Oceanography An Invitation to Marine

Science 9th Edition Garrison Solutions

Manual
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 OIMS/9 Instructor’s Manual

CHAPTER 10
WAVES

FIVE MAIN CONCEPTS

 Waves transmit energy, not water mass, across the ocean’s surface.

 Ocean waves are classified by the disturbing force that creates them, the extent
to which the disturbing force continues to influence them once they are formed, and
by their wavelength.

 The speed (celerity) of an ocean wave is proportional to its wavelength.

 The orbits of water molecules in waves moving through water deeper than about
half the wavelength are unaffected by the bottom.

 The wavelength of tsunami and tides are so great that they are always in shallow
water.

MAIN HEADINGS

10.1 Ocean Waves Move Energy across the Sea Surface

10.2 Waves Are Classified by Their Physical Characteristics

Ocean Waves Are Formed by a Disturbing Force
Free Waves and Forced Waves
Waves Are Reduced by a Restoring Force
Wavelength Is the Most Useful Measure of Wave Size

10.3 The Behavior of Waves Is Influenced by the Depth of Water through

Which They Are Moving

10.4 Wind Blowing over the Ocean Generates Waves

Larger Swell Move Faster than Small Swell
Many Factors Influence Wind Wave Development
Wind Waves Can Grow to Enormous Size

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10.5 Interference Produces Irregular Wave Motions

10.6 Deep-Water Waves Change to Shallow-Water Waves As They Approach

Shore
Waves Refract When They Approach a Shore at an Angle
Waves Can Diffract When Wave Trains Are Interrupted
Waves Can Reflect from Large Vertical Surfaces

10.7 Internal Waves Can Form between Ocean Layers of Differing Densities

10.8 “Tidal Waves” Are Probably Not What You Think

10.9 Storm Surges Form beneath Strong Cyclonic Storms

10.10 Water Can Rock in a Confined Basin

10.11 Water Displacement Causes Tsunami and Seismic Sea Waves

Tsunami Move at High Speed

What’s It Like to Encounter a Tsunami?
Tsunami Have a Long and Destructive History
Tsunami Warning Networks Save Lives

CHAPTER IN PERSPECTIVE

In this chapter your students learned that waves transmit energy, not water mass,
across the ocean’s surface. The speed of ocean waves usually depends on their wavelength,
with long waves moving fastest. Arranged from short to long wavelengths (and therefore
from slowest to fastest), ocean waves are generated by very small disturbances (capillary
waves), wind (wind waves), rocking of water in enclosed spaces (seiches), seismic and
volcanic activity or other sudden displacements (tsunami), and gravitational attraction (tides).
The behavior of waves depends largely on the relation between a wave’s size and the depth
of water through which it is moving. Waves can refract and reflect, break, and interfere with
one another.

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Wind waves can be deep-water waves if the water is more than half their wavelength
deep. The waves of very long wavelengths are always in “shallow water” (water less than
half their wavelength deep). These long waves travel at high speeds, and some may have
great destructive power.

HOW HAS THIS CHAPTER CHANGED FOR THE NINTH EDITION?

Some nice Nat Geo graphics were transplanted into this chapter. Also, new
information concerning wave-rider technology has been incorporated (along with images),
and a Nat Geo Explorer (Will Steger) discusses waves he has encountered. Some wonderful
new images of internal waves have been added. Illustrations of rogue waves have been
swapped for newer material; graphics have benefitted from a few new process arrows.

SUGGESTIONS FOR PRESENTING THE MATERIAL

Our students hungrily anticipate the subject of ocean waves, and then are horrified to
discover that true understanding rests on a small amount of mathematical knowledge. Even
the simple formulas in this chapter are eyed with grave suspicion. Our first task is to
convince our students that this simple mathematical underpinning is not going to be too
painful, and that the relationship between velocity, water depth, and wavelength is a truly
useful thing to know. I usually begin my discussion of waves by describing them in
wavelength order, as I have done in Table 10.1. Once you successfully distinguish between
the four main types of waves, and between deep-water and shallow-water waves, a lecture
presentation can flow nicely.

It is immediately important to treat all wave phenomena as an instance of energy (not

mass) transmission. I find the "stadium wave" illusion particularly useful in making this
point. Most of our students have participated in the propagation of a wave in a sports
stadium, and know that they need only stand and sit at the appropriate time to play their part.
They did not move around the stadium -- but the wave did. Ask students to remember how
fast the wave moves -- much faster than they could run. (This idea will come in handy later
when you discuss the great speed at which tsunami and tides move.)

Wind waves are, for many of our students, the very essence of the sea. There is a
natural affinity for the topic of wind waves -- our campus is close to the ocean, and a few of
my students come to class wet almost every morning. Even if you're located far from the
ocean, pictures and stories can convey the nature of waves. The U.S.S. Ramapo story, or
news of Sir Ernest Shackleton's labors in the Antarctic Circumpolar Current, can rivet even
the most text-message-prone student, and allow a discussion of the development of a fully
developed sea to infiltrate the consciousness even before the mathematical relationships
involved have set off neural warning alarms. Here is some of the most potentially visually-
rich material in an oceanography course, and it can be used to great advantage to interest

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students in the whole of marine science.

The discussion of wind waves in my classes begins with the concept of fetch, and
grows from there. Once the waves are formed, I suggest that Coriolis effect does not
influence group direction (wind waves represent energy, not mass). The processes of
refraction and breaking are analyzed by use of stop-action video recordings. Inevitably,
ocean waves near shore and surfing are discussed, and the many students who have grown up
on and in the coastal ocean see the scientific reasoning behind the behavior of the wave
phenomena they have appreciated all their lives. This is an especially beautiful, personal,
and rewarding topic for many of them.

Long wavelength waves are discussed next. Though there are family resemblances,
the details differ -- for one thing, none of these waves ever acts as a shallow water wave; for
another, their speed and height are not proportional to wavelength in the same way we have
seen in wind waves. The task is to compare and contrast these resemblances and differences,
and to invite our students to see how the behavior of each kind of wave is influenced by such
factors as disturbing and restoring forces, bottom contours, and friction. By the way, like
“swell,” the word “tsunami” is both singular and plural.

Recent and historical news events are easy to employ for instructional purposes here.
The extensive damage and considerable loss of life caused by the storm surge preceding
Hurricane Andrew in August of 1992 should be reviewed, and, if you have them, photos
shown.

Now for tsunami. I have understandably used the immense Indian Ocean tsunami of
December, 2004, to illuminate the physics and destructiveness of these phenomena. First, it
is important to dissuade students of the popular notion that "tidal waves" are gigantic
breakers, or that these immense waves course through the ocean at full height.1 Next, they
need to know the astonishing speed at which these waves propagate. Last, they need to be
aware of local dangers and potential defensive strategies. The tragic photos in this chapter
will surely concentrate their attention.

Some interesting statistics of the earthquake that generated this tsunami are provided
in an article by Roger Bilham in the 20 May 2005 issue of Science (vol. 308, pages 1126-7).
Bilham writes that the “…Sumatra-Andaman earthquake of 26 December 2004 was the
second largest earthquake in the instrumental record and the third most fatal earthquake ever.
It released 4.3 x 1018 J, equivalent to a 100-gigaton bomb, or about as much energy as is used
in the United States in 6 months. Shifts in the sea floor displaced more than 30 km3 of
seawater … [and] raised global sea level by about 0.1 mm.”

Wow.

ANSWERS TO CONCEPT CHECKS

1
It is just as important for students to know that there truly are tidal waves -- they are the waves that cause the
high tides each day. They will learn about tides in the next chapter.

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On Page 285

• You can point to a wave crest and follow its progress, but only energy is moving long
distances in ocean waves, not water mass. The water mass moves in closed circles
(Figure 10.3) while energy can move for long distances.
• Draw the anatomy of a wind wave, and then check Figure 10.3.

On Page 287

• In wavelength order (shortest to longest): capillary waves, wind waves, seiches,

tsunami, tides.
• A free wave is formed and then propagates across the sea surface without the
further influence of the force that formed it. A forced wave is maintained by its
disturbing force.
• Restoring force is the dominant force that returns the water surface to flatness
after a wave has formed in it.

On Page 289

• Deep-water waves move through water deeper than half their wavelength. Only
capillary waves and wind waves can be in “deep” water. Think about this for a bit –
it will make sense.
L
• For deep-water waves, celerity (speed) may be expressed as: C =
T

For shallow-water waves, celerity may be expressed as: C = gd

On Page 295

• Wind waves form when a water surface irregularity deflects wind upward, slows
it, and causes some of the wind’s energy to be transferred into the water to drive
the wave crest forward. Fetch is the distance wind blows across the ocean to
generate sets of wind waves.
• Wavelength and wave speed are proportional in deep-water waves – the longer
the wavelength, the greater the wave speed (C).
• In a fully developed sea the maximum wave size theoretically possible for a wind
of a specific strength, duration, and fetch is reached.
• Though each individual wave moves forward with a speed proportional to its
wavelength in deep water (C), the group velocity is only half that speed.

On Page 296

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• Constructive and destructive interference is often seen at wave-swept beaches.

Do you notice that every 9th wave is the largest (or 12th, or 5th)? The cause is
shown in Figure 10.16.
• A rare confluence of crests at sea can form a rogue wave which would be much
larger than any noticed before or after, and would be higher than the theoretical
maximum wave capable of being sustained in a fully developed sea. Rogue
waves have broken many large ships.

On Page 300

• A wave ceases to be in “deep” water when it moves over a seabed shallower than
half the wave’s wavelength.
• A wave break is influenced by wavelength, bottom depth, bottom contour, bottom
texture, wind conditions, and shore steepness.
• A wave approaching shore at an angle does not break simultaneously along its
length because different parts of it are in different depths of water. The part of the
wave line in shallow water slows down, but the attached segment still in deeper
water continues at its original speed; so the wave line bends, or refracts.

On Page 301

• Because the density difference between the joined media in internal waves is very
small, their speed and period are very slow. They are not comparable to wind
waves or tsunami.
• Internal waves are not dangerous at the ocean surface, and pose a threat only to
delicate oceanographic sensing equipment or (rarely) submariners.

On Page 303

• True “tidal waves” cause the tides. You’ll learn about these largest of all waves
in the next chapter.

On Page 304

• The low atmospheric pressure associated with a great storm will draw the ocean
surface into a broad dome which accompanies the storm to shore, becoming much
higher as the water gets shallower at the coast. They are dangerous because of
their height and sudden onslaught.
• Storm surge can be predicted from a tropical cyclone’s wind speed, probable path,
and atmospheric pressure.

On Page 305

• Seiches form in Lake Michigan as persistent north winds drive water toward the
southern shore. When the wind ceases, parts of the Lake rocks rhythmically for a

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day or two. Seiches are generally not dangerous, but there are exceptions. A rare
confluence of high wind and low atmospheric pressure generated a seiche in Lake
Michigan in 1954 that drowned eight fishermen.
• As any active kid knows, swimming pools are easily seiched. Stand in the middle
with a kick-board (surfboard, etc.) and make waves by pushing the board away
from you and pulling it back. Find the natural resonance of the pool and reinforce
it (that is, time your pushes as you would push a child on a swing). Soon the
center of the pool will be high when the edges are low, and vice versa. Add more
energy and watch the fun!

On Page 311

• Tsunami are caused by the rapid displacement of ocean water.

• Tsunami move at high speeds – 750 kilometers (470 miles) per hour is typical.
• Tsunami are shallow-water waves. Half their wavelength would be 100
kilometers (62 miles), and even the deepest ocean trenches do not exceed 11
kilometers (7 miles) in depth.
• A ship on the open ocean that encounters a tsunami with a 16-minute period
would rise to a crest only 0.3 to 0.6 meter (1 or 2 feet) above average sea level.
Tsunami are not dangerous in the open ocean.
• Unless the location is very close to the causal epicenter, tsunami typically come
ashore as a series of waves at regular intervals.
• The 2004 Indonesian event was the most lethal earthquake in 5 centuries. The
numbers of dead exceeded 176,000 with another 67,000 missing.
• Tsunami warning systems depend on seabed seismometers, and submerged
devices and satellites that watch the shape of the sea surface.

ANSWERS TO “THINKING BEYOND THE FIGURE” QUESTIONS

Figure 10.4: For little or no motion to be felt, the submarine would need to descend below
100 meters (half the wavelength of the surface wave).

Figure 10.11: Because waves are moving energy, not mass, their direction is not influenced
by Coriolis effect. These waves are approaching the Oregon coast of the western U.S. from
the northwest, the direction from the area in which they were formed, the Bering Sea.

Figure 10.12: The Pacific basin contains the longest uninterrupted stretches of ocean, and
winds can be fierce. The largest waves are found in the southern Pacific Ocean north of
Antarctica.

Figure 10.17: Waves from three directions can converge there. Waves from the Indian and
south Atlantic Oceans, and the terrific waves propelled by the West Wind Drift, meet in this
area.

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Figure 10.19: Because it is impossible to paddle at the speed of oncoming swell of this
magnitude, surfers like McNamara have to obtain outside help in the form of a jet-ski.
“Tow-in” surfing involves two participants: A jet-ski pilot who swoops perilously close to
the forming wave crest, and the surfer himself who releases the tow rope at precisely the
right time to catch the wave. Or not.

Figure 10.28: Seiches are almost never dangerous. Some casualties are occasionally
reported from Japan’s Inland Sea, but the calm onset of most seiches rarely catches anyone
by surprise.

Figure 10.31: The distance from the central Aleutians to New Zealand’s North Island is
about 11,000 kilometers (6,800 miles). Moving at 750 kilometers (470 miles) per hour,
waves from a catastrophic earthquake in the Aleutian trench would reach Auckland in have
about 15 hours.

ANSWERS TO END-OF-CHAPTER QUESTIONS

1. Though they move across the deepest ocean basins, seiches and tsunami are referred to as
“shallow-water waves.” How can this be?

Remember a deep-water wave is, by definition, in water deeper than half its
wavelength. The wavelength of seismic sea waves usually exceeds 100 kilometers (62
miles). No ocean is 50 kilometers (31 miles) deep, so seiches, seismic sea waves, and tides
are always in water that to them is shallow or intermediate in depth; their huge orbit circles
flattening against a distant bottom always less than half a wavelength away.

2. How do particles move in an ocean wave? How is that movement similar to or different
from the movement of particles in a wave in a spring or a rope? How does this relate to a
stadium wave—a waveform made by sports fans in a circular arena?

The nearly friction-free transfer of energy from water particle to water particle in
these circular paths, or orbits, transmits wave energy across the ocean surface and causes the
wave form to move. This kind of wave is known as an orbital wave -- a wave in which
particles of the medium (water) move in closed circles as the wave passes. Orbital ocean
waves occur at the boundary between two media (between air and water), or between layers
of water of different densities. Particles in a rope or a spring move only side to side (or
forward and back), not in circular orbits. The wave in a rope or spring is thus not an orbital
wave. But because the wave form in all these waves moves forward, they are all known as
progressive waves.
A "stadium wave" is a particularly effective demonstration of the fallacy of the wave
illusion -- the tendency we have to think of a wave as a physical object. Participants in a
stadium wave need only stand and sit at the appropriate time to propagate the wave. The fans
don't move laterally -- they certainly don't leave their seats and run around the stadium to

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make the wave go. Yet the wave appears to be a thing, an illusion all progressive waves
share.

3. What is the general relationship between wavelength and wave speed? How does water
movement in a wave change with depth?

In general, the longer the wavelength, the faster the wave will move. The relationship
is shown in Figure 10.8.
Most characteristics of ocean waves depend on the relationship between their
wavelength and water depth. Wavelength determines the size of the orbits of water molecules
within a wave, but water depth determines the shape of the orbits. The paths of water
molecules in a wind wave are circular only when the wave is traveling in deep water. A wave
cannot “feel” the bottom when it moves through water deeper than half its wavelength
because too little wave energy is contained in the small circles below that depth. Waves
moving through water deeper than half their wavelength are known as deep-water waves. A
wave has no way of “knowing” how deep the water is, only that it is in water deeper than
about half its wavelength. For example, a wind wave of 20-meter wavelength will act as a
deepwater wave if it is passing through water more than 10 meters deep (Figure 10.6 again).
The situation is different for wind generated waves close to shore. The orbits of water
molecules in waves moving through shallow water are flattened by the proximity of the
bottom. Water just above the seafloor cannot move in a circular path, only forward and
backward. Waves in water shallower than 120 their original wavelength are known as shallow-
water waves. A wave with a 20-meter wavelength will act as a shallow-water wave if the
water is less than 1 meter deep.

4. How can a rogue wave be larger than the theoretical maximum height of waves in a fully
developed sea?

Because of interference and coupling. Interference can have sudden unpleasant

consequences on the open sea. In or near a large storm, wind waves at many wavelengths and
heights may approach a single spot from different directions. If such a rare confluence of
crests occurred at your position, a huge wave crest would suddenly erupt from a moderate sea
to threaten your ship. The freak wave—called a rogue wave—would be much larger than any
noticed before or after, and it would be higher than the theoretical maximum wave capable of
being sustained in a fully developed sea. In such conditions one wave in about 1,175 is more
than 3 times average height, and one in every 300,000 is more than 4 times average height!
See Figure 10.17 for an artist’s conception of a catastrophic rogue wave that sank a large ship
in 1978.

5. How is a progressive wave different from a standing wave? Must standing waves be
orbital waves only, or can standing waves also form in shaken ropes or pushed-and-pulled
springs?

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The transfer of energy from water particle to water particle in these circular paths, or
orbits, transmits wave energy across the ocean surface and causes the wave form to move.
This kind of wave is known as an orbital wave—a wave in which particles of the medium
(water) move in closed circles as the wave passes. Orbital ocean waves occur at the boundary
between two fluid media (between air and water) and between layers of water of different
densities. Because the wave form moves forward, these waves are a type of progressive
wave.
As their name suggests, standing waves do not progress but appear as alternating
crests and troughs at a fixed position. Figure 10.28 shows how a standing wave oscillates in a
motion that resembles water sloshing back and forth in a half-filled bathtub. Because of
constructive interference between crests (and troughs), these waves can be dangerous to
boats or swimmers near the obstruction.

6. How can large waves generated by a distant storm arrive at a shore first, to be followed
later by small waves?

As the answer to Question #3 notes, the longer the wavelength, the faster the wave
will move. Now imagine a distant storm whipping up waves of all wavelengths. The waves
with the longest wavelength will move away from the storms at the fastest speeds; the short-
wavelength waves will move more slowly. When surf comes up, it often does so quite
suddenly (as the first of the large waves reach the shore). Surfers are remarkably adept at
communicating “Dude! Surf’s up!” messages to one another.

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