then transformed to lower voltages
via pole and pad mounted transformers to 230/400 V for
3-phase use; and 115/230 V for both single & 3 phase
consumer use.
Distribution Systems (II)
• Distribution circuits mainly consists of low voltage
overhead lines and underground cables, pole mounted
and pad mounted transformers, ring main units (RMUs),
circuit breakers and other switches.
Distribution Systems (III)
• System voltage — the voltage bounded by the step-up
and step-down transformer voltage, e.g., 240 V, 480 V, and
600 V.
• Utilization voltage — the voltage at the terminals of the
equipment, e.g., 230 V, 460 V, and 575 V.
• Service voltage — the voltage at the utility, or source
supply, boundary.
• In most industrial plants the system voltages include 240 V,
480 V, 600 V, 4160 V and 12 kV.
• While in most domestic and general applications the
utilization voltage would be 115 V and 230 V.
Country Trinidad & Tobago Jamaica Barbados UK USA
System •115/230V, 60Hz, 1φ •110V, 50Hz, 1φ •120V, 60Hz, •230V, 50Hz, 1φ •120V, 60Hz,
Voltage •115/230V, 60Hz, 3φ 1φ •415V, 50Hz, 3φ 1φ
(Domestic)
Distribution Systems (IV)
Distribution Substations
Keate Street Substation Keate Street Substation

12kV T/F with Protective Explosion Wall
Distribution Systems (IV)
Industrial Applications
• Some industrial
customers may
require a kiosk to
house their own
dedicated T/Fs
and switch gear.
Edward Street Substation
12kV Distribution T/F
Edward Street Substation

12kV Switch Gear
26Oct2015 kseebaran@gmail.com
Edwards Street Pad Mounted T/F 9
Distribution Systems (V)
Commercial Applications
RMUs at The Hyatt
26Oct2015 RMUs at One Woodbrook Place

kseebaran@gmail.com 10
Distribution Systems (VI)
Residential Applications
• The diagram shows the specifications for a
typical overhead service line.
• Available Supplies at 60Hz:
 1Φ, 2 wire, 115 V & 230 V for a max of 30 A.
 1Φ, 3 wire, 115 V & 230 V for a max of 200 A.
• Inspection of Customer’s Installation:
 A valid inspection certificate is need before
any installation can be connected to the
system. In T&T this is administered by the
Government Electrical Inspectorate.
• Point of Supply (POS):
 For installations at 115/230 V, POS is the
distribution pole except if the customer
provides an underground service entrance
cable.
Typical Overhead Service Line  For T&TEC’s T/Fs on the customer’s
With Customer’s Entrance Cable premises, at 115/230 V the POS is the
On Customer’s Building secondary terminals of the T/Fs.
Distribution Systems (VII)
Residential Applications
• The diagram shows the specifications for a
typical overhead service line with entrance
cable on a private pole.
• Service Line:
 Only one service line to supply a building
(any structure under one roof).
 Overhead service conductor shall be
connected to the building at a min. height of
3.7 m above the finished grade. This is to
maintain a min. height of 6.1 m for clearance
of Overhead service line over roads.
• Meters:
 A customer at a single location shall be
metered by a single meter.
 Meters shall be placed 1.5 to 1.8 m above the
finished grade.
Typical Overhead Service Line  Socket type meters for up to 200 A; Current
With Customer’s Entrance Cable Transformer metering for 201 to 500 A per
On Customer’s Building phase; and High Voltage metering above 500 A
26Oct2015 with 3Φ, 115/230 V.
Underground Systems (I)
• Underground Systems consists of:
 Cables and Associated Fittings
 Ring Main Units (RMUs)
 Transformers
 Kiosks
 Vaults
 Pull Boxes
 Ducts
• Advantages: • Disadvantages:
 Reliable  Costly (5 times that of O/H
 Not affected by System)
environmental conditions  Complicated
i.e. weather conditions  Difficulty in locating fault
 Inherently Safe  Fault repair can be lengthy
 Minimal visual impact kseebaran@gmail.com High level of skill required13
26Oct2015
Underground Systems (II)
Ring Main Units
Pad Mounted Transformer
Underground Systems (III)
Pull Box
Transformers In Kiosk
Underground Systems (IV)
Typical Kiosk
Underground Systems (V)
• Cables used in underground systems are basically a
conductor with insulation that carries electrical energy reliably
between the source and the utilization equipment.
• Cables are specified by:
 No. of Conductors  Shielding System
 Conductor Size  Outer Finishes
 Insulation Type  Installation
 Voltage Rating
• Cable conductors are either copper or aluminium.
Copper Aluminium
•Good electrical and mechanical •Light weight
properties •Low cost
•Conductive oxide •Non- conductive oxide (High resistance
•Expensive point)
•Larger conductor size required for
26Oct2015
equivalent current than copper (5 times)17
kseebaran@gmail.com
Underground Systems (VI)
• Cables Components
Underground Systems (VII)
• 3 Φ & 1Φ Cable Sizes and Ratings
 25mm2 – 130A
 70mm2 – 260A
 185mm2 – 350A
 400mm2 – 500A
 630mm2 – 750A
• In T&TEC cables are laid at the following depths:
 12kV – 0.85m
 33kV – 1.05m
Underground Systems (VIII)
• Cable Laying
Underground Systems (IX)
• Typical Underground Schematic for a Housing Development.
Underground Systems (X)
• Typical Underground Installations for Housing.
Circuit Breakers (I)
• A circuit breaker is an automatically operated electrical
switch designed to protect an electrical circuit from
damage caused by overload or short circuit.
• The selection of required circuit breaker depends on:
 Calculated Short Circuit Level at the bus bar under
consideration.
 System voltage
 Rate of Rise of Recovery Voltage
 Making & Breaking Current
 Type of Circuit Breaker available.
• IEEE C37 Standard is generally used as a guide for
circuit breaker selection at the various levels.
Circuit Breakers (II)
• In Industrial Applications IEEE Std C37.06 is used to select
the preferred CBs at the high voltage level based on:
 Rated maximum voltage
 Continuous current rating
 Short circuit current rating
 Voltage range factor, K
• Industrial Circuit Breaker Types include:
 Vacuum
 SF6
 Oil
Circuit Breakers (III)
• In Commercial Applications IEEE Std C37.20 is generally
used to select the preferred CBs at the medium voltage
level.
• Commercial Circuit Breaker Types include:
 Vacuum
 SF6
 Minimum Oil Type
 Air Type
• At the lower voltages of 240 V, 480 V and 600 V Metal
Enclosed and Molded-Case circuit breaker type is preferred.
• Air-type Metal Clad circuit breakers are available in the ANSI
sizes of 225 A, 600 A, 1 600 A, 2 000 A, 3 000 A and 4 000A.
• While Modeled-Case circuit breakers (quick-make & quick-
break switching devices) are available from 30 to 4 000 A,
and 120 to 600 Vdc.
Circuit Breakers (IV)
• In Commercial applications Circuit Breaker Panelboards are
of two types:
 Lighting & Appliance panels
 Power Distribution panels
• Lighting & Appliance Panelboards have more than 10% of the

overcurrent devices rated 30 A or less. And the number of
overcurrent devices (branch-circuit poles) is limited to a
maximum of 42 in any one box.
• Power Distribution Panelboards include all other panelboards

not identified as lighting and appliance panelboards. And the
42 overcurrent protective device limitation does not apply.
Grounding (I)
• An electrical ground refers to the reference point in
an electrical circuit from which other voltages are measured,
or a common return path for electric current, or a direct
physical connection to the Earth.
• The exposed metal parts of electrical equipment is usually
grounded to prevent the user from making contact with
dangerous voltage if electrical insulation for the supply fails.
• National Electrical Code states that Grounding of Low-
Voltage Systems (600 V and below) is required for 3Φ Υ-
connected systems, or on 1Φ 3-Wire systems via a “neutral”
conductor . Specifically systems that can be grounded so that
the voltage to ground of any ungrounded conductor does not
exceed 150 V. This makes grounding mandatory for the
208Υ/120 V 3Φ, 4-wire system; and the 120/240 V 1Φ, 3-wire
system.
Grounding (II)
• The 240 V, 480 V, and 600 V 3Φ, 3-wire systems are not
required to be grounded; but these systems are not
recommended for commercial buildings. When they are
used, consideration should be given to providing a derived
ground by using a zigzag transformer or Δ- Υ grounding
transformer to obtain the advantages of grounding.
Earth Rod Earth Mat – mainly used during

26Oct2015
computer repair
Standby & Continuous Running Generators
• In T&T all generators must be licensed by the Ministry of
Public Utilities after it was inspected and recommended
for a licence by T&TEC.
• The inspection & testing performed by T&TEC includes:
 Confirmation of connectivity of Automatic Transfer
Switch (ATS) as shown in the customer’s electrical
drawing provided.
 Loss of Supply
 Restoration of Supply
 Cycle The Generator
Renewable Energy Initiatives (I)
• Legislation
– Existing legislation makes no provision for renewable
energy power generation by IPP
– T&TEC / RIC Acts are being reviewed to deal with
» Open access
» Grid interconnection
» Net metering
» Feed in Tariff
• National Electric Codes (TTBS National Electric Code part 3)

– Update existing regulation for renewable energy
– Booklet “ Wiring for Renewables”
kseebaran@gmail.com
26Oct2015 30
Renewable Energy Initiatives (II)
• Government Fiscal Incentives
SOLAR WIND Energy Efficiency

25% Tax Credit on Solar 0% VAT on Wind 150% Allowance for the
Water Heaters (SWH) Turbines . design and installation of
0% VAT on SWH& Solar PV energy saving systems by an
Systems Energy Service
Company(ESCO)
150% Wear & Tear 150% Wear &
Allowance for SWH;SWH Tear Allowance ESCO can write off value of
Plant , Machinery and for Wind assets in two years: -
Equipment, and Solar PV Turbines and a) 75% Depreciation on
Systems supporting plant, machinery and
Conditional Duty equipment equipment acquisition;
Exemptions for SWH b) 25% Wear& Tear
Manufacturers. allowance in following year.
kseebaran@gmail.com
26Oct2015 31
Renewable Energy Penetration
• The estimated total penetration of renewable energy as a percentage of
total grid capacity by 2030 is 10%. State GORTT’s Target as per 2016
Budget
RENEWABLE GENERATION CAPACITY
Wind Farm (East Coast) 60 MW
Solar thermal 12 MW
Domestic Wind 2 MW
Domestic Solar 10 MW
Price Trending
Payback Period
Conservation Investment US$/W
(Years)
Wind Power 1.7 3.88
Photovoltaic (PV) 3.4 7.65
Solar Heater 6.0 13.68
Compact Fluorescent Lamp (CFL) 0.3 0.64
Capacitors 20.0 45.66
Tidal 6.5 14.84
Street Lighting 23.3 53.20
Domestic customers in Trinidad and Tobago enjoy an average rate of 0.33 TT$/kWh or
0.05 US$/kWh. While the average tariff for Industrial Customers is 0.25TT$/kWh (with
an additional kVA charge).
Tariff Comparison
Domestic Customer using 100 kWh per Domestic Customer using 200 kWh per month
month
Special Special
NAME OF Charges/Ta Total Charges/Ta Total
Fuel Fuel
UTILITY Base Rate xes (vat, Typical Base Rate xes (vat, Surcharg Typical
Surchar
(US$) levy, etc) ge (US$) Bill (US$) levy, etc) Bill
e (US$)
(US$) (US$)
(US$) (US$)
APUA 14.72 - 27.24 41.96 29.45 - 54.47 83.92
AQUALECTR
15.96 N/A 16.55 32.51 31.91 N/A 33.10 65.01
A
BEC 10.95 0.00 23.50 34.45 21.90 0.00 47.00 68.90
BEL 19.50 N/A N/A 19.50 41.00 N/A N/A 41.00
BELCO 15.75 15.00 13.00 43.75 31.50 15.00 26.00 72.50
BLPC 9.45 5.17 20.07 34.69 18.59 10.28 40.15 69.01
BVIEC 23.40 2.50 15.29 41.19 45.90 2.50 30.59 78.99
CUC 12.37 5.19 16.73 40.50 24.74 10.38 33.46 74.79
DOMLEC 22.97 - 13.54 36.51 47.63 5.73 27.07 80.43
FORTIS 23.42 .2391 47.33 46.73 - 47.81 94.54
GBPC 18.39 - 15.95 34.34 36.78 - 31.90 68.68

JPSCO 10.64 - 16.51 27.16 26.30 - 33.03 59.33
LUCELEC 32.98 - 0.74 32.24 66.33 - 1.47 64.85
MUL 18 - 31 49 39 - 61 100
NVGEBE 16.29 .14 16.43 16.29 .14 35.70 63.36
SKELEC 0.26 0.06 0.32 0.26 0.06 0.32
26Oct2015 T&TEC 4.06 0.61 0.94 5.61
kseebaran@gmail.com 8.13 1.22 0.94 10.29 34
VIWAPA 12.22 3.84 37.48 53.54 19.52 7.67 74.95 102.14
Photovoltaic Systems (I)
• There are two main types of PV Systems:
 Grid Tied.
 Battery Based.
• Basic Building Blocks of a Grid Tied PV System with

Battery Back-Up.
Charge Grid Tie
PV Panels Batteries
Controller Inverter
 PV Panels convert sunlight into electricity.

 Charge Controller manages the charging of batteries.
 Batteries store the energy from PV Panels.
 The Grid Tie Inverter converters the energy produced
from the PV Panels from DC to AC and synchronizes it to
26Oct2015
the electrical grid. kseebaran@gmail.com 35
Photovoltaic Systems (II)
• Grid Tie Systems:
 In most countries tax incentives and favourable feed-in-
tariffs are offered in order to make PV System more
attractive and promote the use of Renewable Energy.
• Battery Bank Systems:

 Systems In PV Systems Battery Banks are mainly used
when commercial power is not available.
 However it can be still used as a Back-Up Supply.
 In general the use of Battery Banks significantly drives
the system cost higher.
kseebaran@gmail.com
26Oct2015 36
Photovoltaic Systems (III)
• Net Metering involves the use of a Bi-Directional Net Revenue
Meter which has the ability to spin backwards when surplus
energy generated by the Customer is injected back into the
Utility’s low voltage distribution network. It is a metering
arrangement where any excess energy exported to the utility is
subtracted from the amount of energy imported from it. The
customer is billed on the energy consumed at the end of the
billing cycle. Surplus energy is credited to the customer’s account.
• Net Billing involves the use of a Smart Meter which can record
both the consumption as well as the surplus energy exported to
the utility. Net Billing is a billing arrangement where the
customer’s bill reflects the difference between the amount billed in
the rate schedule in the applicable tariff to the rate paid for
surplus energy produced and exported to the utility. In this
instance, the surplus energy is purchased by the utility at a
different rate from its retail rate for the energy the customer
purchases.
kseebaran@gmail.com
26Oct2015 37
Renewable Energy Projects (I)
Hybrid Renewable Energy – Wind & Solar Power Projects
A Wind Turbine is a device that A Solar Panel is a device that

converts Kinetic Energy from Wind converts Solar Energy into Electrical
into Electrical Energy. Energy.
Renewable Energy Projects (II)
Hybrid Renewable Energy – Wind & Solar Power Projects
Islamic Home for Children Islamic Home for Children

Gasparillo (Wind – 2.5 kW) Gasparillo (Solar – 2.0 kW)
Renewable Energy Projects (III)
Solar Power Projects
University of Trinidad &Tobago Trinidad & Tobago Electricity

O’Meara Campus (2.2 kW) Commission
Mt. Hope Compound (2.2 kW)
T&TEC Photovoltaic Projects (I)
• T&TEC has project managed
two 2.2 kW PV grid
interconnected pilot projects
on behalf of GORTT.
 Locations: UTT O’meara &
T&TEC Mt. Hope.
 Capacity: 2.2 kWp.
 Web capabilities includes
remote monitoring of the
power output, voltage and
line currents from the
system; along with solar
irradiance, temperature of
solar panels data.
kseebaran@gmail.com
26Oct2015 41
T&TEC Photovoltaic Projects (II)
• Each site consists of ten 220 Wp units installed at 110 facing

south.
• An anemometer was also installed connected to the web box
so that wind data can also be recorded.
kseebaran@gmail.com
26Oct2015 42
Wiring Issues With Renewable Energy Systems (I)
• In designing PV System you must avoid the mistake of

selecting an inverter of inadequate size or using DC input wires
from the batteries that are too long.
• However note that the AC output wires can be run as long as
required.
• The inverter manual should be used as a guide for the
maximum length and wire gauge required for the input DC
wiring.
kseebaran@gmail.com
26Oct2015 43
Wiring Issues With Renewable Energy Systems (II)
• Wiring Conductors for PV Systems

The ampacity of PV array circuits should be checked to
determine the minimum wire size for current flow. The size wire
for the run should be based on maximum short circuit current for
each circuit and the length of the wire run.
The PV array wiring should be sized such that the maximum

voltage drop at full power from the PV modules to the
inverter is 3% or less.
kseebaran@gmail.com
26Oct2015 44
Wiring Issues With Renewable Energy Systems (III)
• Wiring Conductors for PV Systems (con’t)

The conductor known as PV Wire (or one with equivalent
specification) shall be used in PV System installations on the
“PV side” of the Grid Tie Inverter (GTI). PV Wire is a double
insulated cross-linked polyethylene conductor. PV systems use
transformerless inverter circuits. Therefore, on the PV side of
the inverter, PV Wire is required due to the additional protection
in the form of multiple layers of insulation.
kseebaran@gmail.com
26Oct2015 45
Wiring Issues With Renewable Energy Systems (IV)
• Wiring Indication & Grouping for Photovoltaic (PV) Systems
 Photovoltaic source circuits and PV output circuits shall not be
contained in the same raceway, cable tray, cable, outlet box,
junction box, or similar fitting such as conductors, feeders, or
branch circuits of other non-PV systems, unless the conductors
of the different systems are separated by a partition.
 Photovoltaic system conductors shall be identified and grouped
as required. The means of identification permitted shall be by
separate colour coding, marking tape, tagging, or other
approved means.
kseebaran@gmail.com
26Oct2015 46
Wiring Issues With Renewable Energy Systems (V)
• Photovoltaic source circuits

 Photovoltaic source circuits shall be identified at all points of
termination, connection, and splices.
• Photovoltaic output and inverter circuits
 The conductors of PV output circuits and inverter input and
output circuits shall be identified at all points of termination,
connection, and splices.
kseebaran@gmail.com
26Oct2015 47
Electrical Wiring Design (I)
• Engineers are often required to solve electrical problems
via project designs.
• Some of the factors that influence the design of Electrical
Systems include:
 Type, size, shape, and occupancy purposes of the building.
 Voltages and voltage ranges available.
 Rate of electricity from the utility.
 Availability and reliability overhead and underground sources of
supply (circuits).
 Type and rating of building utilization equipment.
 Economics of utilization voltage distribution.
 Application of modern lighting.
 System Fault levels and the availability of transformers, reactors,
system neutral grounding, and current-limiting devices from the
customer.
Electrical Wiring Design (II)
• Additional factors that should be considered when undertaking
the electrical design process for a building include:
 The final architectural, civil and mechanical engineering design of the
building.
 The use of the building by specific areas.
 The HVAC (heating ventilation and air-conditioning) requirements of the
building.
 The expected electrical loads related to potable water, waste water pumps
and fire water pumps where applicable and other related systems for each
area of the building.
 The required type and levels of lighting required in each area and
subsequently determination of the lighting electrical load.
 The electrical power requirements of all equipment loads and what
underlying assumptions can be made for general purpose outlet loading.
 The expected electrical load and maximum demand of the building.
 The characteristic of supply which would be available from the utility
company.
Electrical Wiring Design (III)
Step 1 Define the Problem

• Electrical Wiring
Design Problems can
be solved using the
Step 2 Gather Information Basic Five Step
Engineering Design
Principles.
Step 3 Generate Multiple Solutions
Step 4 Analyze and Select a Solution
Step 5 Test and Implement a Solution
Electrical Wiring Design (IV)
• Step 1. Define Problem:
 What does the client require?
 What are the financial constraints?
 What are the physical constraints?
• Step 2. Gather Information:
 What Electrical Supply Characteristic is
required?
 What Electrical Supply is available from the
Utility Company?
 What are the applicable Electrical Code
requirements?
 What Information do the Utility Company and
26Oct2015 the Regulatorykseebaran@gmail.com
Body need? 51
Electrical Wiring Design (V)
• Step 3. Generate Multiple Solutions:
 What options are possible which meet the
system requirements with respect to the
following?
 Main Electrical Supply to the site.
 Lighting Fixtures.
 Power Outlets.
 Circuit Breaker Panels.
• Step 4. Analyze and Select Solution:
 Consider the Utility Requirements, the Physical
and financial constraints.
 Make a decision about what you think are the
26Oct2015 better options for the design.
Electrical Wiring Design (VI)
• Step 5. Test and Implement Solution:
 This is the Construction and Supervision
Phase of the Project.
 Sometimes changes may be required because
of unforeseen situations during construction
and installation. Decisions will be required, the
criteria for decision making is important and
should be logged.
Electrical Wiring Design (VII)
• Preparation of a Load Detail:
 Determine the major loads in the system and decide on how often
they will be operating at full load.
 A table should be prepared listing the loads description, the load
voltage, whether three phase or single phase, the power or
current and the diversity for the load. Remember that for three
phase units, the single phase loads should be listed by which
phase they are applied to, for example, 3 @ 115V 20A single
phase loads are equivalent to one 20A three phase load.
 The diversity for the load can be difficult to determine and is
usually based on experience, it can vary from 1 for lighting and
air‐conditioning loads to 0.4 for some kitchen and laundry
appliances.
Electrical Wiring Design (VIII)
Electrical Wiring Design (VIII)
Thank You.

Intro To Electrical Wiring

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Intro To Electrical Wiring

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The University of the West Indies

B. Sc. Mechanical Engineering

Electrical Systems Design

Introduction to Electrical Wiring

Keate Street Substation Keate Street Substation

Edward Street Substation

RMUs at The Hyatt

26Oct2015 RMUs at One Woodbrook Place

Ring Main Units

Pad Mounted Transformer

 Lighting & Appliance panels

 Power Distribution panels

• Lighting & Appliance Panelboards have more than 10% of the

• Power Distribution Panelboards include all other panelboards

Earth Rod Earth Mat – mainly used during

• National Electric Codes (TTBS National Electric Code part 3)

• Government Fiscal Incentives

SOLAR WIND Energy Efficiency

RENEWABLE GENERATION CAPACITY

Wind Farm (East Coast) 60 MW

DOMLEC 22.97 - 13.54 36.51 47.63 5.73 27.07 80.43

FORTIS 23.42 .2391 47.33 46.73 - 47.81 94.54

GBPC 18.39 - 15.95 34.34 36.78 - 31.90 68.68

• Basic Building Blocks of a Grid Tied PV System with

 PV Panels convert sunlight into electricity.

• Battery Bank Systems:

A Wind Turbine is a device that A Solar Panel is a device that

Islamic Home for Children Islamic Home for Children

University of Trinidad &Tobago Trinidad & Tobago Electricity

• Each site consists of ten 220 Wp units installed at 110 facing

• In designing PV System you must avoid the mistake of

• Wiring Conductors for PV Systems

The PV array wiring should be sized such that the maximum

• Wiring Conductors for PV Systems (con’t)

• Photovoltaic source circuits

Step 1 Define the Problem

Step 4 Analyze and Select a Solution

Step 5 Test and Implement a Solution

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