Professional Documents
Culture Documents
S.R. Porter*
C. Scully
Department of Oral Medicine, Eastman Dental Institute for Oral Health (are Sciences, University of London, 256 Gray's Inn Road, London WC1 X 8LD, United Kingdom; *corresponding author
A. Pedersen
Dental Department, Bispebjerg Hospital, Copenhagen Hospital Corporation, University of Copenhagen, 23 Bispebjerg Bakke, DK-2400 (openhagen NV, Denmark
ABSTRACT: Recurrent aphthous stomatitis (RAS) is one of the most common oral mucosal disorders. Nevertheless, while the
clinical characteristics of RAS are well-defined, the precise etiology and pathogenesis of RAS remain unclear. The present arti-
cle provides a detailed review of the current knowledge of the etiology, pathogenesis, and managment of RAS.
306G
306 rit
Crit Rev Oral Biol
Rev Oral Biol Med
Med 9(3):306-32 1 ( 1998)
Systemic Factors
Predissposing to RAS TABLE 1
Most patients with RAS are oth- Characteristics of the Different Types of Recurrent Aphthous Stomatitis
erwise well. In contrast, while
RAS-like ulceration can occur in
Beh§et's disease, patients with Minor Major Herpetiform
the latter have multisystem dis-
ease, particularly affecting other Sex ratio M= F M=F F > M (?)
mucocutaneous surfaces, the Age of onset (yrs) 5-19 10-19 20-29
Number of ulcers 1-5 1-10 10-100
eyes (e.g., uveitis), and the mus- Size of ulcers (mm) < 10 > 10 1-2*
culoskeletal, neurological, Duration (days) 4-14 > 30 < 30
hematological, gastrointestinal, Rate of recurrence (mos) 1-4 < monthly < monthly
and other systems. As dis- Sites lips, cheeks, lips, cheeks, lips, cheeks, tongue,
cussed below, RAS does not tongue, floor tongue, palate, pharynx, palate, gingiva,
have a notable geographic dis- of mouth pharynx floor of mouth
tribution, has no HLA associa- Permanent scarring uncommon common uncommon
tions similar to those of *Can be larger if there is a fusion c)f ulcers.
Behget's disease, and has some,
but not all, of the immunologi-
cal abnormalities that arise in celiac disease). These RAS patients may not always have
Behget's disease. Unlike Behget's disease, RAS does not bowel symptoms or other clinical features suggestive of
lead to significant morbidity or mortality (Mittal et al., GSE but usually have folate deficiency and sometimes
1985; Schreiner and lorizzo, 1987; Arbesfeld and Kurban, reticulin antibodies (Ferguson et al., 1976), particularly
1988; Jankowski et al., 1992; Stratigos et al., 1992). IgA-class reticulin and/or gliadin antibodies (Merchant et
Oral ulceration similar in clinical appearance to RAS al., 1986). The haplotype of HLA-DRw1O and DQwl may
can arise in Sweet's Syndrome (Delke et al., 1981; Driban predispose patients with GSE to RAS (Majorana et al.,
and Alvarez, 1984; Mizoguchi et al., 1988; von den Driesch 1992; Meini et al., 1993). There may also be occasional
et al 1989, 1994); cyclic neutropenia (Lange and Jones, patients who have RAS with no detectable clinical or his-
1981; Scully et al., 1982); benign familial neutropenia tological evidence of celiac disease on jejunal biopsy, yet
(Porter et al., 1994a); MAGIC Syndrome (Orme et al., 1990; who may respond to dietary withdrawal of gluten (Wray,
Godeau, 1993; Le Thi Huong et al., 1993), a periodic syn- 1981; Wright et al., 1986). However, the withdrawal of
drome with fever and pharyngitis (Marshall et al., 1987); gluten does not often result in significant benefit
various nutritional deficiencies with or without underly- (Hunter et al., 1993), is difficult to manage, and may sim-
ing gastrointestinal disorders (Eversole, 1994; Grattan ply reflect the pronounced placebo response in RAS.
and Scully, 1986); and some other primary (Porter and Recent data for the UK suggest that anti-endomysial
Scully, 1993a,b; Scully and Porter, 1993a,b) and secondary antibodies are extremely uncommon in RAS, thus adding
immunodeficiencies (Porter et al., 1994b), including infec- weight to the notion that RAS is not commonly associat-
tion with human immunodeficiency virus (MacPhail et al., ed with GSE.
1992). Rarely, drugs such as non-steroidal anti-inflamma- Hypersensitivity reactions to exogenous antigens
tories (NSAIDS) can give rise to oral ulcers similar to other than gluten do not have a significant etiological
those of RAS, along with genital ulceration (Healy and role in RAS. Some studies have noted an increased preva-
Thornhill, 1995). lence of atopy among RAS patients (Tuft and Ettleson,
In several studies, hematinic (iron, folic acid, or vita- 1956), while others have failed to find any significant cor-
min B 1 2) deficiencies have been demonstrated to be relation (Spouge and Diamond, 1963; Wray et al., 1982;
twice as common in RAS patients than in controls (Wray Eversole et al., 1983; Hay and Reade, 1984). Some RAS
et al., 1975; Challacombe et al., 1977a, 1983; Hutcheon et patients correlate the onset of ulcers with exposure to
al., 1978; Tyldesley, 1983; Rogers and Hutton, 1986; Field certain foods, but controlled studies have failed to dis-
et al., 1987; Porter et al., 1988). About 20% of patients with close a causal role despite the fact that certain foods
RAS may have a hematinic deficiency, though one US causing positive skin-prick reactions will elicit pain when
study did not report any hematinic problem (Olsen et al., they are topically applied to aphthous ulcers (Wilson,
1982). Deficiencies of vitamins B1, B2, and B6 were 1980). Dietary manipulation, however, rarely improves
observed in a cohort of Scottish patients with RAS RAS significantly (Spouge and Diamond, 1963; Wray et al.,
(Nolan et al., 1991). Less than 5% of outpatients who ini- 1982; Eversole et al., 1983; Hay and Reade, 1984).
tially present with RAS (Ferguson et al., 1976, 1980; Velso Aphthous-like ulceration has been reported in a
and Saleiro, 1987) have gluten-sensitive enteropathy (GSE: patient with zinc deficiency and immunodeficiency
307
9(3) 306 321 (1998)
9(3)-.306-321 Crit Rev Oral Biol Med
Crit RevOral Biol Med
307
ulceration related to the luteal phase of the menstrual
cycle, presumably modulated by changing levels of
progestogens (Dolby, 1968; Segal et al., 1974; Ferguson et
al., 1984) and thus defective oral mucosal epithelial
turnover Nevertheless, a detailed review of all pertinent
literature failed to find any association between RAS and
altered female sex corticosteroids (McCartan and
Sullivan, 1992).
Psychological illness has been proposed to initiate
some episodes of RAS (Ship et al., 1961b; Miller et al.,
1977a), and there are sparse data to suggest that some
patients may benefit from antidepressant therapy
(Yaacob and Hamid, 1985). Nevertheless, no significant
objective neurosis has been observed in two further
Figure 1. Typical minor aphthous stomatitis. studies (Pedersen, 1989; Buajeeb et al., 1990).
9(3):306-321 (1998)
(1998)
9(3) 306 321 (1998)
9(3):306-321
Rev Oral Biol Med
Crit Rev Oral Biol Med
Crit
311
TABLE 2 and there have been several studies of its efficacy.
Subjective improvement is possible, but rarely is
Some Reported Therapies of there objective clinical improvement, and the pos-
Recurrent Aphthous Stomatitis (RAS) sible adverse effects of nausea, hyperosmia, dys-
geusia, and agranulocytosis have discouraged its
Mouthrinses Chlorhexidine gluconate use (Lehner et al., 1976; De Meyer et al., 1977;
Benzydamine hydrochloride Drinnan and Fischman, 1978; Gier et al., 1978;
Carbenoxolone disodium Kaplan et al., 1978; Miller et al., 1978; Olsen and
Betadine Silverman, 1978). Recently, however, a group of
Topical corticosteroids Hydrocortisone hemisuccinate (pellets) Taiwanese patients was reported to have had signif-
Triamcinolone acetonide (in adhesive paste) icant clinical improvement (i.e., reduced pain, num-
Flucinonide (cream) ber, frequency, and duration of ulcers) with lev-
Betamethasone valerate (mouthrinse) amisole therapy (100-150 mg daily for 2-3 months).
Betamethasone- 1 7-benzoate (mouthrinse) However, these patients are perhaps unusual, since
Flumethasone pivolate (spray) they often had slightly reduced CD4+ and increased
Beclomethasone dipropionate (spray) CD8+ peripheral blood T-lymphocytes, the presence
Antibiotics Topical tetracyclines of anti-nuclear antibodies, and anti-basement
membrane antibodies (Sun et al., 1994). The fre-
Immunomodulators Levamisole quency of side-effects of levamisole was not report-
Transfer factor ed in this study.
Colchicine Transfer factor (Schulkind et al., 1984) and gam-
Gammaglobulins maglobulin therapy (Kaloyannides, 1971) have been
Azathioprine suggested to be beneficial, but more detailed stud-
Dapsone
Thalidomide ies are needed to confirm these preliminary obser-
Pentoxifylline vations.
Prednisolone Sodium cromoglycate lozenges may provide
Azelastine mild symptomatic relief (Dolby and Walker, 1975;
Alpha-2-inteferon Kowolik et al., 1978), but cromoglycate-containing
Cyclosporin toothpaste is not beneficial (Potts et al., 1984).
Amlexanox Carbenoxolone sodium mouthwash reduced the
5-amino salicyclic acid severity of RAS in one study (Poswillo and Partridge,
Others Systemic zinc sulphate 1984).
Monoamine-oxidase inhibitors Dapsone has been reported to reduce the oral
Sodium cromoglycate lesions in a few patients with RAS-like lesions, but
Deglycirrhizinated liquorice the clinical features of this group of patients were
Sucralphate poorly described (Handfield-Jones et al., 1985).
Etretinate Thalidomide may produce remission or reduction in
Low-enerqy laser symptoms of RAS (Mascaro et al., 1979; Grinspan,
1985; Eisenbud et al., 1987; Grinspan et al., 1989;
Nicolau and West, 1990; Revuz et al., 1990; Gunzler,
absence of sodium lauryl sulphate from a dentifrice may 1992); however, this treatment is not without its
lessen the liability to RAS (Herlofson and Karkvoll, 1994). dangers. Thalidomide therapy should be considered
Topical corticosteroids remain the mainstay of RAS when patients have episodes of profound ulceration, and
treatment. A spectrum of different topical corticosteroids perhaps limited to persons with HIV-related ulceration,
can be used (Table 2): All can reduce symptoms, and nei- although thalidomide hypersensitivity can occur in HIV
ther hydrocortisone nor triamcinolone preparations disease (Williams et al., 1991). Aside from teratogenicity,
cause adrenal suppression, but ulcers still recur (Cooke thalidomide can give rise to several other serious (e.g.,
and Armitage, 1960; Zegarelli et al., 1960; Merchant et al., irreversible polyneuropathy) side-effects.
1978; Yeoman et al., 1978; Fisher, 1979; Pimlott and Possibly by virtue of its action on the microtubular
Walker, 1983; Scaglione et al., 1985). Perhaps, at best, top- function of polymorphonuclear leukocytes and interface
ical corticosteroids and chlorhexidine may reduce in adhesion molecule expression, colchicine may be of
painful symptoms but not the rate of recurrence of ulcers clinical benefit in Behget's disease. Colchicine was ini-
(Miles et al., 1993). tially reported to have a favorable outcome in small
Levamisole was proposed as a possible treatment groups of patients with RAS (Gatot and Tovi, 1984; Ruah
for RAS by virtue of its wide immunostimulatory effects, et al., 1988), and, in a more recent open study of 20
Rev Oral
Grit Rev Oral Biol Med
Biol Med 9(3):306-321
313
9(3) 306-321 (1998)
9(3):306-321 Crit Rev
Grit Oral Biol Med
Rev Oral Biol Med 313
Brady H, Silverman S (1969). Studies on recurrent oral treatment of recurrent aphthous ulceration of the oral
aphthae. Oral Surg Oral Med Oral Pathol 27:27-34. cavity. Br Med J 1: 1248-1249.
Brookman R (1960). Relief of canker sores on resumption Di Alberti L, Ngui SL, Porter SR, Speight PM, Scully C,
of cigarette smoking. CA Med 93:235-236. Zakrzewska IM, et al. (1997a). Presence of human her-
Brown RS, Bottomley WK (1990). Combination immuno- pesvirus-8 variants in the oral tissues of human
suppressant and topical steroid therapy for treatment immunodeficiency virus-infected individuals. I Infect
of recurrent major aphthae. A case report. Oral Surg Dis 175:703-707.
Oral Med Oral Pathol 69:420-424. Di Alberti L, Porter SR, Speight P, Scully C, Zakrzewska
Buajeeb W, Laohapand P, Vongsavan N, Kraivaphan P JM, Williams 1, et al. (1997b). Detection of human her-
(1990). Anxiety in recurrent aphthous stomatitis pesvirus-8 DNA in oral ulcer tissues of HIV-infected
patients. J Dent Assoc Thai 40:253-258. individuals. Oral Diseases 3(Suppl 1): S 133-S 134.
Burnett PR, Wray D (1985). Lytic effects of serum and Dodd K, Ruchman I (1950). Herpes simplex virus not the
mononuclear leukocytes on oral epithelial cells in aetiologic agent of recurrent stomatitis. Pediatrics
recurrent aphthous stomatitis. Clin Immunol 5:883-887.
Immunopathol 34:197-204. Dolby AE (1968). Recurrent Mikulicz's oral aphthae-
Burton-Kee IE, Mowbray IF, Lehner T (1981). Different their relationship to the menstrual cycle. Br Dent J
cross-reacting circulating immune complexes in 124:359-360.
Behcet's syndrome and recurrent oral ulcers. J Lab Clin Dolby AE (1969). Recurrent aphthous ulceration. Effect
Med 97:559-567. of sera and peripheral blood lymphocytes upon oral
Challacombe SJ, Barkhan P, Lehner T (1977a). epithelial tissue culture cells. Immunology 17:709-714.
Haematological features and differentiation of recur- Dolby AE, Walker DM (1975). A trial of cromoglycic acid
rent oral ulceration. Br I Oral Surg 1 5:37-48. in recurrent aphthous ulceration. Br I Oral Surg
Challacombe SJ, Batchelor JR, Kennedy LA, Lehner T 12:292-295.
(1977b). HLA antigens in recurrent oral ulcerations. Dolby AE, Walker DM, Slade M, Allan C (1977). HLA his-
Arch Dermatol 113:1717-1719. tocompatibility antigens in recurrent aphthous ulcer-
Challacombe SJ, Scully C, Keevil B, Lehner T (1983). ation. J Dent Res 56:105-107.
Serum ferritin in recurrent oral ulceration. J Oral Pathol Donatsky 0 (1976). A leucocyte migration study on the
12:290-299. cell-mediated immunity against adult human oral
Collier PM, Neill SM, Copeman PW (1992). Topical 5- mucosa and streptococcal antigens in patients with
aminosalicylic acid: a treatment for aphthous ulcers. recurrent aphthous stomatitis. Acta Pathol Microbiol
Br J Dermatol 126:185-188. Scand 84(C):227-234.
Convissar RA, Massoumi-Sourey M (1992). Recurrent Donatsky 0, Justesen T, Lind K, Faber Vestergaard B
aphthous ulcers: Etiology and laser ablation. Gen Dent (1977). Microorganisms in recurrent aphthous ulcera-
44: 512-515. tions. Scand J Dent Res 85:426-433.
Cooke BED, Armitage P (1960). Recurrent Mikulicz's aph- Donatsky 0, Worsaae N, Schi0dt M, Johnsen T (1983).
thae treated with topical hydrocortisone hemisucci- Effect of Zendium toothpaste on recurrent aphthous
nate sodium. Br Med J 1:764-766. stomatitis. Scand J Dent Res 91:376-80.
Crevelli MR, Aguas S, Adler 1, Ouarracino C, Bazerque P Dorsey C (1964). More observation on relief of aphthous
(1988). Influence of socioeconomic status on oral stomatitis on resumption of cigarette smoking. CA
mucosa lesion prevalence in schoolchildren. Med 101:377-378.
Community Dent Oral Epidemiol 16:58-60. Driban NE, Alvarez MA (1984). Oral manifestations of
Dagalis P, Bagg J, Walker DM (1987). Spontaneous migra- Sweet's syndrome. Dermatologica 169:102-103.
tion and chemotactic activity of neutrophil polymor- Drinnan Al, Fischman SL (1978). Randomised, double-
phonuclear leukocytes in recurrent aphthous ulcera- blind study of levamisole in recurrent aphthous
tion. Oral Surg Oral Med Oral Pathol 64:298-301. stomatitis. J Oral Pathol 7:414-417.
Das SK, Das V, Gulati AK, Singh VP (1989). Driscoll EJ, Ship II, Barow S, Stanley HR, Utz JP (1961).
Deglycyrrhizinated liquorice in aphthous ulcers. I Chronic aphthous stomatitis, herpes labialis and
Assoc Phys India 37:647. related conditions. Ann Intern Med 50:1475-1496.
De Meyer J, Degreave M, Clarysse J, De Loose F, Peremans Eglin RP, Lehner T, Subak-Sharpe JH (1982). Detection of
W (1977). Levamisole in aphthous stomatitis: evalua- RNA complementary to herpes simplex virus in
tion of three regimens. Br Med I 1:671-674. mononuclear cells from patients with Behget's syn-
Delke 1, Veridiano NP, Tancer ML, Gomez L, Diamond I drome and recurrent oral ulcers. Lancet 2:1356-1361.
(1981). Sweet's syndrome with involvement of the Eisen D, Ellis CN (1990). Topical cyclosporine for oral
female genital tract. Obstet Gynecol 58:394-396. mucosal disorders. J Am Acad Dermatol 23:1259-1263.
Denman AR, Schiff AA (1979). Recurrent oral ulceration Eisenbud L, Horowitz I, Kay B (1987). Recurrent aphthous
315
9(3) 306 321 (11998)
9(3):306-321 1998) Crit
Crit Rev Oral Biol Med
Rev OralBiol Med
315
Hasan A, Fortune F, Wilson A, Warr K, Shinnick T, nation in patients with recurrent minor aphthous
Mizushima Y, et al. (1996). Role of y8 T cells in patho- stomatitis and no detectable gluten enteropathy. Oral
genesis and diagnosis of Behcets disease. Lancet Surg Oral Med Oral Pathol 75:595-598.
347:789-794. Hunter L, Addy M (1987). Chlorhexidine gluconate
Hay D, Reade PC (1984). The use of an elimination diet in mouthwash in the management of minor aphthous
the treatment of recurrent aphthous ulceration of the stomatitis. Br Dent 1 162:106-110.
oral cavity. Oral Surg Oral Med Oral Pathol 57:504-507. Hussain L, Ward R, Lehner T, Barnes CG (1986). Herpes
Hayrinen-Immonen R, Malmstrom M, Nordstrbm D, simplex virus IgG, IgM and IgA subclass from sera of
Hietanen J, Kbnttinen YT (1991). Immune inflamma- patients with Behcet's disease and controls. In:
tory cells in recurrent oral ulcers (ROU). Scand J Dent Recent advances in Behcet's disease. Lehner T,
Res 99:510-518. Barnes CG, editors. London: Royal Society of
Hayrinen-Immonen R, Malmstrom M, Nordstrom D, Medicine, pp. 73-77.
Sorsa T, Konttinen YT (1992). Distribution of adhesion Hutcheon AW, Wray D, Dagg IH (1978). Clinical and
receptors in recurrent oral ulcers. I Oral Pathol Med haematological screening in recurrent aphthae.
21:199-202. Postgrad Med 1 54:779-783.
Hayrinen-Immonen R, Sorsa T, Pettila J, Konttinen YT, Jankowski J, Crombie I, Jankowski R (1992). Behcet's syn-
Teronen 0, Malmstrom M (1994). Effect of tetracy- drome in Scotland. Postgrad Med 1 68:566-570.
clines on collagenase activity in patients with recur- Kaloyannides TM (1971). Treatment of recurrent aphthous
rent aphthous ulcers. l Oral Pathol Med 23:269-272. stomatitis with gamma globulin: report of five cases. l
Healy CM, Thornhill MH (1995). An association between Can Dent Assoc 37:312-313.
recurrent oro-genital ulceration and nonsteroidal Kaplan B, Cardarelli C, Pinnell SR (1978). Double-blind
anti-inflammatory drugs. I Oral Pathol Med 24:46-48. study of levamisole in aphthous stomatitis. 1 Oral
Henricsson V, Axell T (1985). Treatment of recurrent aph- Pathol 7:400-404.
thous ulcers with Aureomycin® mouthrinse or Katz J, Langevitz P, Shema 1, Barak S, Livneh A (1994).
Zendium® dentifrice. Acta Odontol Scand 43:47-52. Prevention of recurrent aphthous stomatitis with
Herlofson BB, Karkvoll P (1994). Sodium lauryl sulfate colchicine: an open trial. I Am Acad Dermatol 31:459-
and recurrent aphthous ulcers-a preliminary study. 461.
Acta Odontol Scand 52:257-259. Kleinman DV, Swango PA, Pindborg JJ (1994).
Honma T (1976). Electron microscope study on the Epidemiology of oral mucosal lesions in United
pathogenesis of recurrent aphthous ulceration as States school children: 1986-87. Community Dent Oral
compared to Behcet's syndrome. Oral Surg Oral Med Epidemiol 22:243-253.
Oral Pathol 41:366-377. Kowolik MI, Muir KF, MacPhee IT (1978). Di-sodium cro-
Honma T, Sanito T, Fujioka Y (1985). Possible role of moglycate in the treatment of recurrent aphthous
apoptotic cells of the oral epithelium in the patho- ulceration. Br Dent 1 144:383-386.
genesis of aphthous ulceration. Oral Surg Oral Med Landesberg R, Fallon M, Insel R (1990). Alterations of T
Oral Pathol 59:379-387. helper/inducer and T suppressor/inducer cells in
Hoogendoorn H, Piessens JP (1987). Treatment of aphthous patients with recurrent aphthous ulcers. Oral Surg
patients by enhancement of the salivary peroxidase Oral Med Oral Pathol 69:205-208.
system. I Oral Pathol 16:425-427. Lange RD, Jones JB (1981). Cyclic neutropenia: a review
Hooks 1J (1978). Possibility of a viral aetiology in recur- of clinical manifestations and management. Ann J
rent aphthous ulcers and Behcet's syndrome. J Oral Pediat Haematol Oncol 3:363-367.
Pathol 7:353-364. Le Thi Huong D, Wechsler B, Piette IC, Papo T, Jaccard A,
Hooks II, Moutsopoulos HM, Geiss A, Stahl NK, Decker Jault F, et al. (1993). Aortic insufficiency and recurrent
IL, Notkins AL (1979). Immune interferon in the circu- valve prosthesis dehiscence in MAGIC syndrome. J
lation of patients with autoimmune disease. New Engl Rheumatol 20:397-398.
I Med 301:5-8. Lehner T (1967). Stimulation of lymphocyte transforma-
Hoover CI, Greenspan 1S (1983). Immunochemical anti- tion by tissue homogenates in recurrent oral ulcera-
gens of various viridans streptococci, including strain tion. Immunol 13:159-166.
2A + 3HOT from recurrent aphthous ulceration. Arch Lehner T (1969). Immunological estimation of blood and
Oral Biol 28:917-922. saliva in human recurrent oral ulceration. Arch Oral
Howell RM, Cohen DM, Powell GL, Green JG (1988). The Biol 14:351-364.
use of low energy laser therapy to treat aphthous Lehner T (1977). Progress report: oral ulceration and
ulcers. Ann Dent 47:16-18. Behgets Syndrome. Gut 18:491-511.
Hunter IP, Ferguson MM, Scully C, Galloway AR, Main Lehner T, Adinolfi M (1980). Acute phase proteins, C9,
AN, Russell RI (1993). Effects of dietary gluten elimi- factor B and lysozyme in recurrent oral ulceration and
9(3):306-321 (1998)
318 Grit
Crit Rev
Rev Oral
Oral Biol
Biol Med
Med
9(3):306
9(3):306-321 (1998)
aphthous ulcers: a trial of carbenoxolone sodium destruction of autologous epithelial cell targets in
mouthwash. Br Dent I 157:55-57. recurrent aphthous stomatitis. Aust Dent 1 39:98-104.
Potoky JR (1981). Recurrent aphthous stomatitis: a pro- Savage NW, Seymour Gl, Kruger B1 (1985). T lymphocyte
posed therapeutic regimen. I Oral Med 36:44-46. subset changes in recurrent aphthous stomatitis. Oral
Potts AJC, Frame JW, Bateman IRM, Asquith P (1984). Surg Oral Med Oral Pathol 60:175-81.
Sodium cromoglycate toothpaste in the management Savage NW, Seymour GJ, Kurger BJ (1986). Expression of
of aphthous ulceration. Br Dent 1 156:250-251. class I and class II major histocompatibility complex
Ratis G, Poccardi G, Scalabrini DR, Pomatto E, Vercellino antigens on epithelial cells in recurrent aphthous
V (1991). 11 linfocitogramma nelle stomatiti aftose stomatitis. J Oral Pathol 15:191-195.
ricorrenti Minerva Stomatol 40:45-49. Scaglione F, Falchi M, Bichisao E, Fraschini F (1985).
Rattan 1J Schneider M, Arber N. Gorsky M, Dayan D Flumethasone pivolate (Locorten) in the treatment of
(1994). Sucraflate suspension as a treatment of recur- oral diseases. Drug Exp Clin Res 11:523-526.
rent aphthous stomatitis. I Intern Med 236:341-343. Schreiner DT, Jorizzo IL (1987). Behcets disease and com-
Rennie IR, Reade PC, Hay D, Scully C (1985). Recurrent plex aphthosis. Dermatol Clin 5:769-778.
aphthous stomatitis. Br Dent 1 159:361-367. Schroeder HR, Miller-Glauser W, Sallay K (1984).
Revuz 1, Guillaume JC, lanier M, Hans P, Marchand C, Pathomorphologic features of the ulcerative stage of
Souteyrand P, et al. (1990). Crossover study of oral aphthous ulceration. Oral Surg Oral Med Oral
thalidomide vs placebo in severe recurrent aphthous Pathol 58:293-305.
stomatitis. Arch Dermatol 126:923-927. Schulkind ML, Heim LR, South MA, Jeter WS, Small PA
Rogers RS (1977). Recurrent aphthous stomatitis: clinical (1984). A case report of the successful treatment of
characteristics and evidence for an immunopatho- recurrent aphthous stomatitis with some prepara-
genesis. I Invest Dermatol 69:499-501. tions of orally administered transfer factor. Cell
Rogers RS, Hutton KP (1986). Screening for haematinic Immunol 84:415-421.
deficiencies in patients with recurrent aphthous Scully C (1982). Serum 12 microglobulin in recurrent
stomatitis. Aust I Derm 27:98-103. aphthous stomatitis and Behcet's syndrome. Clin Exp
Rogers RS, Sams WM, Shorter RG (1974). Dermatol 7:269-275.
Lymphocytotoxicity in recurrent aphthous stomatitis. Scully C (1993). Are viruses associated with aphthae and
Arch Dermatol 109:361-363. oral vesiculo erosive disorders. Br I Oral Maxillofac Surg
Rogers RS, Movius DL, Pierre RV (1976). Lymphocyte- 31:173-177.
epithelial cell interactions in oral mucosal inflamma- Scully C, Porter S (1989). Recurrent aphthous stomatitis:
tory diseases. J Invest Dermatol 67:599-602. current concepts of aetiology, pathogenesis and man-
Rosenthal SH (1984). Does phenelzine relieve aphthous agement. I Oral Pathol Med 18:21-27.
ulcers of the mouth? N Engl I Med 311:1442. Scully C, Porter SR (1993a). Orofacial manifestations in
Ross R, Kutscher AH, Zegarelli EV, Silvers H, Piro JD primary immunodeficiencies: common variable
(1958). Relationship of mechanical trauma to recur- immunodeficiency. J Oral Pathol Med 22:157-158.
rent ulcerative (aphthae) stomatitis. NY State Dent J Scully C, Porter SR (1993b). Orofacial manifestations in
24 101 -102. primary immunodeficiencies: polymorphonuclear
Rothe G, Wutzler P, Spossig M, Farber J (1978). Zur Ati- leukocyte defects. I Oral Pathol Med 22:310-311.
ologie der chronisch rezidivierenden aphthen der Scully C, MacFadyen EE, Campbell A (1982). Orofacial
Mundschleimhaut. Stomatol DDR 28:325-328. manifestations in cyclic neutropenia. Br J Oral Surg
Ruah CB, Stram JR, Chasin WD (1988). Treatment of 20:96-101.
severe recurrent aphthous stomatitis with coichicine. Scully C, Yap L, Boyle P (1983). IgE and IgD concentra-
Arch Otolaryngol Head Neck Surg 114:671-675. tions in patients with recurrent aphthous stomatitis.
Sallay K, Banoczy J (1968). Remarks on the possibilities Arch Dermatol 119:31-34.
of the simultaneous occurrence of hyperkeratosis of Segal AL, Katcher AH, Brightman KI, Miller MF (1974).
the mucous membrane and recurrent aphthae. Oral Recurrent herpes labialis, recurrent aphthous ulcers,
Surg Oral Med Oral Pathol 25:171-175. and the menstrual cycle. J Dent Res 5 3:797-803.
Sallay K, Dan P Geck P, Kulscar G, Nasz 1 (1971). Shapiro S, Olsson DL, Chellemi SJ (1970). The associa-
Immunofluorescent studies on circulating lympho- tion between smoking and aphthous ulcers. Oral Surg
cytes in oral mucosal diseases. Arch Dermatol Forsch Oral Med Oral Pathol 30:624-630.
241:15-21 Ship II (1965). Inheritance of aphthous ulcers of the
Sallay K, Kulscar G, Nasz 1, Dan P, Geck P (1973). mouth. J Dent Res 44:837-844.
Adenovirus isolation from recurrent oral ulcers. J Ship 11 (1972). Epidemiological aspects of recurrent aphthous
Periodontol 44:712-714. ulcerations. Oral Surg Oral Med Oral Pathol 33:400-406.
Savage NW, Seymour GJ (1994). Specific lymphocytotoxic Ship II, Ashe WK, Scherp HW (1961a). Recurrent "fever
9(3):306-321 (1998)