Philippine Journal of Science

152 (6A): 2049-2060, December 2023

ISSN 0031 - 7683
Date Received: 05 Jul 2023

Biomonitoring of Atmospheric Lead (Pb) Pollutants

Using Sphagnum Moss in Bantay, Ilocos Sur, Philippines

Xander Paul P. Dalupang, Hannah Ashley N. Matias,

Monique Louriz D. Rivera, and Jerick A. Viz*

Philippine Science High School Ilocos Region Campus,

Department of Science and Technology,
Brgy. Poblacion East, San Ildefonso, Ilocos Sur, Philippines

Lead (Pb) pollution is a serious environmental and public health concern. In this study, we used
Sphagnum moss bags to biomonitor lead particulates in gasoline stations and mechanic shops
in Bantay, Ilocos Sur, Philippines. Lacking an air monitoring station in the municipality, this
is the first study to use standard moss biomonitoring to detect atmospheric lead particulates
in Ilocos Sur. Using atomic absorption spectroscopy, the moss bags were analyzed after 54 d of
exposure. Results showed that the moss bags had accumulated lead – with mean concentrations
of 2.1067 ppm in Area 1, 1.5547 ppm in Area 2, and 3.0733 ppm in Area 3. Area 3 had the
highest loading values (92–95%), with a significant difference (P > 0.05) in lead content from the
control pre-exposure (0.20 ppm). All calculated concentrations were higher than the standards
of the Philippine Clean Air Act (0.000164 ppm). This result places the municipality of Bantay at
possible risk of atmospheric lead pollution and, thus, highly encourages the creation of policies
or initiatives to prevent further risks. Using Pearson’s correlation coefficient, the study also
found that the loading values of the moss bags correlated with the station's temperature and
humidity, as well as the moss’ hyaline pore size and density. Thus, these results suggest that
Sphagnum moss can be a useful low-cost tool for biomonitoring lead pollution and that the
environmental factors (temperature and humidity) and moss’ ultrastructures (hyaline pore
size and density) may influence the bioaccumulation of lead in moss.

Keywords: air pollution, heavy metal, lead particulate, moss bag method, Sphagnum moss

INTRODUCTION country. However, these monitoring stations have been

Globally, urban air pollution significantly challenges
the environment and public health. Specifically, lead
pollution – which is under heavy metal pollution – has
proven to be concerning as it is noted to be one of the
more relevant air pollutants and has exceeded the safe
levels according to the World Health Organization and
the Philippine Clean Air Act of 1999 (IQAir 2021; RA
8749). With that, ambient air quality monitoring stations
are installed throughout highly urbanized areas in the
*Corresponding author: vizja@irc.pshs.edu.ph
observed to be unable to specify the exact classification
of the pollutant and have high standard deviation errors
in their monitoring. It also cannot monitor heavy metals
in the air (Alunan 2016).
The municipality of Bantay in Ilocos Sur was the setting
of the study due to the presence of a gasoline station
and mechanic shop complex in Bantay just adjacent
to residential and populated areas. Although its fine
particulate matter (PM2.5) levels are classified as fair, the
specific air pollutants are not specified according to the
Air Quality Index (Accuweather 2023). There are also no

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ambient air quality monitoring stations situated in Bantay.
Thus, this study was crafted to bridge this gap. Less
expensive and more specific alternatives to air monitoring
such as biomonitoring were explored.
Biomonitoring uses organisms or parts of an organism to
gather information about certain biosphere characteristics.
The study employs the moss bag method – a common active
biomonitoring method derived from those of An et al. (2009)
and Goryainova et al. (2015) – with the recommended use of
moss of the genus Sphagnum due to its high proton and metal
adsorption capability, stability, and its unique pseudostomata
structure (González and Pokrovsky 2014).
The current study may address the existing gaps in the lack
of air biomonitoring in the Philippines by assessing the air
quality in lead-risk hotspots such as gasoline stations and
mechanic shops. The assessment of air quality can benefit
the community in terms of medical status, innovative
aspirations, and environmental strides – all for improving
public health and the environment.
The study primarily aimed to use Sphagnum moss as a
biomonitor to determine the lead particulate concentration
of three selected gasoline stations and mechanic shop
areas within the metropolitan complex of Bantay, Ilocos
Sur. Specifically, it aimed to: [1] quantify the atmospheric
lead particulate accumulated by the pre-exposure and
post-exposure of the Sphagnum moss bags and calculate
its heavy metal loading; [2] determine the significant
difference of atmospheric lead particulate and heavy
metal loading of the moss bags among the three areas
and in comparison to the pre-exposure control; [3] and
correlate the accumulated lead by the moss bags to its
heavy metal loading, the station's temperature, and the
humidity, hyaline pore size, and hyaline pore density.
Figure 3. Pre-exposure moss magnified 500x showing hyaline pores.
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MATERIALS AND METHODS
Identification of Suitable Sites for Biomonitoring
The researchers visited nearby sites characterized by their
probable lead emissions. The sites – as shown in Figure
1 – were assessed by their area, site distances, and sample
installation. The course of inquiry entails the specifics of the
moss bag installation. Table 1 describes the location of the
three areas with five stations: Station 1 (Ulop battery shop),
Station 2 (JSY machine shop), Station 3 (Eurry gas station),
Station 4 (Agatep gas station), and Station 5 (Caltex Stargate).
Procurement of Materials
Adhering to local pandemic guidelines and restrictions,
protection, and sanitation equipment for the researchers
and the voluntary households such as polyethylene
powder-free gloves with two pairs for each of the
participating researchers and rubbing alcohol was sourced
at Walter Mart Makati, Metro Manila, Philippines.
The resealable plastic bags and microwavable plastic
containers for moss storage, as well as the yarn used
to hang the moss bags, were also sourced from the said
shopping mall. A 1 kg of Sphagnum moss was sourced
and delivered from an online marketplace situated in
Bontoc, Mountain Province, Cordillera Administrative
Region, Philippines. Five hygrometers and thermometers,
one for each station, were also procured online to assess
the humidity and temperature of the stations, which are
parameters of interest in line with the study's objectives.
Nylon fiber mesh sheets with 2-mm mesh size were
procured alongside a flat bag shape 14 cm x 14 cm in size.
The mesh sheets were molded into the bags and later held
the moss samples.
Preparation of Moss Bags
Before the moss bag packaging, all procured materials
and instruments underwent proper sterilization by
disinfection using rubbing alcohol. The methods below
were performed by the researchers at the Philippine
Science High School (PSHS) Ilocos Region Campus
Laboratory while using the appropriate equipment such
as surgical masks, polyethylene powder-free gloves, and
laboratory glasses as a precautionary measure and for the
overall prevention of sample contamination.
The mosses’ apical or top portion, commonly determined
by its green leafy characteristics, was thoroughly cleaned
from remaining soil particles and other plant remains
manually. Afterward, the moss was rinsed using distilled
water for not longer than 30 s. The moss was air-dried
from room temperature to a maximum of 40 °C. The rinsed
moss was placed in the designated drying area, positioned
in a secluded area away from human intervention and
contamination. The process of air-drying moss ensures
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Figure 1. Site location and coordinates.

Figure 2. Sample of Sphagnum moss prepared bag (left) setup (right).

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Table 1. Area description of selected sites in Bantay, Ilocos Sur, Philippines.
Area Station Name
1 1 Ulop battery shop
2 JSY machine shop
2 3 Eurry gas station
3 4 Agatep gas station
5 Caltex Stargate
the removal of excess moisture remaining after rinsing.
Assembly and Distribution of Moss Bags
Five kits for the five stations were created, which were
composed of the three moss bag replicates placed within
a microwavable plastic container. A detailed instructional
process for the position of the moss bag was adapted from
the study of Aboal et al. (2012). As per the instructional
guide, the moss bag must be located away from any
physical obstacles such as large objects interfering in the
exposure process, placed in a shaded area, removing any
additional environmental stressors and oriented vertically
and positioned from a minimum height of 4 m and a
maximum of 10 m. The same day the kits were packed,
the moss was sent to their respective stations. This was
considered Day 0.
Biomonitoring Observation and Sample Collection
Observation of the moss bags started the day after
the setup of the moss bags in their respective sites.
Biomonitoring and sample collection spanned for a total
of 54 d from December 2022 to January 2023. The weekly
observation was conducted to determine the status of the
moss and to monitor factors that could cause sample loss
such as temperature, weather, and human intervention. On
the 54th day, the moss bags were gently detached using
polyethylene gloves and placed inside a double-layered
resealable plastic bag.
While following the safety protocols, physical surveying
of the moss bag was implemented during the course of its
exposure. Components such as temperature and weather
changes, along with human externalities such as recent
community activity causing sample loss that can impact
the results of the study, were monitored via the weekly
visits of the researchers to the stations.
SEM Analysis of the Hyaline Cells and Pores
The Sphagnum moss sample’s topography was also
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Description
Along the main road;
the station is heavily condensed with mechanic and battery shops
Along the main road;
the station is heavily condensed with mechanic and battery shops
At the intersection;
the area is prone to heavy traffic during rush hour
Along the main road; the station is prone to heavy automobile flow; the
station is in proximity to a tricycle TODA (tricycle operators and drivers'
association)
Along the main road; the station is prone to heavy automobile flow
examined at 500x and 800x magnification via a scanning
electron microscope (SEM; Hitachi TM4000 Plus,
Japan) pre- and post-exposure. The analysis focused on
calibrating the pore length by using ImageJ software, then
later on manually calculating the density of the pores by
dividing the number of pores by the given area of the
field of view.
Preparation of Samples for Transport
After sample collection, the samples – including the pre-
exposure – were labeled according to their station. The
process of packaging and storage was parallel to the steps
of moss bag distribution with three replicates stored in a
microwaveable plastic container, ensuring it is sealed.
Eighteen (18) samples were collected, but samples from
Areas 1 and 2 were homogenized, thus resulting in 10
samples.
Elemental Analysis for Lead (Pb) Level
The elemental analysis of Pb levels was sourced from the
Analytical Services Laboratory of the University of the
Philippines Diliman (UPD). After the moss bag retrieval,
the 10 samples – including the pre-exposure – were
handled in the PSHS Ilocos Region Campus Laboratory
to limit any possible contamination and were labeled
accordingly based on their corresponding areas. The
process of packaging and storage were paralleled to the
steps of moss bag distribution, ensuring it was sealed. The
samples were transported to the UPD Analytical Services
Laboratory for atomic absorption spectroscopy (AAS)
of Pb trace analysis, alongside other sample preparation
processes such as dry ashing, to determine the lead
concentrations accumulated by the moss samples.
Statistical Analysis
One-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) coupled with
Tukey's honestly significant difference (HSD) test for post
hoc assessed the significant difference of Pb atmospheric
residual concentrations between the areas, their samples,
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and the negative control. The visual inspection via
histogram and Shapiro-Wilk normality test was done
prior to determining if the data was normally distributed.
SPSS (Statistical Package for the Social Sciences) was
the statistical software program used in performing the
analysis. Finally, to further assess the biomonitoring
capability of the moss, heavy metal loading values were
calculated using the following formula:
Difference between after and
Heavy metal before exposure conc. (ppm)
loading (%) =
Pb concentration (ppm)
Using the Microsoft Excel 2016 software, the lead
concentration, heavy metal loading, and the temperature,
humidity, hyaline pore size, and density of the nine post-
exposure samples were tabulated and then analyzed for
correlation using Pearson’s correlation coefficient.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
The following data gathered from the 54-d moss bag
biomonitoring with Sphagnum moss as the biomonitor
are presented and discussed in this section.
Atmospheric Lead Content
Atmospheric lead particulates accumulated by the pre-
exposure and post-exposure of the Sphagnum moss
bags were quantified by the UPD Analytical Services
Laboratory using AAS. Moreover, heavy metal loading
was calculated to further assess the biomonitoring
capability of the moss and the accumulation of lead in
the moss bags.
Table 2 shows the moss bag samples' lead concentration,
expressed in ppm, after the 54-d biomonitoring period.
The actual lead concentration bioaccumulated by the moss
𝑥 100
is equal to the raw concentration minus the pre-exposure
concentration. This is in order to take into account the
previously absorbed lead particulates in the moss prior
to the biomonitoring proper. It can be seen that across
areas, sample M3.3 from Agatep gas station (Station 5)
had the highest lead concentration of 3.70 ppm, whereas
only sample M2.2 from Eurry Gas Station (Station 3) had
a lead concentration below the detection limit of 0.1 ppm,
making it the lowest. This implies that most of the samples
were able to detect the presence of lead, even the pre-
exposure. The sole exception to this is sample M2.2, which
bore non-detection results. However, this is most likely
due to uncontrollable external meteorological factors.
Next, to compare the lead absorption across the three areas,
statistical analysis was conducted. One-way ANOVA at
0.05 significance value indicated that Areas 1, 2, 3, and
the pre-exposure show no significant difference among

Table 2. Sample comparison of atmospheric Pb concentrations analyzed using atomic absorption spectrophotometry.
Difference between after and Heavy metal loading
Exposure site Moss sample Pb conc. (ppm)
before exposure conc. (ppm) (%)
N/A Pre-exposure 0.20� N/A N/A
M1.1 1.58 1.38� 87.34
Area 1 (battery and
mechanic shops) M1.2 3.59 3.39� 94.43
M1.3 1.15 0.95� 82.61
Area mean – 1.91 ± 0.82 88.13
M2.1 0.99 0.79� 79.79
Area 2 (intersection)
M2.2 ND – –
M2.3 2.85 2.65� 92.98
Area mean – 1.15 ± 0.82 57.59

M3.1 2.52 2.3² 92.06

Area 3 (Stargate-
Agatep) M3.2 2.80 2.6⁰ 92.86

M3.3 3.90 3.7⁰ 94.87

Area mean – 2.87 ± 0.82 79.66

Total area mean 1.98 79.66

[ND] no detection (Pb is below the detection limit of 0.1 ppm)

Lower bound (LB) and upper bound (UB) values of 0.0 and 0.09, respectively, were used in place of ND for statistical analysis; all means of the same letter
and designation have no significant difference against each other at 0.05 level of significance with Tukey’s HSD

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each other. This is the case for both lower bound (LB) and
upper bound values (UB) for the non-detection sample
(p = 0.059 and p = 0.056, respectively). This implies that
there are no distinctions between the areas in terms of lead
concentration whether it is nearer to battery and mechanic
shops, intersections in roads, or gasoline stations, which
are the profiles of the target areas in the study.
Area 2, which consisted of the intersection, had the lowest
lead concentration of 1.15 ppm. This is despite having the
highest traffic flow among the three areas, which is not
congruent with the studies of Limo et al. (2018) and Hu
et al. (2018), which suggested traffic flow being a major
contributor to air pollution, specifically heavy metal
pollution. Area 1, the two battery shops, came next with
1.91 ppm of lead. Finally, Area 3 – which consisted of
the two gasoline stations along opposite sides of the main
road – had the highest lead concentration accumulation
of 2.87 ppm. Tukey's post hoc test indicates that Area
3 actually had a significant difference at the 0.05 level
to the lead concentration of the pre-exposure control (p
= 2.6733). This means that despite the three areas and
the control not having any significant difference, Area
3 had a significantly higher lead concentration than
the pre-exposure. In other words, the area primarily
containing gasoline stations had statistically higher lead
concentrations than the control.
Also shown in Table 2 are the heavy metal loading
values – expressed in percentage – that were calculated
after the quantification of atmospheric lead particulates
accumulated by the Sphagnum moss bags. The percentage
of heavy metal loading indicates the amount of a particular
heavy metal present in a particular environment such
as soil or water. Values ranged between 79–95%, with
sample M2.1 having the lowest value of 79.79%, whereas
sample M3.3 garnered the highest value of 94.87%. These
samples respectively have the lowest and highest actual
lead concentrations. This implies a direct relationship
between lead concentration and heavy metal loading. The
percentages of heavy metal loading gathered from the
samples also imply that the moss had absorbed lead in the
majority of its weight, which confirms its biomonitoring
capability.
The detection of lead is likely attributed to the biomonitoring
properties of Sphagnum moss – specifically, the
aforementioned pseudostomata and hyaline cells, which
allow the moss to retain high amounts of water for ion
exchange and maintain the cell structure and absorptivity
of the moss, even if moss vitality is lost. Its biomonitoring
capability is also supported by the high heavy metal
loading values ranging from 79–95% of the moss samples,
which used moss of genus Sphagnum. It also shows to
be highly consistent with other biomonitoring studies,
which used the moss bag method – specifically those
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using moss Sphagnum genus such as those of Goryainova
et al. (2015), Banciu et al. (2021), and An et al. (2009),
which managed to obtain heavy metal concentrations
like lead. Considering that these studies implemented
longer biomonitoring periods, it may have been possible
to yield higher lead concentrations in the moss samples
if the 54-d biomonitoring period were extended. Still, the
biomonitoring period was still well within the suggested
minimum duration, which was a month.
The detection of lead highlights a public health concern as
the values, except that of the pre-exposure sample, have
surpassed the lead limit of 50 µg/m³ or 0.00548 ppm as
stated by the National Institute for Occupational Safety
and Health (CDC n/d). It also surpassed the standard limit
for lead indicated by the United States Environmental
Protection Agency (US EPA), which is 0.15 µg/m³
per 3 mo or approximately 0.0000164 ppm (US EPA
2016). Lastly, it also exceeded the standard limit for lead
indicated in the Philippine Clean Air Act of 1999, which
is 1.5 µg per normal m³ or 0.000164 ppm (RA 8749).
This indicates that the selected three areas in Bantay are
at possible risk of lead pollution.
The five stations were chosen on the basis of traffic flow,
as these stations are located along the main roads and
intersections of the metropolitan complex. This implies
that traffic flow and vicinity with industries associated
with lead are possible sources that contributed to the lead
absorbed by the Sphagnum moss bags.
Correlating Weather Parameters
Meteorological data (specifically, temperature and
humidity), as well as morphological factors (specifically,
stomatal size and density), were collected to explain the
non-detection. Correlation analysis was done to the said
parameters and the moss' lead concentration and heavy
metal loading.
Results from Figure 4 show temperatures ranging from
29–36 °C during the biomonitoring period. Meanwhile,
Figure 5 reports a minimum mean humidity to be at 42%
and a maximum to be at 67%. The temperature range
goes against what was recommended by Breeuwer et al.
(2008), which was around 21.4 °C. This is attributed to the
fact that exposure to heat leads to the increase of kinetic
energy and velocity of molecules. Moreover, it is further
explained by the behavior of gas wherein gas expands;
thus, a decrease in density and pressure is observed.
Higher temperatures, which is the case for our study,
would therefore lead to a decrease in density and pressure,
which leads to gaseous particles ascending, leaving little
to no particles for the moss to absorb efficiently (Chang
2000). High temperatures also contribute to the decrease in
the vitality of the Sphagnum moss. However, the humidity
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Figure 4. Temperatures recorded in the five biomonitoring stations during the 54-d biomonitoring period.

Figure 5. Humidity levels recorded in the five biomonitoring stations during the 54-d biomonitoring period.

levels are still within the safe range for Sphagnum moss,
which is 40–80%.
Moreover, Freitas et al. (2016) suggested that there is
the precedence of moisture over temperature in terms of
importance to the moss, especially considering the species'
sensitivity to dryness. In other words, it is more important
that the moss gets its humidity requirements than its
temperature requirements. This can also be explained
by Franks and Farquhar (2001) with how Sphagnum
pseudostomata are independent of moss vitality (which
declines at high temperatures), so long as there is enough
moisture to maintain structural stability.
Hyaline Pore Size and Pore Density
The moss samples' hyaline pores were magnified via an
SEM, with each of the five stations having three replicates.
This was done to calculate five pore sizes, as well as the
samples' pore density, over a 0.048 mm² field of view area
for the pre-exposure and 0.019 mm² for the post-exposure.
Table 3 indicates that Area 3 (see Figures 6–7) had
the lowest average pore size of 98.68 μm² – which
subsequently had the highest lead concentration amongst
all areas, as seen in Table 3 – whereas Area 1 had the
highest of 113.28 μm². Still, the lowest pore size among the
post-exposure of 74.24 μm² belonged to Area 2 (see Figure

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Table 3. Hyaline pore size and hyaline pore density of moss samples.
Pore size Pore density
Exposure site Station
(μm²) (pore/mm²)
N/A Pre-exposure 61.61 537.47
Station 1 (Ulop battery
106.73 938.63
shop)
Area 1 (battery and mechanic
shops) Station 2 (JSY machine
119.83 991.76
shop)

Area mean 113.28 965.20

Station 3 (Eurry gas

Area 2 (intersection) 112.86 1505.36
station)

Area mean 112.86 1505.36

Station 4 (Caltex
89.18 1,700.17
Stargate)

Area 3 (Stargate-Agatep) Station 5 (Agatep gas

108.17 1,080.31
station)

Area mean 98.68 1390.24

Total area mean 107.35 1243.25

to the fact that larger pores allow for higher amounts of

Figure 6. Surface morphology of moss pre-exposure (SEM, 500x).
7); specifically, the replicate that directly corresponded
to Sample M2.2 or the non-detection sample. The latter
implies that there could be a negative relationship between
lead concentration and pore size. Mohanasundaram and
Pandey (2022) had similar findings in dry branches of
Sphagnum magellacium and Sphagnum papillosum, in
which pore size was observed to be much smaller in dry
branches than in moist ones. This is due to the implication
that larger pore size allowed for higher rates of moisture
leakage, which thus causes the structural integrity of the
Sphagnum moss to be compromised, negatively affecting
its bioaccumulation. However, the former implies a
positive correlation. This, on the other hand, could be due
moisture accumulation (Goetz and Price 2015; Jung and
Tambunting 2018).
Meanwhile, Area 2 showed the highest mean pore density
of 1505.36 pores per mm², which was followed by Area 3
at 1390.24 pores per mm² and then Area 1 at 965.20 per
mm². Note that Area 2 had the highest pore density while
having the lowest lead content. Mohanasundaram and
Pandey (2022) also stated that leaves from dry branches
of S. magellacium and S. papillosum had more pores
with 2–3 pores per cell, compared to hyaline cells in
leaves from wet branches with approximately 1 pore per
cell, which facilitated efficient water uptake of the moss.
Weber et al. (2016) added that this relationship allows
Sphagnum moss to be more resistant to drying up, which
is extremely important in maintaining its structures for
bioaccumulation. This would imply that Area 3 – which
had the lowest average pore size, second lowest pore
density, and highest lead concentration values – had
significantly accumulated moisture, which is again crucial
to moss vitality, structural stability, and absorptivity.
Conversely, the smallest pore size in Area 2 is congruent
with one of the samples resulting in non-detection.
Parameter Relationships
To determine the relationship between the parameters of
the study, temperature, humidity, hyaline pore size, and
hyaline pore density were run through correlation analysis
using Pearson’s correlation coefficient. Temperatures were

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Figure 7. Surface morphology of post-exposure (SEM, 800x).
calculated to have a moderate correlation to both the lead
concentration and the heavy metal loading of the moss
(r = 0.56). This means that for the set sample, the lead
concentration and loading would have increased with
temperature changes. Area 3, which had the highest lead
concentration of 2.87 ppm, had the second-highest mean
temperature of 32.9 °C. However, if the individual samples
Dalupang et al.: Atmospheric Lead Pollutants
in Bantay, Ilocos Sur
were to be looked at, the non-detection sample M2.2 had
the second highest temperature of 32.8 °C. In fact, Area
2 – despite having the lowest mean lead content – still
had the same second-highest mean temperature of 32.8
°C. Genssler et al. (2008) stated that weather conditions
should have affected the bioaccumulation properties of
mosses. Their study shows that mosses have more efficient
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Table 4. Correlation analysis between the lead particulate concentration, heavy metal loading, weather parameters, and pore size and density.
Heavy metal
Pb concentration loading
Pb concentration 1
Heavy metal
loading 0.62* 1
Temperature 0.56* –0.01
Humidity –0.76** –0.49*
Pore size 0.27 0.37
Pore density –0.09 –0.44*
**strong correlation; * moderate correlation
absorption in low temperatures, which is true for this
study; however, upon closer inspection, discrepancies can
be found with the said correlation.
Meanwhile, it was found that humidity had a strong
negative correlation with lead concentration (r = –0.76)
and a weak to moderate negative correlation with
heavy metal loading (r = –0.49) of the samples. This
means that the moss would have absorbed more lead
at a lower humidity level. This can be attributed to the
fact that particulate matter can travel more due to not
being crowded with water vapor in humid cases. It is
congruent with Area 3 having the lowest mean humidity
levels while having the highest mean lead concentration;
however, it is not the same with Area 2, as it had the
second-highest mean humidity level but had the lowest
mean lead concentration. That being said, Freitas et al.
(2016) emphasized how important it is that moss species
maintain recommended humidity levels. Fortunately, such
was the case in the study.
Correlation analysis revealed a weak correlation between
pore size and lead content (r = 0.27) and heavy metal
loading (r = 0.37), which means that higher pore sizes
would have equated to higher lead intake. The inverse
was observed in the study, as one of the smallest-sized
pores at Area 2 at 74.24 μm² coincidentally was also found
in the non-detection sample. This is due to larger-sized
pores allowing for more accumulation. Finally, there was
no correlation between pore density and lead content (r
=–0.9); however, there is a weak to moderate negative
correlation between pore density and heavy metal loading
(r = –0.44). This means that lower amounts of pores would
have equated to more heavy metal intake. This was true
for the non-detection sample, as it had one of the highest
pore densities at 2550.25 per mm² and the lowest heavy
metal uptake. This can be attributed to a higher pore
density meant that many of its pores were not blocked by
particulates such as lead. This resulted in a higher count
of open pores but lower amounts of lead accumulated.
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Pore
Temperature Humidity Pore size density
1
–0.29 1
–0.07 0.35 1
0.20 –0.06 –0.45* 1
Implications of the Presence of Lead
Based on the results, it has been determined that the
mean lead concentrations from the three areas quantified
exceeded the lead limits as advised by the US EPA
(0.00548 ppm), CDC (Centers for Disease Control and
Prevention) (0.0000164 ppm), and the Philippine Clean
Air Act of 1999 (0.000164 ppm), which places these
areas in Bantay City at possible risk of lead pollution.
Statistical analysis showed that there is no significant
difference in lead concentration – whether the area is near
battery and mechanic shops, intersections, or gasoline
stations. However, Area 3 yielded the highest mean lead
concentration and even exhibited a significant difference
with the pre-exposure. This implies that it is possible
at the highest risk of lead pollution, and that lead may
accumulate more significantly in areas with gasoline
stations. As there was a trend of delayed studies regarding
pollution monitoring – specifically, lead pollution – it
was hard to say that the more overlooked towns such as
Bantay would expect developments in that regard. This
further explains why there have been little to no efforts
done regarding air pollution monitoring, which perhaps
caused the increase in lead pollution risk. Bantay had a
growing population reaching 37,118 last 2020, and more
than a quarter of these are children aged 14 yr and below,
and about 10% are elderly aged 64 yr and above. Given
the findings on lead concentration and the fact that the
biomonitored complex is a national highway and is, thus,
frequently passed through, the aforementioned age groups
may have had frequent exposure to lead, increasing their
risks of lead-induced illnesses.
However, given the findings of the study, perhaps the local
government could now be urged to put more emphasis
on policy-making regarding lead pollution monitoring or
push for advocacies or projects to minimize or mitigate
this heavy metal health hazard.
Philippine Journal of Science
Vol. 152 No. 6A, December 2023
CONCLUSION
The results show the presence of residual trace metal
particulates of Pb and the effectiveness of the Sphagnum
moss bag method as a working method in determining
lead particulate concentration in selected gasoline stations
and mechanic shops within the metropolitan complex of
Bantay, Ilocos Sur. It has also been determined that the
three target areas are at possible risk of lead pollution
due to the values exceeding the standards limit set by the
CDC, US EPA, and RA (Republic Act) 8749 despite no
significant differences in lead concentration between the
three areas. The temperature during the biomonitoring
period was detrimental to moss vitality but the humidity,
which is optimal for the Sphagnum moss, helped retain
the structural integrity needed for moss uptake. Given
that the lead concentration values exceeded the standards
set, adapting the moss bag method as a cost-effective
and environmentally-friendly method for air monitoring,
especially for municipalities with no situated ambient
air quality monitoring stations like Bantay, can be
considered. Moreover, Sphagnum moss populations are
sensitive to environmental changes, which makes it useful
in monitoring the health of the surrounding ecosystem
and determining the areas with high levels of pollution.
Using this information, strategies to protect the species
from environmental degradation can be developed to help
mitigate the effects of climate change and air pollution.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The authors would like to acknowledge the following:
the PSHS Ilocos Region Campus for providing financial,
academic, and laboratory assistance; the research teachers
– Ms. Jerile Mae E. Casimiro, Mr. Jumari V. Bucsit, and
Ms. Michelle B. Ducusin – for their guidance, support,
and significant inputs for the improvement of the study;
Ms. Elfleda Ruelos, Ms. Anita Navas, Mr. Jun Forges, Mr.
Joseph Bumanlag, and Mr. Vergel Yabut for their great
generosity in allowing their establishments to be utilized
as biomonitoring sites and providing their full cooperation
with our interviews for the data gathering; and the UPD
Analytical Services Laboratory for providing laboratory
analysis of moss samples.
STATEMENT ON CONFLICT OF
INTEREST
The authors declare no potential conflict of interest related
to this publication.
Dalupang et al.: Atmospheric Lead Pollutants
in Bantay, Ilocos Sur
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