CHAPTER II

LITERATURE REVIEW

A.Speech Delay

Language is a form of rule or symbol system used by children in communicating

and adapting to their environment to exchange ideas, thoughts and emotions. Language

can be expressed through speech refers to verbal symbols. Humans can see that the

ability to speak (communicative competence) one child with another child is different.

There is a child whose speech development faster and some are experiencing delays.

When can a child produce sounds or sounds that are appropriate for their age level, then

the child is said to be have good speaking skills, on the contrary if there is a disturbance

in this phase related to difficulties in the production of sounds or sounds specific to

speech or the presence of disturbances in voice quality or impaired articulation. Barrier is

a difficulty or obstacle someone to achieve a goal (Chaplin, 2006: 52). On duty

development of children, barriers can be interpreted as a difficulty or barriers for children

to achieve developmental tasks. Judging from the psychology of child development,

Hurlock (2003) defines if the child is late to speak, when the child is at a speech

development that is is below the speech ability of children his age, this can be seen from

the articulation and accuracy of word usage.

Whereas in Papalia (2004: 252-253) explains that children who speak late are

children who at the age of 2 years have a tendency to mispronounce words, then have a

bad vocabulary at the age of 3 years, or also have difficulty in naming objects at the age

of 5 years. Such a child, later has a tendency to be incapable in terms of reading. stated

by many experts. Hockenberry & Wilson (2009) explained that Speech disorders have
 many forms and causes. Forms of speech problems The highest and most common is

speech delay. So that when the child has shows signs of speech delay, then parents need

to be alert to immediately carry out more complete detection and examination so that the

child's development remains appropriate with the age of growth and development

(Campbell, et al, 2003).

Based on the opinions that have been presented above, it can be concluded that

the definition of a child who experiences late speech is a child whose level of quality of

speech development is not the same as that of a child of his age so that it will hinder

children who speak late to potentially have difficulty in reading.

B. How to Produce Talk

Scovel (2009: 26–49) mentions four ways to understand the process of producing talks

to obtain information, namely:

1)Conceptualization

According to the concept of David McNeill that is an American Psycholinguist, that

producing speech itself is of two kinds. That is by syntactic thinking or by learning verbatim

first, or by imagistic thinking, that is, by describing what the conveyer of information

intends.

"The American psycholinguist David McNeill, however, has gone on record with an
interesting mentalistic account of how speech is first conceptualized in the human mind.
His theory is that primitive linguistic concepts are performed as two concurrent all
parallel modes of thought. These are syntactic thinking, which spawns the sequence of
words which we tipically think of when we talk about how language is initiated, and
imagistic thinking, which creates a more holistic and visual mode of communication".

This conceptualization cannot be applied to all types of information delivery. Or in other

words, informants and recipients of information must meet in person. This is due to the

limited way of conveying information.

2)Formulation

Hmoorings-obstacles in formulating the information we receive, which can ultimately

obscure or can blame the meaning we receive from informants. "The second stage of speech

production, formulation, we move close enough to the eventual output of the process to

allow us to be more precise in our terminology and more convincing in our use of empirical

data". Those obstacles can come from:

a)Speech errors. The complication here, occurs either directly or unconsciously by the

newsman. Here, we also indirectly formulate that understanding would be erroneous.

b)Speed of speech. The slow pace of talking between one person and another is not the same.

Some can control his speech speed, some can't. People who are too slow in speaking will

more or less have an effect in the process of exchanging information. Especially in people

who have a habit of speaking too fast. This will greatly confuse the recipient of the

information in understanding what the informant wants

c)Articulation

Articulation is likened to a printer that prints letter by letter, verbatim that the computer

commands. This articulation is a person's way of speaking in spelling his letter by letter.

If a person in his letter-by-letter pronunciation alone is already unclear, then the

information will be unclear, since the meaning of the letter itself is blurred.

d)Self-monitoring

Self-monitoring here is an individual's way of correcting the conversations he or she

practices with others himself or herself. So, here the individual already knows which

word is wrong and does not fit its placement, and after that he corrects his own false

words just now.

C.Speaking Learning Patterns

In Hurlock (1978: 184-187), explains that the pattern of learning to speak for all

children is generally the same. Despite this, the pace of development is different. From

various studies of the development of motor and speech control it has been revealed that the

pattern of speech development is almost in line with the pattern of motor development, also

very much in line with the pattern of mental development. The reason is that speech depends

on mental and motor development.

In speech development, the pattern is an impulse followed by a horizontal period or

plateaus that is when there is no real improvement. At any time of a newly formed motor

action, there is a temporary underlying period in the pattern of speech development. For

example, between the ages of 9 and 18 months, the urge to walk seems stronger than the

urge to speak. After the walk becomes automatic, the baby's attention is directed to

speaking, and here the child learns to speak quickly. From 18 months of age to 4 or 5 years,

children master the ability to speak, but they must learn more before they reach adult

language skills

Despite the fact that children learn to speak in foreseeable patterns, there are individual

differences in the rate of following such patterns, namely in the measure of vocabulary

quality and in the correctness of their pronunciation and grammatical structure of

speech.There are a number of conditions that drive the aforementioned diversity, which are

as follows:

1)Health
 A healthy child, faster to learn to speak than an unhealthy child, because his motivation

is stronger to become a member of a social group and communicate with members of

the group.

2)Ingenuityn

Children who have high intelligence, learn to speak will be faster and show superior

language mastery than children with low intelligence levels.

3) Socioeconomic Circumstances

The child of a group whose socioeconomic state is high is easier to learn to speak,

express himself better, and talk more than the child of a group whose socioeconomic

state is lower. The main cause is that the child is encouraged a lot to talk and more

guided in doing so.

4)Gender

Compared with girls, boys are lagging behind in learning to speak. At each age level,

boys' sentences are shorter and less grammatically correct, vocabulary is spoken less,

and pronunciations are less precise than girls'.

5)Desire to Communicate

The stronger the desire to communicate with others, the stronger the child's motivation

to learn to speak, and the more willing to set aside the time and effort necessary to learn.

6)Encouragement

The more children are encouraged to talk by inviting them to talk and are encouraged to

respond to them, the earlier they learn to speak and the better the quality of speech.
7)Family Size

An only child or a child from a small family usually speaks earlier and better than a

child from a large family because parents can set aside more time to invite their child to

talk.

8)Order of Birth

In the same family, the first child is superior to the child born later. This is because

parents can set aside more time to teach and encourage the child born first to learn to

speak than the child born later.

9)Children's Training Methods

Children who are trained authoritarianly who emphasize that "the child must be seen

and not heard" is a learning barrier, while training that provides flexibility and

democracy will encourage the child to learn.

10)Twins

Twin-born children are generally late in their speech development mainly because they

get along more with their twins and only understand the specific accent they have. This

weakens their motivation to learn to speak so that others can understand them.

11)Relationships with peers

The more relationships the child has with his peers and the greater their desire to be

accepted as members of his peer group, the stronger will be their motivation to learn to

speak
 12)Personality

Children who can adjust well tend to have better speech skills quantitatively and

qualitatively than children whose self-adjustment is poor. In fact, speech is often seen as

one of the clues of a mentally healthy child.

D.Factors Causing Speech Delay

Identification of the cause of speech delay needs to be done to determine efforts

appropriate management and efforts to promote children's speech skills. Condition can good

or bad is also determined from knowing the cause of the problem. the occurrence of speech

delays, among others, according to the findings, is the absence of good model for children to

imitate, lack of motivation of children as well as, opportunities that are not adequate to

speak (Anggraini, 2011). Different opinion by Papalia (2004) which focuses on genetic and

physiological causes as factors that cause speech delay in children. This means the child's

speech delay according to Papalia is due to the physical limitations that accompany a child's

development.

Cognitive development of children at pre-school age includes language skills by

spontaneously imitating the language heard (Hurlock, 2003). There are two types of

imitation by children when speaking and must be distinguished appropriately. first

impersonation spontaneous language of others such as parents, and second is the imitation of

children before receiving orders. The output of these two processes will be different, in the

second type children will judge words that are easier for them (Hoover, Sterling, & Storkel,

2011). So that children will tend to be able to speak well when have a good model to

emulate.
 Psychologically, children with speech delays feel that the use of words is

complicated for him. The child will try up to several times, but will stop his efforts when the

child feels his expression is not read well by people others (Miller & Schaaf, 2008). Several

studies were conducted to explore children's abilities in speaking. As with the research by

Sawyer (2017) which conducted an assessment of on children's motivation to speak. The

research facts found are children with speech delays do not have a strong motivation to

speak compared to children Normally, this condition occurs in the early 2 years of life.

There are many factors that can cause this Speech delay such as hearing loss, limited

cognitive abilities, lack of communication and interaction with parents and their

environment, parenting factors and other factors. According to Maturana (in Sumanik, 2013:

28) the factors of speech delay are divided into two, namely internal factors and external

factors. Internal factors or biological factors of the body such as factors of perception,

cognition and prematurity are considered to be factors causing speech delays in the

child.External factors or the environment in which a child is raised have long been known as

important factors that determine the development of a child. Many children come from areas

where socioeconomics are poor accompanied by various inadequate health services, poor

nutritional intake is a state of stress and environmental disturbances that interfere with

various children's growth and development, including language disorders.In accordance with

the research conducted by Fitriani, et al (2016) the results of the study showed several

factors that can influence children's speech delays, including intelligence factors, speech

styles or models that are imitated, the use of a second language, family relationships and

health.
 Factors causing speech slowness disorder consist of (a) imitated models, (b) lack of

language teaching models, (c) children's habits in watching TV, (d) lack of guidance, (e)

children's habit of playing alone, (f) lack of motivation to speak and the surrounding

environment.| Although language lessons in schools are very good, children's speech delays

still occur because parental and environmental factors play a very important role in the

process of acquiring language in children, teachers feel that difficulty in changing children's

habits in speaking, lack of interaction between children and parents is the most important

factor in the phenomenon of speech delays in preschool age children.

Thecause of speech delay, the most common is the low level of intelligence that makes

it impossible for children to learn to speak as well as their peers whose intelligence is normal

or high; lack of motivation because the child knows that they can communicate adequately

with the pre-conversational form of parental encouragement to continue using "baby talk"

because they think such a "sweet"; limited opportunities for speaking practice due to strict

restrictions on how much they are allowed to talk at home; constantly hanging out with

twins who can understand their specific speech and the use of foreign languages at home

which slows down learning the mother tongue.

One of the undoubted, most common and most serious causes is the inability to

encourage the child to speak, even at the moment when the child begins to chatter. If

children are not encouraged to chatter, it will hinder the use of vocabulary and they will

continue to lag behind their peers of the same age who get more encouragement to speak.

The lack of such encouragement is a serious cause.

 According to Hurlock (1980: 114-115), the factors affecting the multiplicity of children

speak as follows:

1.Intelligence

The more intelligent the child, the faster the speaking skills are mastered so that the

faster it can speak.

2.Types of discipline

Children who are raised with discipline that tends to be weak talk more than children

whose parents are harsh and viewed that "children should be seen but not heard".

3.Sequence position

The firstborn is encouraged to talk more than his younger brother and parents have more

time to talk to his younger brother.

4.The size of the family

Only children are encouraged to talk more than children from extended families and

their parents have more time to talk to them. In large families, the enforced discipline is

more authoritarian and this prevents children from speaking as they please.

5. Socioeconomic status

In low-class families, family activities tend to be less organized than in middle and

upper-class families. Talks between family members are also rare and children are less

encouraged to talk.

6.Race status

Poor quality and speaking skills in most black children can be caused in part because

they were raised in a house where fathers were absent or where family life was irregular

due to the large number of children or because mothers had to work outside the home
 7. Speaktwo languages

Although the child of a two-speaking family is as much as a child of a one-language

family, his or her talk is very limited if he is in his peer group or with an adult outside

the home.

8.Classification of sex roles

There is an effect of classifying sex roles on children's speech even if the child is still in

the pre-school years. Boys are expected to talk less compared to girls. What is said and

how to say it is expected of girls, bragging and criticizing others for example, is

considered more appropriate for boys. Meanwhile, girls are natural to complain about

others.

So there are many factors that can cause speech delays and any individual or child who

experiences speech delays can be caused by several factors that are different from each

other, therefore it must be studied in depth about the factors behind the slowness of speaking

in children so that children get the right solution in overcoming speech delays in children

aged 12This year, this delay in speaking must be quickly overcome as quickly as possible

because if left unchecked it will have adverse impacts on the child and can affect other

aspects of development and also on the child's development in the future.