Section B

The Mutapa State

Origins of the Mutapa State
-Mutapa state was one of the Late Iron Age states. The origin of Mutapa state is debatable. Its
origins is derived from oral tradition, archaeology and written records. It was found around
1400 AD under the leadership of Nyatsimba Mutota.
-According to oral tradition, Mutapa state was the direct successor of Great Zimbabwe. This
implies that Mutapa was an offshoot of Great Zimbabwe. It is suggested that Mutota, the first
king of Mutapa left Great Zimbabwe in search of salt, after a succession dispute. Mutota was
also searching for gold, ivory, pastures, fertile soils and hunting grounds. He went to the
Zambezi valley where he defeated some weak communities who were already settled there.
These included the Tonga, Tavara and Korekore. As a result of his conquests, Mutota was given
the praise name ‘Mwenemutapa’, meaning lord of the conquered lands. Tradition also had it
that because of the fertile soils and abundance of wild animals as well as more salt in the north,
Mutota did not return to Great Zimbabwe and found his own state, which came to be known as
Mutapa. It was named after Mutota’s praise name. He established his capital at
Chitakochangonya Hill.
-The other tradition states that after years of continuous settlement, the area around Great
Zimbabwe and Guruuswa became exhausted and it was becoming increasingly unable to feed
and support growing human and animal population. Hence this led to the movement of some
people to the north.
-Documents written by Portuguese suggest that the Mutapa state existed before the collapse of
Great Zimbabwe and the states were inter-related. This implies that Mutapa was not an
offshoot of Great Zimbabwe.
-Some authorities argue that Mutota originated from Guruuswa and was the son of a Karanga
ruler there. After the death of his father, he left the Guruuswa area under a relative called
Torwa. Mutota went and settled in the north east in the Dande area. He conquered the ethnic
Tavara and Tonga people whose possessions he put under his authority [kutapa] and they
nicknamed him ‘Munhumutapa’.
-Archaeologists however, argue that the direct successor of Great Zimbabwe state was the
Torwa state whose capital was at Khami near Bulawayo. This was evidenced by the type of ruins
and artifacts similar to those of Great Zimbabwe state. However, there is no evidence to
support when the Torwa state existed.
Expansion of Mutapa State
-Through military campaigns, Mutota subdued a number of groups on the Zambezi valley where
he was nicknamed ‘Munhumutapa’, meaning ‘Master pillager’. These groups conquered by
Mutota included the Tonga, Tavara and Korekore tribes of the Dande area of the Zambezi valley.
Mutapa meant he controlled conquered lands. He used a large army to establish a large state.
Nyatsimba Mutota died in 1450 before completing his expansionist policy.
-Nyanhewe Matope, his son inherited the throne and continued the expansionist policy.
Matope was also known as Nebedza Mutavara. He expanded the kingdom eastwards by
conquering independent kingdoms of Barwe, Manyika, Sofala, Uteve, Madanda, Chidima, Sena,
Guruuswa [Butua], Mbire and so on. Matope exercised powers of paramount chief over
Northeast Mashonaland and much of present day Mozambique.
-Conquered tribes like Uteve, Madanda [Sedanda] and Chikanga paid tribute to Mutapa king.
-Matope still desired to control trade routes, ivory, gold and tribute just like his father.
-Matope and Mutota created a very vast empire and had to appoint vassal chiefs to control
provinces.
-Mutapa state had access to more resources like gold, game, ivory, fertile soils and pastures as
the state became too big. This was supported by S I G Mudenge who says the state spread even
as far as Mozambique.
-At its peak, in the East, Mutapa state was bounded by the Indian Ocean, in the West, by the
Kalahari Desert, in the North, by the Zambezi River and in the South, by the Limpopo River.

Reasons for/Factors that led to the rise of Mutapa State

Salt Factor
It has been accounted by oral tradition that Nyakatonje who lived in Dande was a friend
of Prince Mutota. He visited his friend Mutota at Guruuswa taking with him some salt. Oral
tradition says that Mutota went with Nyakatonje to the land of salt. This theory therefore
suggests that the scarcity of salt at Great Zimbabwe and its availability in Mbire caused Mutota
and his followers to migrate to Dande. This theory however falls short when it fails to explain
why Mutota never chose to settle in Gokwe which had more salt deposits, or why he ignored the
richer and more plentiful salt depositions of the Save river valley. Raf-topoulos and Mlambo
(2008) dismiss the salt theory as a paramount reason for the movement of Mutota to the north.
Mashingaidze (1990) have come to a conclusion that the so called ‘salt’ may have indicated a
general shortage in food supplies ,pastures, fuel and other resources that disrupted people’s way
of life.

Cattle factor
It is said that at Great Zimbabwe the population for humans and live stock had grown. In
Dande there were rumours of abundant grazing pastures and fertile alluvial soils suitable
land for agriculture. The Mutapa people being agrarian in nature needed fertile land for
agriculture and grazing land for domestic animals. Cattle theorists asserted that Mutota
and his people moved to Dande mainly for pastures as cattle had a significant economic
and social position to the Shona people. This may explain why the Shona never
considered the dangerous tsetse flies that infested the Zambezi valley. Cattle were valued
as a symbol of wealth as well as ideal for ritual purposes, but cattle alone cannot have led
to the movement of people to the north.
Trade Factor
The opening up of new trade routes in the north suffocated the Save river which was
already silted. International trade in gold had shifted from Great Zimbabwe to the north
where Portuguese brought in relatively cheaper goods as compared to their Arab rivals at
Great Zimbabwe. Trade centers like Sofala, Sena, and Tete became important collecting
centers on the Zambezi. It is suggested by this theory that the availability of items of trade like
gold which was mainly extracted from river banks of Ruya and Mazowe as well as salt and Ivory
attracted the Karanga who originally lived at Great Zimbabwe to the Zambezi valley. Nyatsimba
Mutota is said to have moved to Dande so that he would monopolise both internal and external
trade.

Succession Theory
The rise of Mutapa state is attributed to civil wars caused by succession dispute at Great
Zimbabwe. It claims that a civil war erupted over succession to the ruler ship of the Great
Zimbabwe state between Nyatsimba Mutota and Torwa. This succession theory goes on to assert
that Nyatsimba Mutota was defeated and driven to the Zambezi valley where he established
himself as a new regional paramount. Torwa drifted to the west and established himself at Khami
in present day Matabeleland. It is this theory which asserts that the Torwa and the Mutapa states
are offshoots of Great Zimbabwe.

Expansionist Theory
This theory attributes the expansion and rise of Mutapa State to Mutota’s military genius. His
insatiable ambition to create a bigger state for himself made him move to the north where he
conquered and subjugated the Korekore. Nyatsimba Mutota consolidated his power by taking
advantage of the decentralised nature of northern Tavara and Tonga groups. Mutota is believed
to have placed many tribes under his authority. He forced their chiefs to submit to him and
sometimes appointed his relatives to rule over the conquered area. This theory
explains that after Mutota defeated the Tonga and the Tavara, they gave him a praise
name ‘Mwenemutapa’ which later became a dynasty title for his successors.
Availability if resources in the Dande Valley
This area had red fertile soils and the rainfall was adequate hence there successful agriculture in
the Dande region.
-Availability of minerals in the north, for example, gold led to the rise of Mutapa state. The gold
from Mutapa state received international fame. This increased trade which generated wealth for
the rulers. The area had abundant pastures for the cattle. It should be remembered that pastures
had become exhausted t Greet Zimbabwe. There were abundant forests and hunting grounds for
meat and skins.
Religious factor
Religion also helped both in the rise and expansion of Mutapa state. Mutota and Matope were
regarded as supernatural beings who could communicate with God. They were feared and
respected. They controlled rainmakers of Dzivaguru. They ruled by Devine Right
Mutota militarism

The availability of a strong army led to the rise of Mutapa state. The state had a
strong force which was known a Dare Redondo [Council of war]. The soldiers were treated by
n’angas before war so that they would be brave. The army helped to expand the state through
conquests. For instance, they used the army to conquer the Tonga, Tavara and Korekore
leading to the expansion of the state. During the 15th C the state grew and incorporated much
chiefdom under the rule of Matope.
-Able wise rule by Mutota and Matope led to the rise and expansion of the state. Both
embarked on a deliberate expansionist policy. Their decentralised system of government was
effective. The lesser chiefs of the provinces were relatives of the kings and were loyal to them.
This minimised chances of rebellions.

Internal organization of the Mutapa State

The state survived on the well organized and sound political, social and economic systems.

Socio-religious organisation of Mutapa

-The people of Mutapa state lived according to their lineages.
-The ruling class lived in luxurious homes. They wore long robes of imported cloth, copper and
gold bangles to show their high status.
-Mutapa had similar customs as those of Great Zimbabwe, for example, language and culture.
-There was sexual division of labour. Women were entitled to carry out all domestic duties
whereas men assumed masculine duties like blacksmithing, mining.
-There was specialisation which led to emergence of social classes [social stratification] which
perpetuated exploitation.
-Ownership of cattle was a status symbol.
-They practiced polygamy which was a source of soldiers and labour.
-They practiced cattle loaning system [kuronzera].
-They celebrated the birth of a new child and the coming of a new daughter in law.
-In times of drought and other disasters they assisted one another.
-Incest and bestiality were taboos.
-They practiced ‘Zunde raMbambo’. Barros wrote that the Mutapas’ captains and their men
worked in the king’s fields.
-They paid lobola to their in laws in form of cattle.
-They practiced the nhimbe system.
-Issues like prostitution, theft and witchcraft were not allowed.
-They believed in the existence of a high God [Mwari] whom they communicated with through
ancestors and spirit mediums. They did not worship God directly.
-The believed in family, regional and national spirit mediums.

-They practiced religious ceremonies such as rain making ceremonies and biras where there
was music, dancing and feasting.
-The king was chosen by the spirit mediums and therefore they believed in divine kingship.
-They believed that some spirits lived in large pools, thick forests and mountains.
Political organisation of Mutapa/Methods of control
The king was the head of state and was at the helm of political and economic power.
-Kingship was hereditary.
-The centre of the government was the Mwenemutapa and his court. This court was run by a
team of officials responsible for the various departments. The court officials included the
chancellor, court chamberlain, the military commander, head doorkeeper and chief cook. The
Queen mother, king’s sister and the nine principal wives of the king were also important figures
in the administration of the state.
-The king was appointed by spirit mediums that he consulted in times of crisis. According to A J
Wills, the Mutapa derived most of his political authority from his religious and priestly function
as sole communicator with the ancestral spirits who interceded with Mwari for rains and
disasters facing the nation.
-The king’s life was symbolised by a royal fire, burning at his capital throughout his reign.
Chiefs were forced to collect that fire on yearly basis as a sign of loyalty. So fire symbolised life
and unity. Rebels were easily identified by not collecting the royal fire.
-There was also a system of provincial administration where vassal chiefs were in charge of
provinces. Vassal chiefs were mainly close relatives of kings and trusted loyalists. The most
famous of the vassal chiefs were Changa and Torwa who controlled the two southern
provinces of Guruuswa and Mbire.
-Subjects paid tribute to the king to show loyalty. Vassal chiefs collected and surrendered
tribute to the king. Payment of tribute helped to prevent chiefs from becoming too powerful
and to enhance the wealth of the king. Items collected as tribute were distributed to the people
in times of drought.
-The king was the chief distributer of land. His power depended on his ability to control and
allocate land which he held.
-All foreign traders had to abide by rules of the state and had to pay tax as well as gifts.
-The power of the king rested in the army. He used the army to maintain law and order, protect
the state from intruders and to collect tribute. The army was also used to expand the state and
to herd the king’s cattle.
-The king appointed chiefs, army commander and other government officials.
-The king was the judicial leader, religious leader, commander in chief of the army and
controller of long distance trade.
Military organisation of Mutapa
-The king was the commander in chief of the army.
-The king was assisted by an appointed commander, Nengomasha who was the second most
powerful official in the state.
-There was a council of war [Dare reHondo]. This council ratified war decisions and conscripted
soldiers as well as training them.
-The king had a very large army which assembled when need arose.
-However, the king maintained a small regular force of 200 to 500 soldiers to guard the state
and maintained peace and order at the king’s court.
-Drums were beaten and parapanda was sounded to assemble Mutapa soldiers.
-N’angas were consulted by the army before it went to war. According to oral tradition the
Mutapa used magic to instill discipline and confidence in the army.
-The army collected tribute, protected the state from enemies, conquered neighbouring states,
raided other states, punished rebellious chiefs, maintained law and order and herded the king’s
cattle.
Economic organisation of Mutapa
-Trade was one of the economic activities of Mutapa state. They did both internal and long
distance trade. Internally, they traded amongst themselves, for example, they
could exchange iron tools for grain or baskets for precious skins. Externally, they traded with
Arabs, Swahili and Portuguese which enabled them to sustain their economy. They exchanged
ivory, gold, iron tools and various wares from activities such as basketry, pottery, wood and
stone carving. They imported products like ceramics, jewellery, knives, cloth, cowry
shells, guns, glass and spirits. They employed vashambadzi who were Portuguese salesmen.
These were not honest as they sometimes took some of the goods they traded with Mutapa or
exchanged more than they were supposed to. Trade goods obtained from foreigners were also
used in further developing and building up a strong political power base. Although trade played a
significant role in Mutapa economy, it alone is not satisfactory in explaining the survival of
Mutapa.
-Crop cultivation was another pillar of the Mutapa economy. They grew crops like finger millet,
drought resistant bulrush millet and varieties of sorghum. They also cultivated rapoko, cotton,
beans, water melons and later on maize. Maize were however, not popular during these days
since they were believed to have been introduced by the Portuguese. Most historians agree
that most crop cultivation was from September to December because these were the rain
months. The generally favourable climatic conditions ensured successful harvests and resulted
in the accumulation of surplus grain. Agriculture not only enabled the subject peoples to produce
for themselves but for the state in order to pay tribute to their rulers.
-Animal rearing Animal rearing was promoted by the fact that pastures were abundant in the
Dande area. They reared animals like cattle, goats and sheep. They were kept for meat, milk and
fat. Cattle were very important in the Shona culture. They were used for paying lobola, for trade,
for tribute, for traditional ceremonies. The Mutapa people practiced the transhumance system,
that is, cattle were grazed on the Zambezi valley in winter when tsetse flies were dominant in the
high veld.
-Mining was also done in Mutapa state. They mined minerals like iron, gold, copper, silver, tin
and lead. Gold was mainly used for exporting while other minerals like iron and copper were
largely used for making tools. Mining improved the power of the state since it brought things
like guns through trade. Gold is believed to have attracted many traders because it was panned
along the Zambezi River where many foreigners made their voyages. Copper was also used for
making jewellery, for instance, copper bangles. Mining was however, a seasonal activity done
off the rain season when people did not have much work.
-Hunting was one of the economic activities of Mutapa. They hunted animals like hares and
kudus for meat, elephants and rhinoceros for ivory and leopards and cheetahs for their
precious skins. Hunting thus augmented meat supplies and ivory as well as skins for trade. Thus
these economic activities complemented each other. Hunting was done by men. It is also
believed that hunting was done for leisure as people mainly concentrated of crop cultivation
and livestock production.
-Tribute payment was also an economic activity of Mutapa. The subjects of the king paid
tribute to the king in form of cattle, goats, sheep, grain, iron tools, minerals, salt, precious skins,
baskets, pots and whatever one could produce. They also could provide labour for agriculture
and mining as a show of loyalty. They also gave him regular presents and gifts as well as
products of hunting such as ivory. Items such as grain collected as tribute were redistributed to
the people in times of crisis like drought. Foreigners like Arabs, Swahili and later Portuguese
traders also paid tribute in form of luxurious goods like cloth. These foreigners paid tribute in
form of curva for them to be allowed to trade and also or protection whilst they were in the state.
Tribute was also of political importance because they could identify loyal and disloyal subjects.
Failure to pay tribute was viewed as a sign of disloyalty.
-Fishing was done by the people of Mutapa. They caught fish to supplement their diet. They
caught fish using iron fishing hooks and basket traps.
-Raiding was another economic activity of Mutapa. They raided other states for grain, cattle,
goats, sheep, women, boys and girls.
-Blacksmithing was also done by the people of Mutapa. They smelted iron to make different
types of tools and weapons like hoes, axes, knives, picks, spears, arrows and mattocks.
-Gathering was also done at Mutapa state. They gathered wild fruits, roots, berries, mushroom,
honey, insects and termites. This was very important as it helped in supplementing their food.
-Pottery was another economic activity of the people of Mutapa. They made different types of
pots.
-Basketry was done. They wove different types of baskets like the winnowing basket.

THE PORTUGUESE IN MUTAPA STATE/ MUTAPA-PORTUGUESE ACTIVITIES

Reasons/Aims for Portuguese penetration into the Mutapa state
-They wanted to develop contacts with the Mutapa state especially in trading of gold and ivory.
-They wanted to take control of trade from the Arabs and Swahili.
-They wanted to fulfill the ambitions of the king of Portugal who was imperialistic. The
Portuguese had the financial and military backing of their government.
-They penetrated Mutapa for humanitarian reasons. They believed that Africa was a ‘dark
continent’ which was very backward and which needed to be enlightened. As such, they
wanted to spread Christianity, civilisation and to prepare Africa for Portuguese domination.
-They wanted to control land in the Zambezi valley for agricultural purposes. They wanted to
establish farms [prazos].
-To monopolise and control gold production of the region [Zimbabwe].
-To avenge the death of Goncalo da Silveira.
-To establish trading posts or feiras.
-To control trade routes into the interior.
-To search for the ‘Legendary Prester John’.

Steps/Measure taken by the Portuguese to establish control in Mutapa State/Zambezi

Valley/Political developments in the Mutapa State in 16th and 17th Centuries
From as early as 1505 the Mutapa state was exposed to merchant capitalism.
The Portuguese came into contact with the Mutapa after several attacks and conflicts with
the Swahili traders Vasco da Gama on his way to India attacked the Swahili settlements
in 1498. In 1502 Almedia plundered the coastal settlement of the Swahili Arabs and made
an attempt to take over the Swahili trade with the Africans. Gold and ivory attracted the
Portuguese who visited the interior that the Swahili obtained from the Zambezi area. More
reports about the interior were made by Antonio Fernandes. This fuelled up their
ambition to monopolise and control gold production of the region. They worked out strategies
to take control of this trade and the inevitable strategy was to expel the Swahili traders and
replace them without upsetting their trade relations with the Shona. In order to satisfy the African
demand the Portuguese brought in beads, fabrics, seashells, guns and other items that the Swahili
sold to the Africans. This demonstrates that the initial aim of the Portuguese in the Mutapa was
trade in gold and ivory. They had no intention of meddling in the politics of the region or of
interfering with the land system in any way However, it was difficult for Portuguese to satisfy
these aims as they met stiff resistance from the Swahili who could not be easily pushed out. This
might be used to explain why Portuguese used force to push their way into the interior to take
control of the areas that produced gold and silver.
Barreto Expedition: 1569-73
When Father Gonzalo da Silveira was assassinated, the Portuguese found an excuse to
invade the Mutapa state. Barretto and his group was decimated by malaria and the leader,
Barreto himself, was one of its victims. As a result, the Portuguese venture was a failure.
Reasons for this failure can be explained in terms of both internal and external factors. The
Barreto expedition suffered from Malaria which by that time had no cure. Several soldiers died.
Their horses died of nagana caused by tsetseflies. To make matters worse, the Portuguese did not
know the area where they wanted to attack and were not used to mountainous terrain of
the Mutapa state. The ambition to attack, the Mutapa state was too demanding on a poor
country like Portugal, especially when one considers that Portugal wanted to exploit
resources of India, develop Congo, and exploit the resources of Mutapa and at the same time
control Brazil. After the death of Barreto, Vasco Homen decided to invade Manyika to try and
control mines
Although the invasion of Mutapa was not a success, its effects should never be underestimated.
The invasion was purely imperialist. They pushed their way into the interior and established
trading centers Sena, Tete and Zumbo which became major trade centers under the Portuguese
control.
Portuguese interference in Mutapa
-Initially relations with the Mutapa were of tributary nature, with the Portuguese paying tribute
called curva as a sign of loyalty. This was in form of cloth, beads and ceramics. On the other
hand the Mutapa facilitated trade in gold and ivory and granted freedom of passage.
-The period from 1607 to 1620s saw a lot of political confusion or turmoil in the state.
-Gatsi Rusere sought and solicited the support of the Portuguese by signing a treaty of military
assistance with the Portuguese. In the treaty, Gatsi Rusere agreed to give all his gold, copper,
tin, lead and iron to the Portuguese. He was also forced to give his child and his heir to the
Portuguese who turned to bring him up as a Christian so that he would be loyal to Portuguese
when he had come to Mutapa. This son was sent to Goa, India where he became a Catholic
Priest and he never returned to Africa. However, the people of Mutapa refused to reveal where
the mines were and this soured relations.
-In 1624, Gatsi Rusere died and his death was followed by a civil war between his sons. Rusere
was succeeded by his son Nyambo Kapararidze in 1627. He was however challenged
immediately by Mavura Mhande. According to D N Beach, Kapararidze was indeed the rightful
successor. He after taking over introduced several reforms. Old councilors of his father were
replaced by new, young and energetic advisors. These advisors advised him to kill all
Portuguese in the state. They realised that they would take away their independence.
According to S I G Mudenge, Kapararidze proceeded and killed Portuguese officials like Bairos
because he had not paid his curva in time. He went on to declare a ‘mupeto’ against all
Portuguese in the Empire. This was seizure of their items. This naturally created direct
confrontation with the Portuguese. The Portuguese mobilised their resources towards
removing Kapararidze from the throne hence their sponsorship of Mavura into power.
-In 1629, Mavura Mhande got the support of the Portuguese to overthrow Nyambo
Kapararidze. Kapararidze was killed by the Portuguese who installed Mavura. Following
his installation, Mavura signed a treaty of vassalage with the Portuguese [1629]. The state was
nearly destroyed by Mavura’s agreement with the Portuguese, which was a very damaging treaty.
By this treaty Mavura agreed that he had received his throne in the name of the king of Portugal
whose sovereignty he now acknowledged. Mutapa was made a vassal of the king of Portugal.
Mavura also agreed to cede all his silver and gold mines to the Portuguese.
He agreed to allow complete freedom of passage throughout his empire to all Portuguese traders.
Mavura agreed to allow Dominican missionaries to preach in the empire freely. Mavura was to
stop the curva system and instead he was to pay tribute to the Portuguese. He was also to show
great respect to the Captain of the gates who was to stay at the king’s palace and not at Masapa
where he was headquartered. The king was to consult the Captain of the gates in
matters or war and peace.
-The Vice Roy [leader of the Portuguese] was happy with this treaty and sent Mavura some gifts
in form of clothes, a chair with a high back, a Portuguese sword, a cap and a hat. The king was
initiated in a Portuguese taste. The significance of the treaty was that between 1629 and 1633
the Portuguese manipulated Shona dynastic division to effectively gain control of the Mutapa
state. They adopted the divide and rule tactic. The treaty marked the first European attempt to
colonise African territories in this region.
-Mavura and his wife were subsequently baptised into the Roman Catholic Church and their
names were changed to Domingos and Luiza respectively. The Portuguese fought the Shona,
took away their cattle and often enslaved them and Mavura took no action.
-The Portuguese armies spread throughout the country and interfered with local politics. The
Portuguese suddenly became controllers on land and they created chaos and anarchy,
individualism and the Portuguese adventurers established prazos. Their influence reached as far
as Butua.
The Prazo System
-The Portuguese introduced the prazo system in Mutapa. Prazos were very large farms owned
largely by Portuguese traders in Mutapa state. This was in the Zambezi valley especially in the
Western part of Zambezi River from Tete. In terms of location Prazos were found on both sides
of Zambezi River. These were owned by private individuals, government officials, traders and
religious leaders.
-The prazo system comprised of the prazero [owner], the peasants [colono] and the achikunda
[prazero’s army].
-The prazero used African chiefs and their subjects as labourers and the chiefs were given
power voluntarily to recruit labourers. The production relations of the prazo system resembled
those of the feudal system where there were landlords and tenants. This implies that the prazo
system was similar to the feudal system in Europe. The prazo had an army [chikunda]. The
people who were found in this army were local Shona.
-The chiefs paid tribute to the prazero in form of agricultural products, locally woven
cloth, cattle, ivory, gold dust and tobacco.
-The prazero became the defacto chief. He even adopted African practices like religion and
marrying many wives. He therefore tried to legitimise his position by creating a false
acceptance picture.
-The prazero served largely as middlemen in long distance trade with the Indian Ocean. Many
exports from prazeros were ivory, gold and slaves.
-The internal organisation of the prazos did not have a purely African picture. According to
Isaacman, if anything there was a deAfricanisation due to the introduction of the prazo system.
-The prazeros were very powerful and were responsible for deciding on all judicial cases, all
disputes and they virtually became chiefs themselves.
-The prazero received tribute in form of ivory and the choicest part of other animals which died
in his lands were brought to him. Initially it were the Portuguese who paid tribute [curva] to the
king but later on this was reversed.
-The prazeros were largely sustained by slave labour and within this slave labour were
hierarchies [1] Chuanga were eyes and ears of the prazero who were appointed due to their
loyalty. They collected taxes and ivory from traditional rulers. They were responsible for state
security. [2] Next were chikundas who were responsible for enforcement of law and order.
They dealt with any act of rebellion. [3] Below achikunda were Muavi [peasants]. They were
obtained through various ways which included selling children to the Portuguese and Arab
traders. Some were pawned during the time of famine. Some were acquired through enslaving
criminals and war criminals.
-The Portuguese government empowered the prazo holders to grab more land. The impact of
this was the general reduction of Mutapa territory and depopulation because most of the
Mutapa people were used as slaves in the acquired farms and some were married to
them. Africans were used as cheap labour and this increased dependence syndrome on
Portuguese. This implies that more Africans were absorbed resulting in cultural diffusion. This
greatly affected the social life of Africans.
-The estate holders [prazeros] spoke African languages more than Portuguese. They believed in
witchcraft and performed functions of African chiefs. This suggests that the Portuguese were
gradually assimilated into local African culture possibly by virtue of their numbers.
-The Portuguese introduced new crops like maize, groundnuts, cow peas, melons, sweet
potatoes and paw paws.
-Some Africans who lived in the Portuguese prazos were sold to the East African slave trade.
-Prazeros lived luxurious lives and co-habited with African women resulting in the coloured
population [mulattos].
-The prazeros controlled trade through the use of professional traders known a vashambadzi.
-There were instances and cases of many deaths and casualties in the Portuguese farms where
African labour was used.
-The Portuguese surrounded themselves with advisors, including religious leaders who helped
them in such ceremonies as rain making.
Effects/ Impact of Portuguese activities in Mutapa state
The effects of the Portuguese in Mutapa were both positive [constructive] and negative
[destructive].
Constructive /Positive effects
-The Portuguese brought new and improved farming methods, which in turn improved food
production, for instance, the introduction of prazos and crop rotation.
-The Portuguese introduced new crops such as maize, potatoes and fruits like bananas. This
helped to improve the diet of the people of Mutapa.
-The Portuguese also led to the advent of guns which could improve national defense system.
Guns were later used for defense purposes against invading forces.
-The Mutapa got foreign goods from Portuguese through trade. These included beads and
clothes as well as guns.
-Modern civilisation was introduced, for example, clothing.
-There was an improvement in communication, for example, roads were constructed.
-The spread of Christianity by the Portuguese reduced barbarism and paganism.
-New mining methods were introduced.
Destructive / Negative effects (Portuguese contribution towards the decline of the Mutapa
State)
-The Portuguese interfered in Mutapa political affairs. This was seen in taking sides in
succession disputes leading to the advent of puppet kings like Mavura and Gatsi Rusere.
-There were unfair trade practices like the credit system where Africans could get Portuguese
products even if they did not have the gold and ivory at that time. They would pay the gold and
ivory by a given date. Failure to pay resulted in confiscation of cattle or enslavement of
Africans. All this happened while the king enjoyed the benefits of bribery. Thus the Portuguese
caused untold suffering and chaos in Mutapa state.
-There was unfair and unbalanced exchange system. Africans were getting worthless products
such as spirits, beads and cloth in exchange for gold and ivory.
-Trade with Portuguese led to depletion of natural resources like gold and ivory which
eventually led to the demise of Mutapa state. A vast amount of gold and ivory was taken away.
-As more and more Portuguese came into Mutapa state and grabbed more prazos, they began
forcing the Africans to work for them on these plantations.
-The Portuguese formed private armies and became wild and lawless.
-There was spreading of diseases to Africans by the Portuguese. African women were raped by
Portuguese and this caused chaos in the state. As a result children of mixed races were born
whom they called mulattos. The mulattos were also due to intermarriage between Portuguese
men and African women.
-African culture was destroyed and there was loss of tribal identity.
-African chiefs and kings lost their powers to the prazeros and were forced to supply slave
labour and were also forced to pay tribute.
-Christianity brought division among Africans. Some were converted into Christians whilst
others refused and remained with their religion. As such these two groups with different
religions could not co-exist.
-Africans lost their land to the Portuguese due to the introduction of the prazo system.
-Portuguese brought social ills such as prostitution which were unheard of before they come.
-Africans lost control of trade to the Portuguese. Captain of the gates had been appointed in
1514 to regulate trade between the Mutapa and the Portuguese. By 1629, the Captain of the
gates was more powerful than the Mutapa king. This weakened the state significantly.

The reasons for the decline of Mutapa state

A plethora of factors have been put forward in trying to explain the fall of Mutapa. These factors
were both internal and external.
Internal factors for its decline
-Weak and inexperienced leadership [incompetent leadership] led to its decline. These
included kings like Mavura, Rusere, Nyahuma and Chioko. The weak political successors
to Mutota and Matope provoked revolts by vassal, for example, powerful vassal chiefs like
Changa and Togwa rebelled against the young and inexperienced Nyahuma and took control of
the areas under them. Nyahuma was Matope’s son who ruled in the 1480s. Their weaknesses
were also, manipulated by the Portuguese to their advantage. Thus as a result of incompetent
leadership, vassal states like Madanda and Uteve broke away leading to the disintegration of
the state. Their weaknesses also rendered the royal fire useless.
-There were rebellions from vassal chiefs, for example, Changa of Guruuswa and Togwa of
Mbire. This laid the basis of what was to become the Rozvi Empire. They rebelled because they
felt independent enough to start their own kingdoms. Thus a large part of Mutapa state had
fallen away as a result of internal factors.
-The empire had become too big to be ruled by one ruler. The Mutapa ruled a vast area and
this resulted in inefficient administration due to lack of communication and failure to control
the whole area hence promoting civil wars.
-Succession disputes weakened the state. The inheritance system used did not always work.
This is because sometimes there were succession disputes between potential candidates,
for instance, Mavura versus Kapararidze. The Portuguese took advantage of these problems to
weaken the state further. Some rulers began to ally themselves with Portuguese, for example,
Mavura and Rusere collaborated with Portuguese in order to gain power.
-Civil wars caused by succession disputes also led to the decline of Mutapa. These civil wars
weakened the state and made it vulnerable to colonisation by the Portuguese. The Portuguese
took advantage of splits within the state to colonise it. They used the divide and rule tactic to
control the state.
-Droughts caused the state to decline. There were serious droughts in the
period 1823-1830 when the entire Zambezi valley seemed to be on the verge of starvation.
These droughts led to food insecurity. The king failed to feed the army which weakened the
defense system and resulted in lack of loyalty to the king. Droughts also led to outward
migrations of people leading to the disintegration of the state. Droughts also resulted in
disunity in the state. Many cattle and other animals died due to these droughts. These droughts
led to the collapse of Mutapa’s agricultural economy
-Depletion of natural resources like gold and ivory which were important items for trade led to
the demise of this state. This was usually facilitated by the unfair trade practices. Thus a
significant population migrated.
-Secession/Breaking away by Manyika, Uteve and Danda provinces left the authority of the
Mutapa confined to Dande, Chidima and Zambezi valley. One can therefore argue that Mutapa
had lost a large part of its territory during the 15th C. The Mutapa state they came into contact
with the Portuguese was very much a reduced and weak state. The Portuguese therefore were
only responsible for the fall of the remnant Mutapa state. A large part of Mutapa had fallen away
as a result of internal factors. Thus the Portuguese arrival in the 16th C took place at a time of
general decline of the Mutapa state.
External reasons
-The Portuguese interference and the prazo system in Mutapa led to its decline. (See notes on
the negative/destructive effects of the Prazo system)
-The Maravi [Zimba] invasions also led to the decline of Mutapa. They were apparently Bantu
speaking invaders, who dwelt in the Zambezi region and managed to expand their influence to
a large part of Makualand by about 1590. There is however, no direct documentary evidence
providing information on their motivation for invading northern Zambezia.
-There were attacks from the Rozvi which was more organised and powerful than Mutapa. The
Changamire campaigns led to the demise of Mutapa and its relegation in the Zambezi. Others
think that Changamire had precipitated the fall of Mutapa but one must realise that the process
of its downfall was already set in by Portuguese influence in the state. In 1693 Changamire
Dombo attacked and defeated Mukombwe. This was facilitated by the fact that the Mutapa
troops were inefficient as compared to the Rozvi.
-The Nguni incursions in the 1830s caused destruction and chaos in Mutapa state. The Mutapas
like Kadeya and Dzeka were attacked by the Ngoni. In addition, the Ngoni under Nxaba and the
Maseko-Ngoni invaded the state from the east. The Vanyai were too weak to defend Mutapa
state. Soshangane also succeeded in carving for himself a large state at the expense if what
used to be Mutapa’s Manyika province. Other Nguni leaders took with them livestock and some
Mutapa subjects on their way to the north. The Mutapa were also invaded by the Ndebele
under Mzilikazi in 1840. This greatly weakened the state.
-The colonisation of Mutapa by the British in 1890 led to its final downfall.

EXAMINATION QUESTIONS
(1) Trace the origin and expansion of the Mutapa state.
(2) Discuss the political developments in the Mutapa state during the 16 th
and 17th centuries.
Why did the state nearly collapse in the 17th Century?
(3) Assess the impact of Portuguese activities in the Mutapa state from the
middle of the 16th
century to 1890.
4) Describe the origins of the Mutapa state.
5) Account for the internal organisation of the Mutapa state.
6) What contributed more to the fall of the Mutapa state: internal or external
factors?
7) “Agriculture was more important than foreign trade to the economy of the
Mutapa state”.
Do you agree?
8) “Portuguese records provide the basis of our understanding of the Mutapa
Empire”.
How valid is this assertion?
9) “The advent of the Portuguese in the Mutapa State speeded up the
process of decay which was already underway.”How justifiable is this verdict
on the decline of the Mutapa State? 10) Assess
the impact of the Mavura-Portuguese treaty of 1629 on the Mutapa State
history?
11) “The Portuguese were a catalyst to the demise of the Mutapa state in the
19th century” Discuss.
12) To what extent had the Portuguese goals in the Mutapa State been
realised by 1693? 13) How accurate is it to describe the
prazo system as the Africanisation of a European institution?
14) Discuss the nature and effects of relations between the Portuguese and
the Mutapa state during the 16th and 17th centuries.
15) To what extent did the Mutapa State depend on trade for its survival?

THE TORWA STATE

Sources of information on the Torwa/Khami culture
The Portuguese records provide part of the information on the Torwa State.
Information on the Torwa or Khami State is from archaeology and architecture (design or
style of buildings).
Oral tradition and documents state that the most significant cultural development in the west at
Torwa took place as Great Zimbabwe was declining

The culture that emerged in the west at the time of Zimbabwe’s fall was in every way the

Origins:
- The Torwa state was successor to the Great Zimbabwe State. Some of the people who moved
west of Great Zimbabwe founded a new State in the land called Butwa (Butua). Butwa is in the
South- Western part of Zimbabwe and parts of Botswana across the Shashe River.
-When the Great Zimbabwe state ceased to be a major centre, the focal point of its culture shifted
to the west. It is also possible that a western provincial leader established his independence and
became the focus of new development.
-The name Torwa (which means “strangers”) was given to the rulers of this new state by eastern
Shona as stated in Portuguese documents.
-The capital was a stone- walled town of Khami. Khami was smaller than Great Zimbabwe. So,
like the Mutapa State, the Torwa State grew when the Great Zimbabwe state lost its power.
-The ruling classes of the Torwa grew even stronger. The Torwa State was wealthy enough to
build many stone walls all over the south- west.
- The builders at Khami used masonry skills developed at Great Zimbabwe. However, they did
not build high, bare, stone walls like the walls at Great Zimbabwe and Chomunanga. The houses
of the ruling class were built on small hills. The builders enlarged these hills with stones and
earth, to make wide platforms in place. The masons made all sorts of patterns in the walls, for
example, chevrons, herring bones, checker work and lines of colored stones – a new type of
architecture.
Houses surrounded by courtyards were built, separated by walls made of pole and dagga (not
stone like Great Zimbabwe).
-Like the Great Zimbabwe and Mutapa States, the Torwa State shows the power and ability of
the rulers who organized or managed the labourers and crafts people who built the beautiful
stone walls.
-Unlike the Great Zimbabwe and Mutapa walls which show great labour, rather than great skill,
in the size and number of stone blocks piled up, the Torwa walls are often smaller, but show
greater skill in the shaping and decoration of stone blocks and in the way that they were piled
up.

Factors that led to the rise of the Torwa State

1. Cattle factor
It is said that at Great Zimbabwe the population for humans and live stock had grown. In
the South west there were abundant grazing pastures and fertile alluvial soils suitable
for agriculture. The Torwa people being agrarian in nature needed fertile land for
agriculture and grazing land for domestic animals. Cattle theorists asserted that the Torwa moved
to the south west mainly for pastures as cattle had a significant economic and social position to
the Shona people.. Cattle were valued as a symbol of wealth as well as ideal for ritual purposes.
However cattle alone could not have led to the movement of people to the south west. Thus other
factors also led to the rise of the state.
2. International Trade Factor
It is suggested by this theory that the availability of items of trade like gold which was mainly
extracted from river banks, as well as salt and Ivory attracted the Karanga who originally lived at
Great Zimbabwe to the South west. The Torwa are said to have moved to monopolise both
internal and external trade.
3. Religious factor
Religion also helped both in the rise and expansion of Torwa state. The Torwa were regarded as
supernatural beings who could communicate with God. They were feared and respected. They
controlled rainmakers. They ruled by Devine Right hence they commanded vrespect.
4. Availability of resources in the south west
This area had red fertile soils and the rainfall was adequate hence there successful agriculture.
-Availability of minerals, for example, gold led to the rise of the Torwa state. The gold
from the state received international fame. This increased trade which generated wealth for the
rulers. The area had abundant pastures for the cattle. It should be remembered that pastures had
become exhausted t Greet Zimbabwe. There were abundant forests and hunting grounds for meat
and skins, which attracted more people.
5. Civil Wars at Great Zimbabwe
The rise of Torwa state is attributed to civil wars caused by succession dispute at Great
Zimbabwe. A civil war erupted over succession to the ruler ship of the Great Zimbabwe state
between Nyatsimba Mutota and Torwa. This succession theory goes on to assert that Nyatsimba
Mutota was defeated and driven to the Zambezi valley where he established himself as a new
regional paramount. Torwa drifted to the west and established himself at Khami in present day
Matabeleland. It is this theory which asserts that the Torwa and the Mutapa states are offshoots
of Great Zimbabwe.
6. Militarism
The availability of a strong army led to the rise of the Torwa state. The state had a
strong force which raide local neighbours for wealth and youth to increase their population. The
soldiers were treated by n’angas before war so that they would be brave. The army helped to
expand the state through conquests. Their decentralised system of government was
effective. The lesser chiefs of the provinces were relatives of the kings and were loyal to them.
This minimised chances of rebellions.

Economic Organisation of the Torwa State

-International trade was done. Archaeologists dug out pieces of Chinese, Persian and
Portuguese pottery. There was some trade with Portuguese at Sena on the Zambezi. The
Portuguese did not necessarily travel to the Torwa. The Mwenyi (Arab Muslims) from the east
African coast brought goods to trade with the Torwa rulers. They wanted gold and ivory
-They practiced pastoralism. The Torwa State was known for its large herds of cattle and for
its many gold mines. Like the Mutapa and Great Zimbabwe States, as well as all other Later Iron
Age States of Southern Africa, the Torwa State was organized on the cattle loaning system
sometimes called cattle feudalism. The Politics and the laws of the state were seen in terms of
cattle keeping and exchange. Rulers “owned” and “lent” cattle. Husbands gave cattle to their
wives’ families in order to “own” the children born to the wives. People traded or raided for
cattle, and regarded cattle as wealth.
-Gold mining was a source of wealth important for foreign trade. Other minerals were mined for
tool making.
-Hunting was done to obtain ivory for trade, skins and meat.
-like Great Zimbabwe and Mutapa states, the Torwa also practiced crop cultivation, local trade
and crafts
Political Organisation of the Torwa
-The Torwa ruler lived in great privacy, on the hilltop. The ruler’s court at Khami was
surrounded by nine smaller zimbabwes (stone walls) which were the homes of other members of
the ruling class ..
The ruling class lived apart from the ordinary people. Archaeologists uncovered great
indicators of the wealth of the ruler, for example, part of the royal regalia found in the
ruler’s secret room included copper spears, iron spears, iron axes, one with a wooden handle,
covered in beaten copper sheets, small ivory carvings of lions and leopards from the tops of
ceremonial staffs, drinking pots decorated with traditional red and black patterns.
-State Officials assisted the King. Like the Great Zimbabwe and Mutapa States, the following
state officials must be noted:
i) Elders
ii) Priests (religions leaders) for example spirit mediums.
iii) Soldiers- military commander
iv) Masons
v) Traditional historians
-The army defended the state, raided, collected tribute, guarded trade routes and defended the
king. –Subjects paid tribute to show their loyalty.

The Decline of the Torwa State

- Torwa suffered from its own succession disputes. The ruling class disagreed about who should
be ruler. This resulted in a civil war which weakened the state.
-Torwa was affected by Mwenyi traders within the state who were becoming too powerful. The y
interfered in the politics of the state thus causing divisions which made the state vulnerable.
- Portuguese interference also contributed. In 1644 a defeated Torwa ruler asked a Portuguese
prazero, Sisimundo Sias Bayao, to help him regain his power. Bayao invaded Torwa with his
army but was driven out. This weakened the state.
It is when these disputes were going on that the capital at Khami was probably destroyed by
fire, resulting in the loss of royal regalia. It is believed that in this regalia lay the authority of the
King
- Relocation of the Torwa capital also weakened the state. The capital was moved to
Danangombe where a new Zimbabwe was built, smaller than Khami. The Stone work was even
more richly decorated. The relocation of the capital possibly led to loss of control of the lands
west of the Mbembesi River.
-Invasion by the Rozvi from the North East destroyed the Torwa. The Changamire dynasty
came in from the north-east to conquer it. The new dynasty settled down among the former
inhabitants. Intermarriage with the Torwa families of Chiwundura and Tumbare and with the
Kalanga of Ndumba followed. Intermarriages assisted in the conquest.
The Chiwundura, Tumbare and Ndumba families continued to play a important part in the
running of the Changamire State, and like the rest of the people of the Torwa state they
adopted the name of “Rozvi”. Thus some people who called themselves Rozvi were in fact
descendants of the people of the Torwa State.

Examination type questions

1) Discuss the factors that led to the establishment of the Torwa State.
2) Compare the civilizations of the Great Zimbabwe, Mutapa and Torwa empires
3) To what extent were cattle important in the Torwa communities?
4) Assess the role of archeological evidence in the reconstruction of Torwa History.
5) Account for the rise of the Torwa state.
6) Explain the reasons for the survival and eventual collapse of the Torwa state.