Learnersar eencouragedt odiscusst hequesti

onstheyencount erforthe
purposeofshar pening,culti
vatingandi mprovi
ngcrit
icalthi
nking.Asy ou
readandwr i
tenotes, y
ouar eencour agedtomakeanat t
emptt oaddressthe
questions.Discussthequest ionsingr oupsandever
yoneshoul dcontri
bute.
Active parti
cipati
on iny ourl earning wil
lautomati
call
y make l earni
ng
meani ngfulandinter
esting.Thanky ou.T.RUGURI

MUTAPASTATE

Or
igi
nsoft
hest
ate

-theori
ginoftheMutapastat
eiscont
rover
sial(
debat
able).Or
alt r
adi
ti
on,
ar
chaeol
ogyandwri
tt
enrecor
ds havebeenusedtoexpl
aintheori
ginsofthe
Mutapa.

-Mutapast
atewasoneoftheLat
eIronAgest
ateswhi
chwasf
oundar
ound
1400ADundert
heleader
shi
pofNyat
simbaMut
ota.

-Oralt
radi
ti
on mantai
ns t
hatthe Mut
apa was the successorofGreat
Zi
mbabwewhichmeanstheMutapawast
heoffshootofGreatZi
mbabwe.

-Accor
dingtooraltr
adi
ti
on,
Ny atsi
mbaMut
otal
eftGr
eatZi
mbabwei
nsear
ch
ofsal
t,af
terasuccessi
ondi
spute.

-i
tissuggestedthatNy
atsimbaMut
otaleftGreatZi
mbabwei
nsear
chofgol
d,
i
vory,
pastures,f
erti
l
esoil
sandhunt
inggrounds.

-Mutot
awenttotheZambeziVal
l
eyanddef
eat
edsomeweakercommuni
ti
es
whi
chincl
udeTonga,
Tavar
aandKorekor
e.

-Duetohisconquest,Mut
apawasgi
vent
henameMwenemut
apameani
ng
theLor
doftheconqueredl
ands.

-whenMutotafoundthatt
henort
hr egi
onwasr i
chinsal
t,fer
til
essoiland
wi
ldanimal
s,hedidnotret
urnt
oGr eatZimbabweandestabli
shedhisown
st
ateatChi
takoHi
ll
s.

-Ny at
simbaMutot
aestabl
i
shedhimsel
fast henew rul
eroft
hel
andand
assumedthet
it
leMunhumutapaandt
hestat
easMutapa.

-archaeologicalevidence makes i
tclearthatafteryear
s ofconti
nuous
sett
lement,t he area around Great Zi
mbabwe and Gur uuswa became
exhausted and was unabl eto supportthe gr
owing human and animal
populat
ionandt hi
spushedt hepeopl
etomov enort
hwards.

-Port
uguesedocument
ssuggestthattheMutapastateexi
stedbef
oret
he
col
l
apseofGreatZi
mbabweandthestat
eswereint
err
elat
ed.
-Somehi
stori
ansarguethatMut
otaor
igi
nat
edf
rom Gur
uuswaandwast
he
sonofaKarangar
ulert
here.

-Af
tert
hedeat
hofhi
sfat
her,hel
eftt
heGuruuswaareaunderarel
ati
vecal
l
ed
Tor
wa[Togwa]
.Mut
otawentandsett
ledi
nthenort
heastintheDande.

-HeconqueredtheethnicTav ar
aandTongapeopl
ewhosepossessi
onshe
putunderhi
saut
hori
ty[kutapa]andt
heyni
cknamedhi
m Munhumut
apa.

Est
abl
ishmentandexpansi
onofMut
apaSt
ate

-
Mut
apast
ategr
ewi
ntoal
argeandpower
ful
stat
einpr
e-col
oni
alZi
mbabwe.

-Throughmil
it
arycampai
gns,Mutotasubduedanumberofgroupsont
he
Zambezival
l
eywher ehewasni cknamedMunhumutapa,meani
ngMaster
pi
ll
ager.

-These gr
oups conquer
ed by Mutot
aincl
uded t
he Tonga,Tav
ara and
Kor
ekor
etri
besoftheDandeareaoft
heZambeziv
all
ey.

-Mut apameanthecont r
oll
edconqueredlands.Heusedal ar
gear myto
establ
ish a lar
ge stat
e.Ny at
simba Mutota di
ed bef
ore complet
ing hi
s
expansioni
stpoli
cy.

-Ny anhewe Mat ope,his son i

nher
it
ed the thr
one and conti
nued the
expansi
onistpoli
cy. Heexpandedt hekingdom eastwar
dsbyconquering
i
ndependentkingdomsofBar we,Manyi
ka,Sofal
a,Utev
e,Madanda,Chi
dima,
Sena,Guruuswa[Butua]
,Mbi
reetc.

- Mat ope exer

cised powers of par
amount chi
ef ov
er Nor
th East
Mashonal
andandmuchofpr esentdayMozambi
que.

-Conquer
edt
ri
besl
i
keUt
eve,MadandaandChi
kangapai
dtr
ibut
etoMut
apa
king.

-MatopeandMut otacreatedav er
yvastempi
reandhadtoappoi
ntvassal
chief
stocont r
olpr
ovinces. Matopedel
agat
edsomepart
softheki
ngdom t
o
hisson-i
n-law Makombewhowasgi v
entheBarweprovi
nceandMatope
remainedi
nf ull
cont
roloftheDanderegi
on.

-Matopemanagedt
otakecont
rolofkeyt
radi
ngst
ati
onsal
ongt
heZambezi
Val
l
eysuchasZumbo,Tet
eandSena.

-Atitszeni
th,t
heempi r
eisthoughtt
ohavehadpr
ovi
nceswhi
chi
ncl
uded
Dande,Mani
ca,Uteve,
Barwe,
FuraandGur
uuswa.

-GatsiRuser
emanagedtodefeattheMar av
iinv
asi
onwi t
hthehel
poft
he
Por
tuguese.Gat
siRuser
e used force t
o gettax cal
l
ed cur
vafr
om t
he
Por
tuguese.

-Mutapast
atehadaccesstomoreresour
cesli
kegol
d,game,i
vor
y,f
ert
il
e
soi
lsandpast
uresast
hestat
ebecametoobi
g.

Benef
it
soft
heexpansi
ont
othepeopl
eofMut
apa.

-The controlofkeyt r
adi
ng stat
ionsbyMat opeimpli
esthattr
ade was
promoted.Thest
atebecameconduci vefort
rade.Thepeopl
eoftheMutapa
hadaccesstofor
eigngoodsthr
ought r
ade.

-expansi
onoftheMutapameantthatlandf orfarmingandgr azi
ngwasmade
avai
labl
e and t
hispr
omoted crop cult
ivati
on asl and wasplenty.I
tal
so
promotedli
vest
ockpr
oduct
ionbecausegr azinglandhadi ncr
eased.

-Theexpansi
onoftheMutapast
rengt
henedt
hest
ateandpeopl
egotpeace
andpr
otecti
onbyastr
ongstat
e.

-Theruler
shadal
argebasef
orcol
l
ect
ingt
ri
but
efr
om v
assalchi
efsand
or
dinar
ypeople.

-t heexpansi
onmeant t hatboundari
eswereextendedandpeopl ehad
access tofet
il
eland,hunt
ing gr
ounds,gr
azi
ng l
and,mi ner
als and ot
her
resour
ces.

Di
sadv
ant
agesoft
heexpansi
ont
othepeopl
eofMut
apa.

-Manypeopl
ewer
eki
l
leddur
ingt
hewar
sofexpansi
on.

-Ther
ewer er
ebel
li
onsbyvassalchief
swhot
ri
edt
orest
oret
hei
raut
hor
it
y
whi
chcauseddeat
hsanddest
ruct
ions.

-Theempir
ecreat
edwast
oobi
ganddi
ff
icul
ttocont
rolbecauseofpoor
communi
cati
on.

-Manyy
oungpeopl
ewer
efor
cedt
ojoi
ntheMut
apaar
mies.

-Economicacti
vit
iessuchascr
opcul
ti
vat
ionwer
eof
tendi
srupt
edbyt
hese
warsofexpansi
on

Methodsused byMut
apaki
ngst
o consol
idat
ethei
rrul
eorcont
rolt
he
peopl
e

Tri
but
epay ment— pai
dbysub-
chi
efst
oshowl
oyal
tyandt
hosewhodi
dnot
paywerepuni
shed.

Curvat
ax —waspai
dbyf
orei
gner
stoshowl
oyal
ty i
nor
dert
obeal
l
owedt
o
tr
ade
Ar
my-
usedt
opuni
shr
ebel
l
iouschi
efsandt
obr
ingl
awandor
deri
nthest
ate.

Roy
alfir
e- i
twasasymbolofpowerandauthor
it
y.Sub-
chi
efsgotf
ir
efr
om t
he
Mutapakingandor
dinar
ypeoplef
rom chi
efs

Cent
ral
isedt
rade-t
radewascont
rol
l
edandi
tmeansweal
thandpower
.

Rewar
dingloy
alchi
efs-
thesewer
egi
venf
orexampl
efor
eigngoods,
clot
hto
bemoreloy
al

Rel
igi
on-
wasusedt
ocont
rolpeopl
esi
ncet
heybel
i
evedt
hei
rki
ngwaschosen
byGod.

Syst
em ofkur
onzer
a — cat
tl
ewer
egi
vent
opoorsubj
ect
stomaket
hem
l
oyal
.

Mar
ri
ageal
li
ances-
mar
ri
edf
rom power
ful
fami
l
iest
ocementpol
i
tical
power
s.

Quest
ion:St
ateanysi
xchi
efdomst
hatwer
econqer
edbyNy
anheweMat
ope.
(
6)

Chi
efdomsconquer
edbyNy
anheweMat
ope

 Many
ika

 Bar
we

 Madanda/
Sedanda

 Tev
e/Ut
eve

 Sena

 Gur
uuswa/
But
ua

 Mbi
re

 Sof
ala

Quest
ion:I
dent
if
yanysi
xpr
ovi
ncesoft
heMut
apa(
6).

Descr
ibet
heest
abl
ishmentandexpansi
onoft
heMut
apast
ate(
11)
.

Towhatextentdi
dthepeopl
eoft
heMut
apabenef
itf
rom t
heexpansi
onof
thest
ate(
8)

How impor
tantwast herol
epl
ayedbyNy
atsi
mbaMut
otai
nther
iseand
expansi
onofthest
ate(8)
Fact
orswhi
chl
edt
other
iseoft
heMut
apa

 Pol
it
icalf
act
ors

Theav
ail
abi
l
ityofast
rongar
my

-Theavai
l
abi
l
ityofapower
fulandef
fi
cientar
myl
edt
other
iseofMut
apa
st
ate.

-Thest
atehadast
rongf
orcewhi
chwasknownasDar
ereHondo[
Counci
lof
war]
.

-Thesol
dier
swer
etr
eat
edbynangasbef
orewarsot
hatt
heywoul
dbebr
ave.

-Thearmyhelpedt
oexpandthest
atethr
oughconquest
s.Fori
nstance,t
hey
usedt hearmytoconquert
heTonga,Tavar
aandKor ekor
eleadi
ngt othe
expansionoft
hest
ate.

-Duri
ngthe15t
hCentur
ythest
ategr
ew andi
ncor
por
atedmanychi
efdoms
undert
herul
eofMat
ope.

Compet
entl
eader
shi
p

-t
hecompetenceandabi l
i
tyofMut
otaandMatopet
orul
ethestat
ewi sel
yled
tothe ri
se and expansi
on oft
he st
ate.Bot
h embar
ked on a deli
ber
ate
expansi
oni
stpol
icy.

-Ny at
simbaMutotaconsol
i
datedhisauthor
it
ybytaki
ngadv ant
ageoft
he
decentr
ali
zednat
ureoft
heNort
hernTavar
aandTongagroups.

-Mutotaisbeli
evedtohaveplacedmanyt r
ibesunderhi
shisaut
hori
tyand
for
cedtheirchi
efst
osubmittohim andsometi
mesappoint
edhi
srelat
ivest
o
rul
eovertheconquer
edareas.

-Thechi
efsoft
heprovinceswer
er el
ati
vesoft
heki
ngsandwer
eloy
alt
o
t
hem.Thi
smini
misedchancesofr
ebell
i
ons.

 Economi
cfact
ors

Cr
opcul
ti
vat
ion

-theriseofMut
apastat
ewasduet osuccessf
ulcropcul
ti
vati
onintheDande
regi
on.Thisisbecausetheareahadr edfer
til
esoilsandt her
ainf
allwas
adequate.Cr
opcul
ti
vati
onenhancedf
oodsecurityandsust
ainedthegr
owing
populati
on.

Past
oral
i
sm [
li
vest
ockpr
oduct
ion]

-
Liv
est
ockpr
oduct
ionpl
ayedav
italr
olei
nther
iseoft
hest
ate.I
twas
promot edbyt heavai
l
abili
tyofrichandlargegrazingl
ands.Therewasa
pastoraleconomywher ebycatt
lewererai
sed.Cat t
lewerealsousedasa
form ofstor
ingweal
thandforthesyst
em ofKuronzer
a.

Thesystem ofkur
onzer
awasawayt
heki
ngsusedasamet
hodofpol
i
tical
cont
roloft
hesubject
s.

Mi
ning

-Av ai
labi
l
ityofmi neral
sint henorth,f
orexampl e,goldledtot heriseof
Mutapast ate.Thegol dfrom Mutapastatereceivedinter
nati
onalfame.It
became a maj ortr
ade commoditydomi nat
ing exter
nalt r
ade.Controlof
miningacti
vitesrei
nfor
ced(st
rengt
hened)thepoweroft heMunhumut apa.

-miningwasalsoasourceofi r
onwhicchwasneededbybl
acksmi
thst
o
f
ashiontool
sandgol
dforbeadsandj
ewell
erymaki
ng.

Tr
ade

-Thestatedev
elopedt
hroughtr
ade.Thest
atewasaccessi
blet
oint
ernat
ional
tr
adethrought
heeastcoast.

-Evi
dencefr
om Por
tugueser
ecor
dsshowst
hatt
radewasv
ital
,thati
s,t
rade
wit
hArabsandSwahil
i
.

-Theyal
sol
aterontradedwi
ththePor
tuguese.Lar
gegol
dreser
veswer
e
f
oundint
heMutapast
ateandt
hispr
omot
edt r
ade.

 Soci
alf
act
ors

Rel
igi
on

-r
eli
gionwasani mportantfactori
ntheriseoftheMut apa.Thebel
iefi
n
Mwaribr
oughtpeopl
etogetherand mini
misedconfl
i
ctsanddisput
es.

-r
eli
gionwasi
mpor
tanti
nthesur
viv
aloft
hest
atebecausei
tpr
omot
eduni
ty.

-thebel
ieft
hattheki
ngwasadi v
inefi
gureenabledt
heki
ngst
oadmi
nist
er
thest
atesmoothl
yastheywonuni
ver
salrespect
.

-rel
i
giousleader
swereimpor
tantbecauset
heygav
eadv
icet
otheki
ngon
howbesttorunthest
ate.

Poli
gamywasimpor t
antinther
iseasi
tpromot
edpopul
ati
onincreaseand
thi
smeantav
ail
abil
it
yofpeoplewhowoul
dworkint
hefi
eldsandyoungmen
whocoul
dberecrui
tedint
othear
my .

Cattl
el oaning(
kuronzer
a)was impor
tantbecause i
tensur
ed l
oyal
tyand
respecttothekingbysubject
s.
QUESTI
ON:Were push f
act
ors atGr
eatZi
mbabwe r
esponsi
blef
ort
he
for
mati
onofMut
apa?

Thepol
i
ticalsy
stem ofMut
apa.

-Theking wasthehead ofst

ateand wasatt
hehel
m ofpol
i
ticaland
economi
cpower.

-
Kingshi
pwasher
edi
tar
ywhi
chmeansi
tcoul
dbepassedf
rom f
athert
oson.

-
Thecent
reoft
hegov
ernmentwast
heMwenemut
apaandhi
scour
t.

-This courtwas run bya t eam ofof fi

cialsresponsiblef orthe various
depar t
ment s. The cour t of ficial
s i ncl
uded t he gov ernor of
provinces(Nengomasha) ,Capt ain-Generaloft he armies(Mukomohasha) ,
chiefconf i
dant(
Mbokorume),treasur er, headdoor keeper,pri
ests,di
viners
andchi efcook.TheQueenmot her ,kingssist
erandt heninepr i
nci
pal wi
vesof
thekingwer ealsoi
mpor t
antf
igur esi ntheadmi ni
str
ationofthestate.

-
Theki
ngwasi
nst
all
edbyspi
ri
tmedi
umst
hatheconsul
tedi
nti
mesofcr
isi
s.

- theMut apaderiv
edmostofhi spoli
ticalauthori
tyfr
om hisrel
igi
ousand
pr
iestl
yf unct
ion as sole communicatorwi tht he ancestr
alspir
it
s who
i
ntercededwit
hMwar iforrai
nsanddisastersfaci
ngthenation.

-
The kings l
i
fe was symboli
sed by a roy
alf i
re,burning athis capit
al
t
hroughouthi
srei
gn.Chief
swer efor
cedtocoll
ectthatfi
reony ear
lybasi
sas
a si
gn ofloyal
ty.So fi
re sy
mbol i
sed l
i
fe and unit
y.Rebels were easi
ly
i
denti
fi
edbynotcoll
ect
ingtheroyalf
ir
e.

-Therewasalsoasystem ofprovinci
aladmi
nist
rat
ionwher evassalchief
s
wer einchar
geofprovinces.Vassalchi
efsweremainl
ycl oserelati
vesof
kingsand tr
ust
ed l
oyal
ists.Themostf amousoft hevassalchi efswere
ChangaandTogwa[ Torwa]whocont rol
ledt
het wosouthernprov i
ncesof
GuruuswaandMbir
e.

-Subject
spai
dt r
ibut
etothekingtoshowloyalt
y.Vassalchi
efscol
lectedand
surrender
edtr
ibutetotheking.Pay
mentoft ri
butehelpedtopreventchief
s
from becomi
ngt oopowerfulandtoenhancet hewealthoftheking.Items
coll
ectedast
ri
but ewer
edistr
ibut
edtothepeoplei
ntimesofdrought.

-
Theki
ngwasthechiefdi
str
ibut
erofl
and.Hi
spowerdependedonhi
sabi
l
ity
t
ocont
rol
andall
ocat
elandwhichhehel
d.

-
Allfor
eigntrader
shadt
oabi
debyr
ulesoft
hest
ateandhadt
opayt
axas
well
asgi f
ts.

-
Thepoweroft
heki
ngr
est
edi
nthear
my.Heusedt
hear
myt
omai
ntai
nlaw
andor
der
,prot
ectt
hestatefr
om int
ruder
sandtocoll
ecttr
ibut
e.Thear
my
wasal
sousedt
oexpandthest
ateandtoherdt
heki
ngscat
tl
e.

-
Theki
ngappoi
ntedchi
efs,
armycommanderandot
hergov
ernmentof
fi
cial
s.

-Theki
ngwast hejudi
ciall
eader,r
eli
giousl
eader
,commanderi
nchi
efoft
he
armyandcont
roll
eroflongdist
ancetrade.

Mut
apapr
inci
palcour
ti
ers/cour
tof
fi
cial
sand t
hei
rdut
ies.

 Nengomasha(gov
ernorofpr
ovi
nces)

-hewast
hedeput
yoft
heki
ngandwasr
esponsi
blef
or:

1)l
eadi
ngt
hear
myi
ncampai
gnwher
eMut
apawasnoti
nvol
ved,

2)assi
sti
ngt
heki
ngi
nappoi
nti
ngt
hepr
ovi
nci
alchi
efs,

3)announci
ngt
heor
der
soft
heki
ngt
othev
isi
ti
ngpr
ovi
nci
all
eader
s,

4)act
ingasar
egentaf
tert
hedeat
hoft
heMut
apa,

5)ensur
ingt
hatt
heki
ng`
sor
der
swer
efol
l
owedt
hroughoutt
hest
ate.

6)di
scussi
ngi
mpor
tantmat
ter
swi
thi
nthest
atewi
tht
heki
ng.

7)i
nfor
mingt
heki
ngaboutdev
elopment
sint
hest
ate.

 Commanderoft
hear
my(Mukomohasha)

-Hewas t
hegener
alandcapt
ainoft
hegat
esandwasr
esponsi
blef
or:

1) headi
ngt
hear
myoft
heki
ng

2)st
rat
egi
singt
hewar

3)char
gingmi
l
itar
ymat
ter
ssuchasweapons,
int
ell
i
genceandenemyst
atus

4)l
evi
edt
ax.

 Chi
efMusi
cian/chi
efdoorkeeper

-Hewasi nchar
geoft
hebandofmusi
cianst
hatent
ert
ainedt
heki
ngandhi
s
cour
ti
ers.

-heexpl
ainedt
hepur
poseoft
hev
isi
ttot
heki
ng.

-hecoul
dscr
een t
hosewhowant
edt
otal
kdi
rect
lyt
otheki
ng.

 Chi
efconf
idant
(Mbokor
ume)

Hewasr
esponsi
blef
or:
1)keepi
ngt
hedeepsecr
etsoft
heki
ng.

2)checki
ngt
hef
unct
ionsandl
oyal
tyofot
herpr
inci
pal
off
icer
s

 Pr
iest
s

Thepr
iest
s:

1)I
nst
all
edt
heMunhumut
apa.

2)Ar
rangedt
her
ain-
maki
ngcer
emoni
es.

 Tr
easur
er

-
1)Her
ecei
vedal
lthepr
esent
sbr
oughtt
otheMut
apacour
t.

2)hewasi
nchar
geoft
het
radegoods.

3)hewasr
esponsi
blef
ort
heexpendi
tur
eoft
hef
undsatt
hei
nst
ruct
ionoft
he
ki
ng.

St
ateanysi
xrul
ersoft
heMut
apa

Rul
ersoft
heMut
apa

-
Nyatsi
mba Mut
ota
-
NyanheweMat
ope

-
Chikuy
oChi
samar
engu -
Chi
ver
e
Nyasor
o

-
Negomo Mapunzagut
u
-
Gatsi
Ruser
e

-
Nyambo Kapar
ari
dze
-
Mavur
aMhande

Nyahuma Mukomber
o
Neshangwe-

-
Chi
oko
-
Kapur
atsi
ne

-
Nyakunembi
ri

Quest
ions:St
atesi
xpr
inci
palof
fi
cial
satt
heMut
apacour
t(6)

I
dent
if
ysi
xdut
iesoft
hear
myi
ntheMut
apa(
6)
Descr
ibet
hepol
it
icalsy
stem oft
he oft
heMut
apast
ate(
11)

Howf
ardi
dtheMut
apapeopl
ebenef
itf
rom t
hepol
it
icalsy
stem.
?(8)

Towhatext
entwast
heMunhumut
apaanabsol
uter
uler
?(8)

Mi
li
tar
yOr
gani
zat
ion

-
Theki
ngwast
hecommanderi
nchi
efoft
hear
my.

-
Thekingwasassi
stedbyanappointedcommander
,Nengomashawhowas
t
hesecondmostpowerf
ulof
fi
cial
inthestat
e.

-
There was a councilofwar[ Dar
ereHondo]
.This counci
lrat
if
ied war
deci
sionsandconscr
iptedsol
dier
saswell
astrai
ningt
hem.

-
Theki
nghadav
eryl
argear
mywhi
chassembl
edwhenneedar
ose.

-However
,thekingmai
ntainedasmal lr
egularf
orceof200to500sol
dier
sto
guardt
hest at
eandmaintainpeaceandorderattheki
ngscour
t.

-Dr
umswerebeat
enandhor
n(hwamanda)wassoundedt
oassembl
eMut
apa
sol
dier
s.

-Nangas[spi
ri
tualhealer
s]wereconsul
tedbyt
hear
mybefor
eitwenttowar
.
Accordi
ngt ooraltradit
iont
heMut apausedmagi
ctoinst
il
ldi
sci
pli
neand
confi
denceinthearmy .

-
thesol
dier
swer
eat
tendedt
obyn`
angaswhocoul
dpsy
chol
ogi
cal
l
ygear
t
hem f
orwar.

-thetroopswerefurt
herdi
videdint
obat t
ali
onsof200to500menorev en
moreandeachbat tal
i
onwasundert hef i
eldcommander
.Thecommanders
i
ncluded:Makot
a,Pase,Machenge,Nyuno,Mafut
uandVasikaMat
ename.

-t
heMut
apausedt
hecowhor
ntact
icf
ormat
iont
oenci
rcl
etheenemy
.

-Thear mycol l
ectedt r
ibute,pr
otect
edthest at
ef rom enemies,conquered
neighbouri
ng st ates, rai
ded other st
ates, punished rebel
l
ious chiefs,
mai nt
ainedlawandor derandherdedthekingscatt
le.

Economi
cor
gani
sat
ionofMut
apa

Tr
ade

-t
radewasoneoft
heeconomi
cact
ivi
ti
esofMut
apast
ate.They pr
act
ised
three types oftrade namel
y :long dist
ance t
rade(
for
eign t
rade)
,shor
t
distance(r
egi
onal
)andbartert
rade(i
nter
nal)
.

-Int
ernall
y,theytr
adedamongstthemselves[bar
tertr
ade],f
orexample,t
hey
could exchangeiron t
oolsforgrai
n orbasketsf orpreci
ousskins.They
exchangedi vor
y,gol
d,ir
ontoolsandv ar
iouswaresfrom acti
vi
ti
essuchas
basketry,
potter
y,woodandstonecar
ving.

-Ext
ernal
ly,theytr
adedwi t
hAr abs,Swahi
l
iandPor
tuguesewhi
chenabl
ed
t
hem tosustaint
heireconomy.

-Theyimport
edproduct
slikecer
ami
cs[
pot
s],j
ewel
l
ery
,kni
ves,cl
oth,cowr
y
shel
ls,
guns,
glassandspi
ri
ts.

-Theyemployedv ashambadziwhowerePortuguesesal
esmen.Thesewer
e
nothonestast heysomet i
mest ooksomeoft hegoodst heytr
adedwit
h
Mutapaorexchangedmor ethant
heyweresupposedto.

-Tr
adegoodsobtainedfrom foreigner
swer eal
sousedinf ur
therdeveloping
andbui
ldi
ngupast rongpol
it
ical powerbase.Mosthi
stor
iansagreethattrade
wasthemajoreconomicacti
vity
.

Howt
radewasor
gani
sed

-tradi
ngcentr
esormarketplacesknownasf eir
aswereest
abl
ished.I
twasat
thesefeir
asthatthecaravansofv ashambadzibroughtcl
oths,beadsand
othertr
adeit
emstobarterwiththel
ocalpeople.

-t
ari
ff
swer
ecol
l
ect
ed f
rom f
orei
gnt
rader
sbef
oreent
ryi
ntot
hef
eir
a.

-for
eigner
spaidt axknownascur vainor dert
oconducttradewi
ththet
he
Mutapaandv i
sit
orscoul
dpresentgift
stotheMunhumutapa.Thetr
ader
swho
vi
sit
edthekingcouldoff
eracow, goatorsomepiecesofcl
oth.

Por
tuguesetradi
ngposts/towns/fei
rasinMutapast
atei
ncl
uded Massapa,
Maramuca/Rimuka,Masekesa,Angoche,Dambar ar
e,Chit
ombor
wizi
,Tete,
Zumbo,Luanze,Chi
coa, Buccuto/
Bukuto,Sena

Cr
opcul
ti
vat
ion

-
Cropcult
ivat
ionwasanot herpil
laroftheMutapaeconomy.Theygr ewcrops
l
ikefi
ngermillet,droughtresist
antbulrushmil
letandvari
eti
esofsor ghum.
Theyal
soculti
v atedrapoko,cott
on,beans,wat
ermelonsandlateronmaize.

-
Mai
zewerehowever
,notpopul
ardur
ingtheseday
ssincetheywer
ebeli
eved
t
ohavebeeni
ntr
oducedbythePort
uguese.Mosthist
ori
ansagr
eethatmost
cropcul
ti
vat
ionwasf
rom Sept
embert
oDecemberbecauset
hesewer
ethe
rai
nmonths.

-favour
abl
ecli
mati
cconditi
onsensur
edsuccessf
ulhar
vest
sandr
esul
tedi
n
theaccumul
ati
onofsur
plusgrai
n.

-TheMut
apapeoplearebeli
evedtohavepr
acti
cedcr oprot
ati
onandthi
s
i
mprov
edt
hei
ryi
elds.Thi
simpli
esthatt
her
ewassuccessful
agri
cul
tur
e.

-theMutapahadroyalf
iel
dswhichwerewor
kedbymenwhower esentf
rom
porovi
nci
alcent
resasaform oft
ri
but
eandal
lthepr
oceedswer
ehandedover
totheMutapa.

-dur
ingtimesoff
ami
ne,
theMut
apadi
str
ibut
edf
oodt
oal
lthepeopl
efr
om
t
hesereserv
es.

-Itshould benot ed t
hatagri
cul
tureand past
oral
i
sm weret heref
oret he
backbonesoft heShonaeconomy .Agr
icul
tur
enotonlyenabl
edt hesubject
peoplestoproduceforthemsel
vesbutfort
hestatei
nordertopayt r
ibut
et o
thei
rrul
ers.

Past
oral
ism

-
Animalrear
ingwasanotherpil
l
aroft heMutapaeconomy.Ani
malr ear
ing
waspromotedbythefactthatpast
ureswereabundanti
nt heDandearea.
Theyrear
edanimal
sli
kecattl
e,goat
sandsheep.Theywer ekeptformeat,
mil
kandfat.

-
Catt
lewer everyimportantintheShonacult
ure.Theywer eused:f ormeat,
f
orpayinglobol
a,asdraughtpower ,
asbaggageani mals,
fort
rade,fortr
ibut
e,
f
ortr
aditi
onalceremonies,tobuyfoodduri
ngfamine,usedasgifts,
usedasa
f
orm ofstori
ngwealt
h,pay i
ngngozi(av
engi
ngspiri
ts).

-TheMut apapeopl
epract
icedt
hetranshumancesy
stem,t
hatis,cat
tl
ewere
grazedontheZambezival
l
eyinwint
erwhent set
sef
li
esweredominantint
he
hi
ghv el
d.

-theki
nghadl ar
geherdsofcattl
ewhichcamethrought
ri
bute,r
aidi
ngand
fi
nes.TheMutapal oaned hi
scattl
eto hi
ssubject
sunderthekuronzera
syst
em.Thekuronzerasyst
em wasusedbytheki
ngasapoli
ti
cali
nstrument
tocont
rol
thesubject
s.

Mi
ning
-MiningwasalsodoneinMut apastate.Theyminedmineral
sl i
kei
ron,gol
d,
copper,si
l
ver
,tinandlead.Goldwasmai nl
yusedforexportingwhil
eother
mineral
sli
kei
ronandcopperwer el
argelyusedf
ormakingtools.

-Mini
ngimprovedt
hepoweroft
hest
atesi
ncei
tbr
oughtt
hingsl
i
keguns
t
hrought
rade.

-Goldi
sbeli
evedtohav
eat
tract
edmanyt r
ader
sbecauseitwaspannedal
ong
theZambeziRi
verwher
emanyforei
gner
smadet hei
rvoy
ages.

-
Copperwasal
sousedf
ormaki
ngj
ewel
l
ery
,fori
nst
ance,
copperbangl
es.

-Mini
ngwashowev er
,aseasonalact
ivi
tydoneof
fther
ainseasonwhen
peopledi
dnothav
emuchwork.

Hunt
ingandgat
her
ing

-Hunti
ngwasoneoft heeconomicacti
vi
ti
esofMut
apa.Theyhunt
edanimals
l
ikeharesandkudusformeat,el
ephant
sfori
vor
yandleopar
dsandcheetahs
fort
hei
rpreci
ousski
ns.

-Hunt
ingt
husaugment
edmeatsuppl
iesandiv
oryaswel
lasski
nsfort
rade.
Thust
heseeconomi
cacti
vi
ti
escompl
ementedeachot
her
.Hunti
ngwasdone
bymen.

-Itisalso bel
i
eved t
hathunt i
ng wasdoneforlei
sureaspeopl
emai
nly
concent
rat
edoncropcult
ivat
ionandli
vest
ockpr
oduct
ion.

-Womengat heredit
emsli
kemushr
ooms,i
nsect
s,wil
dfr
uit
sandedibler
oots,
honeyandt ermit
es.Gat
heri
ngwasimpor
tantasithel
pedinsuppli
menti
ng
thei
rfood.

Tr
ibut
e

-
Tri
but
epay
mentwasal
soaneconomi
cact
ivi
tyofMut
apa.

-Thesubj ectsofthekingpaidtri
butetothekinginfor
m ofcatt
le,goat
s,
sheep,grain,ir
on tool
s,miner
als,sal
t,pr
eciousski
ns,basket
s,potsand
whateveronecouldproduce.

-
Theyalsocoul
dpr
ovi
del
abourf
oragr
icul
tur
e[zunde]andmi
ningasashow
ofl
oyal
ty.

-Theyalsogavehimr egul
arpr
esentsandgi
ftsaswellasproduct
sofhunt
ing
such ast usks[iv
ory
]ofev eryelephantt
heykil
led.Itemssuch asgrain
coll
ectedast r
ibutewereredi
str
ibut
edt ot
hepeoplei nti
mesofcr i
sisl
ike
drought.

-For
eigner
sli
keAr
abs,Swahi
l
iandl
aterPor
tugueset
rader
sal
sopai
dtr
ibut
e
i
nform ofluxur
iousgoodsl
ikecl
oth.Thesefor
eignerspaidtr
ibut
einfor
m of
cur
vaforthem tobeall
owedtotr
adeandal soforprotect
ionwhil
stt
heywere
i
nthestat
e.

-Tri
butewasalsoofpoli
ti
cali
mport
ancebecauset
heycouldidenti
fyl
oyal
anddisl
oyal
subj
ect
s.Fai
l
uretopayt
ri
butewasvi
ewedasasignofdisl
oyal
ty.

I
mpor
tanceoft
ri
but
eint
heMut
apapol
i
ticalsy
stem

-
Itensur
edl
oyal
tyofl
esserchi
efst
otheki
ng.

-
Itensur
edl
esserchi
efswoul
dnotbet
oor
ich,
power
ful
andambi
ti
ous.

-
Thi
shel
pedt
oreducechancesofr
ebel
l
ions.

-
Itenhancedt
heweal
th,
inf
luenceandpoweroft
heki
ng.

Fi
shi
ng

-
Fishi
ngwasdonebyt
hepeopl
eofMut
apa.Theycaughtf
isht
osuppl
ement
t
heirdi
et.

-
Theycaughtf
ishusi
ngi
ronf
ishi
nghooksandbaskett
raps.

Rai
ding

-
Rai
dingwasanothereconomicact
ivi
tyofMutapa.Theyr
aidedot
herst
ates
f
orgr
ain,
cat
tl
e,goats,
sheep,women,boysandgi
rls.

Blacksmithi
ngwasalsodonebythepeopl
eofMut
apa.Theysmeltedir
onto
makedi f
fer
entt
ypesoft ool
sandweaponsli
kehoes,axes,kni
ves,pi
cks,
spears,arr
owsandmattocks.

Pott
erywasanothereconomi
cact
ivi
tyoft
hepeopl
eofMut
apa.Theymade
di
ff
erentt
ypesofpots.
Basket
rywasdone.Theywov
edi
ff
erentt
ypesofbasket
sli
ket
hewi
nnowi
ng
basket
.

QUESTI
ON:
Didt
hepeopl
eofMut
apabenef
itf
rom ext
ernalt
rade?(
8)

Soci
alsy
stem oft
heMut
apa

Thepeopl
eofMut
apast
atel
i
vedaccor
dingt
othei
rli
neages.

-Therul
ingclassl
iv
edi nluxur
ioushomes.Theyworelongr
obesofi
mpor
ted
clot
h,copperandgoldbanglestoshowthei
rhi
ghstat
us.

-
Mutapahadsi mil
arcust
omsast
hoseofGr
eatZi
mbabwe,f
orexampl
e,
l
anguageandcul
tur
e.

-
Therewassexualdi
vi
sionofl
abour
.Womenwereenti
tl
edtocarr
youtall
domest
icdut
ieswher
easmenassumedmascul
i
nedut
iesli
kebl
acksmi
thi
ng,
mini
ngandsoon.

-Therewasspeciali
sat
ionwhichl
edtoemer genceofsoci
alcl
asses[
soci
al
strat
if
icat
ion]whi
chperpet
uat
edexpl
oit
ati
on.

-Ownershi
pofcatt
lewasast at
ussy
mbolandt
hosewi
thmor
ecat
tl
ewer
e
highl
yrespect
edi
nthesoci
ety
.

-menwer epolygamousandt ookpri

dei
nbear
ingmanychi
ldr
en.Pol
i
gamy
wasi mpor
tantbecauseitenabl
espeopl
etobearmorechi
l
drenwhowere
neededtoworki
nf i
eldsandi
nthearmy

-
Theypr
act
icedcat
tl
eloani
ngsy
stem [
kur
onzer
a].

-
Theycel
ebr
atedt
hebi
rt
hofanewchi
l
dandt
hecomi
ngofanewdaught
eri
n
l
aw.

-
Int
imesofdr
oughtandot
herdi
sast
erst
heyassi
stedoneanot
her
.

-
Incestandbest
ial
i
tywer
etaboos.

-
Theypr
acti
cedZunder aMbambo. TheMut
apascapt
ainsandt
hei
rmen
wor
kedi
ntheki
ngsfi
elds.

-theMutapasoci
etywaspat r
il
inealandpartri
archal
.Thechil
drenbel
ongedto
thehusband and theyinheri
ted hissurnameand t otem.To enjoythese
benefi
ts thehusbandhadt opayt hebri
depr i
ceasat okenofappreci
ati
on
thathi
sin-l
awshadraisedagoodwi feforhim.

-
menpai
dlobol
atot
hei
rinl
awsi
nfor
m ofcat
tl
e,l
abour
,beads,goat
s,i
ron
t
ool
set
c

-
Theypract
icedt
henhi
mbesy
stem andhel
pedeachot
heri
nfi
eldst
hrough
t
hissy
stem.

-
Issuesl
i
kepr
ost
it
uti
on,
thef
tandwi
tchcr
aftwer
enotal
l
owed.

-theMut apabel
i
evedi
nGodcal
l
edMwar
iwhom t
heywor
shi
pedt
hrough
ancest
ers.

-t
heypr
act
isedt
her
ain-
maki
ngcer
emony
.

Rel
igi
ousSy
stem

-t
heybel
ievedint
hesacredSupremeBei
ngMwariorMusi
kav
anhuwhom t
hey
pray
edthroughancest
orsrepr
esent
edbyspi
ri
tmedi
ums.

-
theybel
iev
ed i
nfami
l
yspi
ri
tscal
l
ed v
adzi
mu and nat
ionalspi
ri
tscal
l
ed
Mhondor
o.

-
rel
igi
onplay
edanimport
antfunct
ioni
nthepol
iti
csoft
hesoci
etysi
ncet
he
Shonacommonbel
i
effoster
edunit
yandst
abi
li
ty.

-t
heKingwasdescribedassemidi
vi
neandwastheHighpri
estandther
efore
hislegit
imacy was notchal
l
enged as i
twas consi
der
ed to have been
author
isedbyGod.

-
thi
senhancedhi
spowerandpr
est
ige.

-
otherpr
iestwer
einv
olv
edinpol
i
ticalf
unct
ionssuchast
hecr
owni
ngoft
he
Ki
ngandgi v
ingt
heKi
ngadv
ice

-
annualceremonieswer
eacommonf
eat
ureoft
heMut
apar
eli
gione.
gthe
r
ainmakingceremoni
es.

-
tot
hem dr
oughtandf
ami
newer
esi
gnsofangr
yspi
ri
ts

-t
heybeliev
edi nli
feaft
erdeath,avengi
ngspir
it
s,andkut
andabot
soand
consul
tedwitchdoct
orsespeci
all
yaf
terdeat
h.

I
mpor
tanceofr
eli
gioni
nthepol
it
icalsy
stem ofMut
apast
ate

-
Spi
ri
tmedi
umsi
nst
all
edt
heki
ngs.

-
Thi
smadet
heki
ngadi
vi
ner
ulerwhowasf
ear
edandr
espect
ed.

-
Thi
sreducedchancesofr
ebel
l
ionsi
nthest
ate.
 -
Spiri
tmedi
umswer econsul
tedbykingsandchiefsduringti
mesofcr isi
s
such as dr
ought
,war
s and epidemi
cs.The kings also consul
ted spir
it
mediumswhentheywant
edtomakeanymaj ordeci
sionsli
kegoingtowar.

-
Rel
i
gionpl
ayedar
oleofuni
fyi
ngpeopl
e.

-
Rel
i
giouscer
emoni
esandr
it
ual
ssuchasr
ainmaki
ngbr
oughtpeopl
etoget
her
.

-
Thecommonbel
i
efi
nGoduni
fi
edpeopl
e.

Ther
easonsf
ort
hedecl
ineofMut
apast
ate

Ther
ei snogeneralconsensusamonghi stor
iansastowhatexact lyledtothe
demiseofMutapast ate.Thedecl
ineofthisstat
ewasal ongpr ocessandnot
anevent.Asar esul
t,anumberoff act
or shavebeenputf orwardi ntry
ingto
expl
ainthef
allofMut apa.Thesef
actor
swer ebothint
ernalandext ernal
.

I
nter
nalf
act
ors

Weakandi
nexper
iencedl
eader
shi
p

-Weak and inexperienced leadership[ i

ncompetentleader
ship]l
ed toi t
s
decli
ne.Theseincludedki ngsl i
keMav ura,Ruser
e,NyahumaandChi oko.It
weret heweakpol i
ticalsuccessorst oMut ot
aandMat opewhopr ovoked
revol
tsbyvassal,forexampl e,powerfulvassalchi
efsl
ikeChangaandTogwa
rebel
ledagainstthey oungandi nexperi
encedNy ahumaandt ookcontr
olof
theareasunderthem.

-
NyahumawasMatopessonwhor ul
edinthe1480s.Thestat
ehadbecome
t
oovastf
ort
heyoung,
inexper
iencedandi
ncompetentl
eader
.

-Thei
rweaknesses were al
so,manipulat
ed by the Port
uguese t
ot hei
r
advantage.Thusasar esul
tofi
ncompet entl
eadershi
p,vassalst
atesli
ke
MadandaandUt ev
ebrokeawayl
eadi
ngt othedi
sint
egrat
ionofthest
ate.

-
Theirweaknessesal sorender
edt heroy
alfi
reuseless.Therewer erebel
li
ons
fr
om v assalchiefs,forexample,ChangaofGur uuswaandTogwaofMbi re.
Thislaidthebasi sofwhatwast obecomet heRozv iEmpire.Theyrebell
ed
becauset heyfeltindependentenought ost
artt hei
rownki ngdoms.Thusa
l
argepar tofMut apastatehadfall
enawayasar esultofint
ernalfact
ors.

Lackofcommuni
cat
ion

-Theempir
ehadbecometoobigtober uledbyonerul
er.TheMutaparul
eda
vastarea and t
hisr
esul
ted i
nineff
icientadmini
str
ation due t
olack of
communicati
onandfai
lur
etocontr
olt hewholeareahencepr omoti
ngcivi
l
war
s.

Successi
ondi
sput
es

-successi
ondisput
esweakenedt
hest
ate.Thei
nher
it
ancesy
stem useddi
d
notal
way swor
k.

-Thi
sisbecausesometi
mest her
eoccur
redsuccessiondisput
esbet
ween
potent
ial
candi
dat
es,
fori
nst
ance,Mav
uraver
susKaparari
dze.

-ThePortuguesetookadv ant
ageoftheseproblemst oweakent hestat
e
f
urt
her.Somer ul
ersbegant oal
lyt
hemselv
eswithPor t
uguese,forexampl
e,
Mavur
aandRuser ecol
labor
atedwit
hPort
ugueseinordertogainpower.

Ci
vi
lwar
s

-civ
ilwar
slargel
ycausedbysuccessi
ondisput
esledtothedecl
i
neofMut
apa.
Civi
lwarsbrokeoutusual
l
yovertheissueofsuccessi
on(whowast
obecome
therul
er)
.

-
Thesecivi
lwarsweakenedthestat
eandmadei tv
ulnerabl
eto Por
tuguese
i
nter
fer
ence.ThePortuguesetookadv ant
ageofspli
tswithi
nthestat
et o
i
nter
fer
einint
ernal
aff
airsoft
hestate.

-
Theyusedthedi
vi
deandrul
etact
ict
ocont
rolt
hest
ateandt
hisweakened
t
hestat
eleadi
ngt
oit
sdecl
i
ne

Dr
ought
s

-
Socialcatal
yst
slikedroughtscaused the st
atet
o decli
ne.Ther
e were
seri
ousdroughtsint heperi
od1823-1830whent heenti
reZambezivall
ey
seemed to be on the v
erge ofstarv
ati
on.These dr
oughtsled t
of ood
i
nsecuri
ty.

-Thekingf ail
edtofeedthear mywhi chweakenedt hedefensesyst
em and
resul
tedinlackofl
oyalt
ytotheki ng.Droughtsalsol
edtooutwardmigrat
ions
ofpeopleleadi
ngtothedisi
ntegrati
onoft hestat
e.

-Manycatt
leandotheranimal
sdiedduet othesedr
ought
s.Thesedr
ought
s
l
edtothecol
lapseofMutapasagr
icul
tur
aleconomy

Depl
eti
onofnat
uralr
esour
ces

-
Depl
eti
onofnatur
alresour
cesli
kegoldandi v
orywhi
chwereimpor t
ant
i
temsfortr
adel
edtothedemiseofthi
sst
ate.Thi
swasusual
l
yfaci
l
itat
edby
t
heunfai
rtr
adepr
act
ices.
Ext
ernalf
act
orswhi
chl
edt
othedownf
alloft
heMut
apa

Thei
nfl
uenceoft
hePor
tuguese:

-thePort
uguesewhomadeanext r
aeff
ortt
otakeovercont
rolofgoldt
rade
andint
erf
eredwit
hint
ernal
pol
i
ticsl
edt
othedecl
ineof theMutapa.

-thePortuguesemeddledi
ntothepoli
ti
calaf
fai
rsofthestat
eandencour
aged
successi
ondi sput
es.ThePor
tuguesecauseddisuni
tyanderodedt
heMutapa
poli
ti
calsystem.

-atti
mest hePor t
ugueset urnedsomeoft heKingsintot heirpuppetst
hus
underminingt heindependenceoft hestat
e.ThiscanbeseenwhenGat si
Ruserewashel pedbyt hePor t
uguesetoexpeltheMar avipeoplefrom t
he
stat
e.Inreturnhesignedat reatywhichr
esult
edinhimlosingal otofl
andand
goldminest herebycontr
ibuti
ngt othest
eadydecl
ineofthest ate.

-t
hesepeopl
eenslavedt heAfr
icansandf
ormedslavearmi
eswhi chwere
used torai
d many otherShona chi
efst
hus making t
he Por
tuguese t
o
dominat
emanypartsofthestat
e.

-abov
eal lonseveraloccasionsthePor t
uguesesuppl
iedmi
l
itaryweaponsto
manyv assalchi
efstohelprebell
ions.Thesechi
efsbecamev
er yst
ubbornand
endedupr efusi
ngtopayt r
ibute.

At
tacksf
rom t
heRozv
i

-
Theri
seofandatt
acksfr
om theRozv
ist
atewhi
chwasmor
eor
gani
sedand
power
ful
thanMut
apaledtot
hefal
lofMut
apa.

-In1693Domboatt
ackedanddefeat
edMukombwe.Thiswasf
aci
li
tat
edby
thefactt
hatMut
apatroopswereineff
ici
entascompar
edtot
hoseofthe
Rozvi
.

-t
heat
tackweakenedt
heMut
apahencel
eadi
ngt
oit
sdownf
all
.

TheNgunii
ncur
sions

-TheNgunii
ncur
sions[Mfecanemi
grat
ions]i
nthe1830scauseddest
ruct
ion
andchaosi
ntheMut apast
ate.

-TheMutapasl
ikeKandey
aandDzekawereatt
ackedbyt
heNguni.TheNgoni
underNxabaandtheNgwana-
Masekoi
nvadedthest
atef
rom t
heeast.

-Soshanganealsosucceededincarv
ingforhimselfal
argest
ateatt
he
expenseofwhatusedt
obeMut apasMany
ikapr
ovince.
-OtherNgunil
eader
st ookwit
hthem somel
i
vest
ockandsomeMut
apa
subj
ect
sonthewaytothenor
th.

-TheMut apawereal
soinvadedbytheNdebel
eunderMzi
l
ikazii
n1840.Al
l
theseweakenedt
hest
ateleadi
ngtoi
tsdownfal
l
.

Br
it
ishi
mper
ial
ism

-
in1890t
heBr
it
ishsentanul
ti
mat
um tothePor
tugueset
oleav
etheZambezi
v
all
eywhi
chwastobeoccupi
edbytheB.
S.A.
C.

-i
twasthi
sinv
asi
onbyt
heBr
it
isht
hatgav
etheMut
apast
atet
hef
inaldeat
h
blow.

QUESTI
ONS:

Towhatext
entdi
d i
nter
nalf
act
orsl
eadt
othecol
lapseoft
heMut
apa?
(8)

PREPAREDBYT.RUGURI
-KWEKWEHI
GHSCHOOL

BEBLESSED.
.