AUTOMATIC PHYSIOTHERAPYASSIST SYSTEM

ABSTRACT
Each and every human being in this world have their desire and right to lead a healthy
life. But unfortunately accidents, diseases, elder-ship make their desire into disability.
Moreover the number of handicaps and paralyzed patients are increasing day by day. They
always need someone to help them in moving and undergoing some physical therapies for
recuperating their strain back. In this paper the proposed system helps them to undergo the
therapy activities of physiotherapist in a cost effective manner. In this project, paralyzed
patient have inbuilt arm for their daily exercise. This arm can be activated through another
arm by the doctor. The doctor can give command to the patient through arm. This arm helps
to fold, straight and rotate the patient arm as per doctor arm. The aim of the research is to
design a robotic arm for the paralyzed patient in order to help them undergo treatment at the
place they are located, rather than making a regular visit to the hospital.
INTRODUCTION
One in every 75 people suffer from Paralysis. Paralysis is a disorder where the loss of
muscle function occurs in one or more muscles. It is a complete loss of strength in an affected
limb or muscle group [1]. The paralysis most often occur as a result of nervous system
damage, trauma cases involving severe nerve injury and most often it is a by-product of
stroke. There are cases were paralysis occurs even in new-borns as a result of Spina bifida
[2]. Paralysis usually affects various parts of body, it may be a localised one or generalised
one. The types of paralysis include Monoplegia (affecting only one arm), Diplegia (affecting
the same body region on both the sides), Hemiplegia (affecting one side of the body),
Paraplegia (affecting both legs), Quadriplegia (affecting all limbs and trunk) [3]. There is no
instant cure for paralysis as of now. The paralysed patients are being approached with some
medications and physiotherapy [4]. Physiotherapy seems to be a widely adopted solution for
muscle arrest as it enhances blood circulation to a particular organ and relax those muscles.
These therapy treatment not only recovers the damaged muscles but also hampers the
progress of paralysis to a great extent. In order to undergo this therapeutical treatment, the
patient needing physical rehabilitation have to make a regular visit to the hospital, to get the
treatment done by the therapist.

This regular visit to the hospital causes inconvenience to the patients, as they have got
to travel a distance. Moreover the existing shortage of therapists and caregivers assisting
physically disabled individuals at home is expected to increase and would become serious
problem in the near future. The patient population needing physical rehabilitation of the
upper extremity is also constantly increasing. Robotic devices have the potential to address
this problem as noted by the results of recent research studies. However, the availability of
these devices in clinical settings is limited, leaving plenty of room for improvement. In order
to rectify this issue, an Auto Assist Physio model for therapeutical purpose have been
proposed. In this system, two arms are being employed. The paralyzed patient will be
provided with an arm for therapy purpose and another arm will be with the doctor for
assisting the therapy. This model provides therapy only to the upper extremities. The patient
arm will be attached to the patient by having a grip at neck and shoulder of the patient. On the
other side the doctor will be giving therapy to these patients via commands that is being
executed on the doctor arm model. In response to the doctor arm command, the patient arm
executes the therapy. The command operations includes folding, straightening, rotating to
particular degree, massaging and so on. The implemented work is actually a combination of
two parts i.e. controlling part and therapy part.
COMPONENTS USED

The components used in this project are:

 Motor
 Battery
 Shaft
 Electronic circuit
 Bearings

Electric battery
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
For other uses, see Battery (disambiguation).

Battery

Various cells and batteries (top left to bottom right):

two AA, one D, one handheld ham radio battery,
two 9-volt (PP3), two AAA, one C,
one camcorder battery, one cordless phone battery

Type Power source

Working Electrochemical
principle reactions, Electromotive force

First 1800s
production
Electronic symbol

The symbol for a battery in a circuit diagram. It

originated as a schematic drawing of the earliest type
of battery, a voltaic pile.

A battery is a device consisting of one or more electrochemical cells with external

connections[1] for powering electrical devices such as flashlights, mobile phones, and electric
cars. When a battery is supplying electric power, its positive terminal is the cathode and its
negative terminal is the anode.[2] The terminal marked negative is the source of electrons that
will flow through an external electric circuit to the positive terminal. When a battery is
connected to an external electric load, a redox reaction converts high-energy reactants to
lower-energy products, and the free-energy difference is delivered to the external circuit as
electrical energy.[3] Historically the term "battery" specifically referred to a device composed
of multiple cells, however the usage has evolved to include devices composed of a single cell.
[4]

Primary (single-use or "disposable") batteries are used once and discarded, as

the electrode materials are irreversibly changed during discharge; a common example is
the alkaline battery used for flashlights and a multitude of portable electronic
devices. Secondary (rechargeable) batteries can be discharged and recharged multiple times
using an applied electric current; the original composition of the electrodes can be restored by
reverse current. Examples include the lead-acid batteries used in vehicles and lithium-
ion batteries used for portable electronics such as laptops and mobile phones.

Batteries come in many shapes and sizes, from miniature cells used to power hearing aids and
wristwatches to small, thin cells used in smartphones, to large lead acid batteries or lithium-
ion batteries in vehicles, and at the largest extreme, huge battery banks the size of rooms that
provide standby or emergency power for telephone exchanges and computer data centers.

Batteries have much lower specific energy (energy per unit mass) than common fuels such as
gasoline. In automobiles, this is somewhat offset by the higher efficiency of electric motors in
converting chemical energy to mechanical work, compared to combustion engines.

History
Main article: History of the battery

A voltaic pile, the first battery

Italian physicist Alessandro Volta demonstrating his pile to French emperor Napoleon
Bonaparte

The usage of "battery" to describe a group of electrical devices dates to Benjamin Franklin,
who in 1748 described multiple Leyden jars by analogy to a battery of cannon[5] (Benjamin
Franklin borrowed the term "battery" from the military, which refers to weapons functioning
together[6]).

Italian physicist Alessandro Volta built and described the first electrochemical battery,
the voltaic pile, in 1800.[7] This was a stack of copper and zinc plates, separated by brine-
soaked paper disks, that could produce a steady current for a considerable length of time.
Volta did not understand that the voltage was due to chemical reactions. He thought that his
cells were an inexhaustible source of energy, [8] and that the associated corrosion effects at the
electrodes were a mere nuisance, rather than an unavoidable consequence of their operation,
as Michael Faraday showed in 1834.[9]

Although early batteries were of great value for experimental purposes, in practice their
voltages fluctuated and they could not provide a large current for a sustained period.
The Daniell cell, invented in 1836 by British chemist John Frederic Daniell, was the first
practical source of electricity, becoming an industry standard and seeing widespread adoption
as a power source for electrical telegraph networks.[10] It consisted of a copper pot filled with
a copper sulfate solution, in which was immersed an unglazed earthenware container filled
with sulfuric acid and a zinc electrode.[11]

These wet cells used liquid electrolytes, which were prone to leakage and spillage if not
handled correctly. Many used glass jars to hold their components, which made them fragile
and potentially dangerous. These characteristics made wet cells unsuitable for portable
appliances. Near the end of the nineteenth century, the invention of dry cell batteries, which
replaced the liquid electrolyte with a paste, made portable electrical devices practical. [12]

Principle of operation
Main article: Electrochemical cell

A voltaic cell for demonstration purposes. In this example the two half-cells are linked by
a salt bridge that permits the transfer of ions.

Batteries convert chemical energy directly to electrical energy. In many cases, the electrical
energy released is the difference in the cohesive [13] or bond energies of the metals, oxides, or
molecules undergoing the electrochemical reaction.[3] For instance, energy can be stored in Zn
or Li, which are high-energy metals because they are not stabilized by d-electron bonding,
unlike transition metals. Batteries are designed such that the energetically
favorable redox reaction can occur only if electrons move through the external part of the
circuit.

A battery consists of some number of voltaic cells. Each cell consists of two half-
cells connected in series by a conductive electrolyte containing metal cations. One half-cell
includes electrolyte and the negative electrode, the electrode to which anions (negatively
charged ions) migrate; the other half-cell includes electrolyte and the positive electrode, to
which cations (positively charged ions) migrate. Cations are reduced (electrons are added) at
the cathode, while metal atoms are oxidized (electrons are removed) at the anode. [14] Some
cells use different electrolytes for each half-cell; then a separator is used to prevent mixing of
the electrolytes while allowing ions to flow between half-cells to complete the electrical
circuit.

measured in volts.[17] The terminal voltage of a cell that is neither charging nor discharging is called
the open-circuit voltage and equals the emf of the cell. Because of internal resistance, [18] the
terminal voltage of a cell that is discharging is smaller in magnitude than the open-circuit voltage and
the terminal voltage of a cell that is charging exceeds the open-circuit voltage. [19] An ideal cell has
negligible internal resistance, so it would maintain a constant terminal voltage of ε ε until exhausted,
then dropping to zero. If such a cell maintained 1.5 volts and produce a charge of one coulomb then
on complete discharge it would have performed 1.5 joules of work.[17] In actual cells, the internal
resistance increases under discharge[18] and the open-circuit voltage also decreases under discharge.
If the voltage and resistance are plotted against time, the resulting graphs typically are a curve; the
shape of the curve varies according to the chemistry and internal arrangement employed.
The voltage developed across a cell's terminals depends on the energy release of the chemical
reactions of its electrodes and electrolyte. Alkaline and zinc–carbon cells have different
chemistries, but approximately the same emf of 1.5 volts; likewise NiCd and NiMH cells
have different chemistries, but approximately the same emf of 1.2 volts. [20] The high
electrochemical potential changes in the reactions of lithium compounds give lithium cells
emfs of 3 volts or more.[21]

Categories and types of batteries

Main article: List of battery types
From top to bottom: a large 4.5-volt 3R12 battery, a D Cell, a C cell, an AA cell, an AAA cell,
an AAAA cell, an A23 battery, a 9-volt PP3 battery, and a pair of button cells (CR2032 and
LR44)

Batteries are classified into primary and secondary forms:

 Primary batteries are designed to be used until exhausted of energy then discarded. Their
chemical reactions are generally not reversible, so they cannot be recharged. When the
supply of reactants in the battery is exhausted, the battery stops producing current and is
useless.[22]
 Secondary batteries can be recharged; that is, they can have their chemical reactions
reversed by applying electric current to the cell. This regenerates the original chemical
reactants, so they can be used, recharged, and used again multiple times.[23]

Some types of primary batteries used, for example, for telegraph circuits, were restored to
operation by replacing the electrodes.[24] Secondary batteries are not indefinitely rechargeable
due to dissipation of the active materials, loss of electrolyte and internal corrosion.

Primary
Main article: Primary cell

Primary batteries, or primary cells, can produce current immediately on assembly. These are
most commonly used in portable devices that have low current drain, are used only
intermittently, or are used well away from an alternative power source, such as in alarm and
communication circuits where other electric power is only intermittently available.
Disposable primary cells cannot be reliably recharged, since the chemical reactions are not
easily reversible and active materials may not return to their original forms. Battery
manufacturers recommend against attempting to recharge primary cells. [25] In general, these
have higher energy densities than rechargeable batteries,[26] but disposable batteries do not
fare well under high-drain applications with loads under 75 ohms (75 Ω). Common types of
disposable batteries include zinc–carbon batteries and alkaline batteries.

Secondary
Main article: Rechargeable battery

Secondary batteries, also known as secondary cells, or rechargeable batteries, must be

charged before first use; they are usually assembled with active materials in the discharged
state. Rechargeable batteries are (re)charged by applying electric current, which reverses the
chemical reactions that occur during discharge/use. Devices to supply the appropriate current
are called chargers.

The oldest form of rechargeable battery is the lead–acid battery, which are widely used
in automotive and boating applications. This technology contains liquid electrolyte in an
unsealed container, requiring that the battery be kept upright and the area be well ventilated
to ensure safe dispersal of the hydrogen gas it produces during overcharging. The lead–acid
battery is relatively heavy for the amount of electrical energy it can supply. Its low
manufacturing cost and its high surge current levels make it common where its capacity (over
approximately 10 Ah) is more important than weight and handling issues. A common
application is the modern car battery, which can, in general, deliver a peak current of
450 amperes.

The sealed valve regulated lead–acid battery (VRLA battery) is popular in the automotive
industry as a replacement for the lead–acid wet cell. The VRLA battery uses an
immobilized sulfuric acid electrolyte, reducing the chance of leakage and extending shelf life.
[27]
VRLA batteries immobilize the electrolyte. The two types are:

 Gel batteries (or "gel cell") use a semi-solid electrolyte.

 Absorbed Glass Mat (AGM) batteries absorb the electrolyte in a special fiberglass
matting.

Other portable rechargeable batteries include several sealed "dry cell" types, that are useful in
applications such as mobile phones and laptop computers. Cells of this type (in order of
increasing power density and cost) include nickel–cadmium (NiCd), nickel–
zinc (NiZn), nickel metal hydride (NiMH), and lithium-ion (Li-ion) cells. Li-ion has by far
the highest share of the dry cell rechargeable market. NiMH has replaced NiCd in most
applications due to its higher capacity, but NiCd remains in use in power tools, two-way
radios, and medical equipment.

In the 2000s, developments include batteries with embedded electronics such as USBCELL,
which allows charging an AA battery through a USB connector,[28] nanoball batteries that
allow for a discharge rate about 100x greater than current batteries, and smart battery packs
with state-of-charge monitors and battery protection circuits that prevent damage on over-
discharge. Low self-discharge (LSD) allows secondary cells to be charged prior to shipping.
Cell types
Many types of electrochemical cells have been produced, with varying chemical processes
and designs, including galvanic cells, electrolytic cells, fuel cells, flow cells and voltaic piles.
[29]

Wet cell

A wet cell battery has a liquid electrolyte. Other names are flooded cell, since the liquid
covers all internal parts, or vented cell, since gases produced during operation can escape to
the air. Wet cells were a precursor to dry cells and are commonly used as a learning tool
for electrochemistry. They can be built with common laboratory supplies, such as beakers, for
demonstrations of how electrochemical cells work. A particular type of wet cell known as
a concentration cell is important in understanding corrosion. Wet cells may be primary
cells (non-rechargeable) or secondary cells (rechargeable). Originally, all practical primary
batteries such as the Daniell cell were built as open-top glass jar wet cells. Other primary wet
cells are the Leclanche cell, Grove cell, Bunsen cell, Chromic acid cell, Clark cell,
and Weston cell. The Leclanche cell chemistry was adapted to the first dry cells. Wet cells
are still used in automobile batteries and in industry for standby power for switchgear,
telecommunication or large uninterruptible power supplies, but in many places batteries
with gel cells have been used instead. These applications commonly use lead–acid or nickel–
cadmium cells.

Dry cell
Further information: Dry cell
Line art drawing of a dry cell:
1. brass cap, 2. plastic seal, 3. expansion space, 4. porous cardboard, 5. zinc can, 6. carbon
rod, 7. chemical mixture

A dry cell uses a paste electrolyte, with only enough moisture to allow current to flow. Unlike
a wet cell, a dry cell can operate in any orientation without spilling, as it contains no free
liquid, making it suitable for portable equipment. By comparison, the first wet cells were
typically fragile glass containers with lead rods hanging from the open top and needed careful
handling to avoid spillage. Lead–acid batteries did not achieve the safety and portability of
the dry cell until the development of the gel battery.

A common dry cell is the zinc–carbon battery, sometimes called the dry Leclanché cell, with
a nominal voltage of 1.5 volts, the same as the alkaline battery (since both use the same zinc–
manganese dioxide combination). A standard dry cell comprises a zinc anode, usually in the
form of a cylindrical pot, with a carbon cathode in the form of a central rod. The electrolyte
is ammonium chloride in the form of a paste next to the zinc anode. The remaining space
between the electrolyte and carbon cathode is taken up by a second paste consisting of
ammonium chloride and manganese dioxide, the latter acting as a depolariser. In some
designs, the ammonium chloride is replaced by zinc chloride.

Molten salt

Molten salt batteries are primary or secondary batteries that use a molten salt as electrolyte.
They operate at high temperatures and must be well insulated to retain heat.

Reserve

A reserve battery can be stored unassembled (unactivated and supplying no power) for a long
period (perhaps years). When the battery is needed, then it is assembled (e.g., by adding
electrolyte); once assembled, the battery is charged and ready to work. For example, a battery
for an electronic artillery fuze might be activated by the impact of firing a gun. The
acceleration breaks a capsule of electrolyte that activates the battery and powers the fuze's
circuits. Reserve batteries are usually designed for a short service life (seconds or minutes)
after long storage (years). A water-activated battery for oceanographic instruments or military
applications becomes activated on immersion in water.
Cell performance
A battery's characteristics may vary over load cycle, over charge cycle, and over lifetime due
to many factors including internal chemistry, current drain, and temperature. At low
temperatures, a battery cannot deliver as much power. As such, in cold climates, some car
owners install battery warmers, which are small electric heating pads that keep the car battery
warm.

Capacity and discharge

A device to check battery voltage

A battery's capacity is the amount of electric charge it can deliver at the rated voltage. The
more electrode material contained in the cell the greater its capacity. A small cell has less
capacity than a larger cell with the same chemistry, although they develop the same open-
circuit voltage.[30] Capacity is measured in units such as amp-hour (A·h). The rated capacity
of a battery is usually expressed as the product of 20 hours multiplied by the current that a
new battery can consistently supply for 20 hours at 68 °F (20 °C), while remaining above a
specified terminal voltage per cell. For example, a battery rated at 100 A·h can deliver 5 A
over a 20-hour period at room temperature. The fraction of the stored charge that a battery
can deliver depends on multiple factors, including battery chemistry, the rate at which the
charge is delivered (current), the required terminal voltage, the storage period, ambient
temperature and other factors.[30]

The higher the discharge rate, the lower the capacity. [31] The relationship between current,
discharge time and capacity for a lead acid battery is approximated (over a typical range of
current values) by Peukert's law:
Batteries that are stored for a long period or that are discharged at a small fraction of the
capacity lose capacity due to the presence of generally irreversible side reactions that
consume charge carriers without producing current. This phenomenon is known as internal
self-discharge. Further, when batteries are recharged, additional side reactions can occur,
reducing capacity for subsequent discharges. After enough recharges, in essence all capacity
is lost and the battery stops producing power.

Internal energy losses and limitations on the rate that ions pass through the electrolyte cause
battery efficiency to vary. Above a minimum threshold, discharging at a low rate delivers
more of the battery's capacity than at a higher rate. Installing batteries with varying A·h
ratings does not affect device operation (although it may affect the operation interval) rated
for a specific voltage unless load limits are exceeded. High-drain loads such as digital
cameras can reduce total capacity, as happens with alkaline batteries. For example, a battery
rated at 2 A·h for a 10- or 20-hour discharge would not sustain a current of 1 A for a full two
hours as its stated capacity implies.

C rate
See also: Battery charger § C-rate

The C-rate is a measure of the rate at which a battery is being charged or discharged. It is
defined as the current through the battery divided by the theoretical current draw under which
the battery would deliver its nominal rated capacity in one hour.[32] It has the units h−1.

C-rate is used as a rating on batteries to indicate the maximum current that a battery can
safely deliver on a circuit. Standards for rechargeable batteries generally rate the capacity
over a 4-hour, 8 hour or longer discharge time. Types intended for special purposes, such as
in a computer uninterruptible power supply, may be rated by manufacturers for discharge
periods much less than one hour. Because of internal resistance loss and the chemical
processes inside the cells, a battery rarely delivers nameplate rated capacity in only one hour.
Fast-charging, large and light batteries
As of 2012, lithium iron phosphate (LiFePO
4) battery technology was the fastest-charging/discharging, fully discharging in 10–20
seconds.[33]

As of 2017, the world's largest battery was built in South Australia by Tesla. It can store 129
MWh.[34] A battery in Hebei Province, China which can store 36 MWh of electricity was built
in 2013 at a cost of $500 million. [35] Another large battery, composed of Ni–Cd cells, was
in Fairbanks, Alaska. It covered 2,000 square metres (22,000 sq ft)—bigger than a football
pitch—and weighed 1,300 tonnes. It was manufactured by ABB to provide backup power in
the event of a blackout. The battery can provide 40 MW of power for up to seven minutes.
[36]
Sodium–sulfur batteries have been used to store wind power.[37] A 4.4 MWh battery
system that can deliver 11 MW for 25 minutes stabilizes the output of the Auwahi wind farm
in Hawaii.[38]

Lithium–sulfur batteries were used on the longest and highest solar-powered flight.[39]

Lifetime
Battery life (and its synonym battery lifetime) has two meanings for rechargeable batteries
but only one for non-chargeables. For rechargeables, it can mean either the length of time a
device can run on a fully charged battery or the number of charge/discharge cycles possible
before the cells fail to operate satisfactorily. For a non-rechargeable these two lives are equal
since the cells last for only one cycle by definition. (The term shelf life is used to describe
how long a battery will retain its performance between manufacture and use.) Available
capacity of all batteries drops with decreasing temperature. In contrast to most of today's
batteries, the Zamboni pile, invented in 1812, offers a very long service life without
refurbishment or recharge, although it supplies current only in the nanoamp range.
The Oxford Electric Bell has been ringing almost continuously since 1840 on its original pair
of batteries, thought to be Zamboni piles.[citation needed]

Self-discharge
Disposable batteries typically lose 8 to 20 percent of their original charge per year when
stored at room temperature (20–30 °C).[40] This is known as the "self-discharge" rate, and is
due to non-current-producing "side" chemical reactions that occur within the cell even when
no load is applied. The rate of side reactions is reduced for batteries stored at lower
temperatures, although some can be damaged by freezing.
Old rechargeable batteries self-discharge more rapidly than disposable alkaline batteries,
especially nickel-based batteries; a freshly charged nickel cadmium (NiCd) battery loses 10%
of its charge in the first 24 hours, and thereafter discharges at a rate of about 10% a month.
However, newer low self-discharge nickel metal hydride (NiMH) batteries and modern
lithium designs display a lower self-discharge rate (but still higher than for primary batteries).

Corrosion
Internal parts may corrode and fail, or the active materials may be slowly converted to
inactive forms.

Physical component changes

The active material on the battery plates changes chemical composition on each charge and
discharge cycle; active material may be lost due to physical changes of volume, further
limiting the number of times the battery can be recharged. Most nickel-based batteries are
partially discharged when purchased, and must be charged before first use. [41] Newer NiMH
batteries are ready to be used when purchased, and have only 15% discharge in a year.[42]

Some deterioration occurs on each charge–discharge cycle. Degradation usually occurs

because electrolyte migrates away from the electrodes or because active material detaches
from the electrodes. Low-capacity NiMH batteries (1,700–2,000 mA·h) can be charged some
1,000 times, whereas high-capacity NiMH batteries (above 2,500 mA·h) last about 500
cycles.[43] NiCd batteries tend to be rated for 1,000 cycles before their internal resistance
permanently increases beyond usable values.

Charge/discharge speed
Fast charging increases component changes, shortening battery lifespan.[43]

Overcharging
If a charger cannot detect when the battery is fully charged then overcharging is likely,
damaging it.[44]

Memory effect
See also: Nickel–cadmium battery § Memory effect

NiCd cells, if used in a particular repetitive manner, may show a decrease in capacity called
"memory effect".[45] The effect can be avoided with simple practices. NiMH cells, although
similar in chemistry, suffer less from memory effect.[46]
An analog camcorder [lithium ion] battery

Environmental conditions
Automotive lead–acid rechargeable batteries must endure stress due to vibration, shock, and
temperature range. Because of these stresses and sulfation of their lead plates, few
automotive batteries last beyond six years of regular use. [47] Automotive
starting (SLI: Starting, Lighting, Ignition) batteries have many thin plates to maximize
current. In general, the thicker the plates the longer the life. They are typically discharged
only slightly before recharge.

"Deep-cycle" lead–acid batteries such as those used in electric golf carts have much thicker
plates to extend longevity.[48] The main benefit of the lead–acid battery is its low cost; its
main drawbacks are large size and weight for a given capacity and voltage. Lead–acid
batteries should never be discharged to below 20% of their capacity, [49] because internal
resistance will cause heat and damage when they are recharged. Deep-cycle lead–acid
systems often use a low-charge warning light or a low-charge power cut-off switch to prevent
the type of damage that will shorten the battery's life.[50]

Storage
Battery life can be extended by storing the batteries at a low temperature, as in
a refrigerator or freezer, which slows the side reactions. Such storage can extend the life of
alkaline batteries by about 5%; rechargeable batteries can hold their charge much longer,
depending upon type.[51] To reach their maximum voltage, batteries must be returned to room
temperature; discharging an alkaline battery at 250 mA at 0 °C is only half as efficient as at
20 °C.[26] Alkaline battery manufacturers such as Duracell do not recommend refrigerating
batteries.[25]

Battery sizes
Main article: List of battery sizes

Primary batteries readily available to consumers range from tiny button cells used for electric
watches, to the No. 6 cell used for signal circuits or other long duration applications.
Secondary cells are made in very large sizes; very large batteries can power a submarine or
stabilize an electrical grid and help level out peak loads.

Hazards
See also: Safety of electronic cigarettes § Fires, explosions, and other battery-related
malfunctions

Battery after explosion

A battery explosion is generally caused by misuse or malfunction, such as attempting to

recharge a primary (non-rechargeable) battery, or a short circuit.

When a battery is recharged at an excessive rate, an explosive gas mixture

of hydrogen and oxygen may be produced faster than it can escape from within the battery
(e.g. through a built-in vent), leading to pressure build-up and eventual bursting of the battery
case. In extreme cases, battery chemicals may spray violently from the casing and cause
injury. Overcharging – that is, attempting to charge a battery beyond its electrical capacity –
can also lead to a battery explosion, in addition to leakage or irreversible damage. It may also
cause damage to the charger or device in which the overcharged battery is later used.

Car batteries are most likely to explode when a short-circuit generates very large currents.
Such batteries produce hydrogen, which is very explosive, when they are overcharged
(because of electrolysis of the water in the electrolyte). During normal use, the amount of
overcharging is usually very small and generates little hydrogen, which dissipates quickly.
However, when "jump starting" a car, the high current can cause the rapid release of large
volumes of hydrogen, which can be ignited explosively by a nearby spark, e.g. when
disconnecting a jumper cable.

Disposing of a battery via incineration may cause an explosion as steam builds up within the
sealed case.

Recalls of devices using Lithium-ion batteries have become more common in recent years.
This is in response to reported accidents and failures, occasionally ignition or explosion. [52]
[53]
An expert summary of the problem indicates that this type uses "liquid electrolytes to
transport lithium ions between the anode and the cathode. If a battery cell is charged too
quickly, it can cause a short circuit, leading to explosions and fires".[54][55]

Leakage

Leak-damaged alkaline battery

Many battery chemicals are corrosive, poisonous or both. If leakage occurs, either
spontaneously or through accident, the chemicals released may be dangerous. For example,
disposable batteries often use a zinc "can" both as a reactant and as the container to hold the
other reagents. If this kind of battery is over-discharged, the reagents can emerge through the
cardboard and plastic that form the remainder of the container. The active chemical leakage
can then damage or disable the equipment that the batteries power. For this reason, many
electronic device manufacturers recommend removing the batteries from devices that will not
be used for extended periods of time.
Toxic materials
Many types of batteries employ toxic materials such as lead, mercury, and cadmium as an
electrode or electrolyte. When each battery reaches end of life it must be disposed of to
prevent environmental damage.[56] Batteries are one form of electronic waste (e-waste). E-
waste recycling services recover toxic substances, which can then be used for new batteries.
[57]
Of the nearly three billion batteries purchased annually in the United States, about 179,000
tons end up in landfills across the country. [58] In the United States, the Mercury-Containing
and Rechargeable Battery Management Act of 1996 banned the sale of mercury-containing
batteries, enacted uniform labeling requirements for rechargeable batteries and required that
rechargeable batteries be easily removable. [59] California and New York City prohibit the
disposal of rechargeable batteries in solid waste, and along with Maine require recycling of
cell phones.[60] The rechargeable battery industry operates nationwide recycling programs in
the United States and Canada, with dropoff points at local retailers.[60]

The Battery Directive of the European Union has similar requirements, in addition to
requiring increased recycling of batteries and promoting research on improved battery
recycling methods.[61] In accordance with this directive all batteries to be sold within the EU
must be marked with the "collection symbol" (a crossed-out wheeled bin). This must cover at
least 3% of the surface of prismatic batteries and 1.5% of the surface of cylindrical batteries.
All packaging must be marked likewise.[62]

Ingestion
Batteries may be harmful or fatal if swallowed.[63] Small button cells can be swallowed, in
particular by young children. While in the digestive tract, the battery's electrical discharge
may lead to tissue damage;[64] such damage is occasionally serious and can lead to death.
Ingested disk batteries do not usually cause problems unless they become lodged in
the gastrointestinal tract. The most common place for disk batteries to become lodged is the
esophagus, resulting in clinical sequelae. Batteries that successfully traverse the esophagus
are unlikely to lodge elsewhere. The likelihood that a disk battery will lodge in the esophagus
is a function of the patient's age and battery size. Disk batteries of 16 mm have become
lodged in the esophagi of 2 children younger than 1 year.[citation needed] Older children do not
have problems with batteries smaller than 21–23 mm. Liquefaction necrosis may occur
because sodium hydroxide is generated by the current produced by the battery (usually at the
anode). Perforation has occurred as rapidly as 6 hours after ingestion.[65]
Chemistry
Many important cell properties, such as voltage, energy density, flammability, available cell
constructions, operating temperature range and shelf life, are dictated by battery chemistry.

Primary batteries and their characteristics

Shelf
Nomi
life at
nal
Max. 25 °C,
Ano voltag Specific
Chemist Catho voltage, Elabora 80%
de e, energy (kJ
ry de (+) theoreti tion capaci
(−) practi /kg)
cal (V) ty
cal
(mont
(V)
hs)

Zinc– Inexpensiv
Zn MnO2 1.6 1.2 130 18
carbon e.

Also
known as
Zinc– "heavy-
1.5
chloride duty",
inexpensiv
e.

Moderate
energy
Alkaline
density.
(zinc–
Zn MnO2 1.5 1.15 400-590 Good for 30
manganese
high- and
dioxide)
low-drain
uses.
 Shelf
Nomi
life at
nal
Max. 25 °C,
Ano voltag Specific
Chemist Catho voltage, Elabora 80%
de e, energy (kJ
ry de (+) theoreti tion capaci
(−) practi /kg)
cal (V) ty
cal
(mont
(V)
hs)

Nickel
oxyhydrox
Moderate
ide
energy
(zinc–
density.
manganese 1.7
Good for
dioxide/nic
high drain
kel
uses.
oxyhydrox
ide)

No longer
manufactur
Lithium ed.
(lithium– Replaced
copper Li CuO 1.7 by silver
oxide) oxide
Li–CuO (IEC-type
"SR")
batteries.

Lithium Li FeS2 1.8 1.5 1070 Expensive. 337[66]

(lithium– Used in
 Shelf
Nomi
life at
nal
Max. 25 °C,
Ano voltag Specific
Chemist Catho voltage, Elabora 80%
de e, energy (kJ
ry de (+) theoreti tion capaci
(−) practi /kg)
cal (V) ty
cal
(mont
(V)
hs)

iron 'plus' or
disulfide) 'extra'
LiFeS2 batteries.

Expensive.
Used only
in high-
drain
devices or
for long
Lithium shelf-life
(lithium– due to very
manganese Li MnO2 3.0 830–1010 low rate of
dioxide) self-
LiMnO2 discharge.
'Lithium'
alone
usually
refers to
this type of
chemistry.
 Shelf
Nomi
life at
nal
Max. 25 °C,
Ano voltag Specific
Chemist Catho voltage, Elabora 80%
de e, energy (kJ
ry de (+) theoreti tion capaci
(−) practi /kg)
cal (V) ty
cal
(mont
(V)
hs)

Lithium
(lithium–
carbon Li (CF)n 3.6 3.0 120
fluoride)
Li–(CF)n

Lithium
(lithium–
chromium Li CrO2 3.8 3.0 108
oxide)
Li–CrO2

Lithium
Li22Si5
(lithium-
silicon)

Mercury Zn HgO 1.34 1.2 High-drain 36

oxide and
constant
voltage.
Banned in
most
 Shelf
Nomi
life at
nal
Max. 25 °C,
Ano voltag Specific
Chemist Catho voltage, Elabora 80%
de e, energy (kJ
ry de (+) theoreti tion capaci
(−) practi /kg)
cal (V) ty
cal
(mont
(V)
hs)

countries
because of
health
concerns.

Used
mostly in
Zinc–air Zn O2 1.6 1.1 1590[67]
hearing
aids.

Very long
life
Zamboni Ag or
Zn 0.8 Very low >2,000
pile Au
(nanoamp,
nA) current

Very
expensive.
Silver- Used only
oxide (silv Zn Ag2O 1.85 1.5 470 commercia 30
er–zinc) lly in
'button'
cells.
 Shelf
Nomi
life at
nal
Max. 25 °C,
Ano voltag Specific
Chemist Catho voltage, Elabora 80%
de e, energy (kJ
ry de (+) theoreti tion capaci
(−) practi /kg)
cal (V) ty
cal
(mont
(V)
hs)

Magnesiu
Mg MnO2 2.0 1.5 40
m

Secondary (rechargeable) batteries and their characteristics

Energy
Cell Specific
density
Chemistry voltag energy Comments
(kJ/liter
e (kJ/kg)
)

Nickel–cadmium chemistry.
Inexpensive.
High-/low-drain, moderate energy
density.
NiCd 1.2 140 Can withstand very high discharge rates
with virtually no loss of capacity.
Moderate rate of self-discharge.
Environmental hazard due to Cadmium –
use now virtually prohibited in Europe.

Lead–acid 2.1 140 Moderately expensive.

Moderate energy density.
 Energy
Cell Specific
density
Chemistry voltag energy Comments
(kJ/liter
e (kJ/kg)
)

Moderate rate of self-discharge.

Higher discharge rates result in
considerable loss of capacity.
Environmental hazard due to Lead.
Common use – Automobile batteries

Nickel–metal hydride chemistry.

Inexpensive.
Performs better than alkaline batteries in
higher drain devices.
Traditional chemistry has high energy
NiMH 1.2 360 density, but also a high rate of self-
discharge.
Newer chemistry has low self-discharge
rate, but also a ~25% lower energy
density.
Used in some cars.

NiZn 1.6 360 Nickel-zinc chemistry.

Moderately inexpensive.
High drain device suitable.
Low self-discharge rate.
Voltage closer to alkaline primary cells
than other secondary cells.
 Energy
Cell Specific
density
Chemistry voltag energy Comments
(kJ/liter
e (kJ/kg)
)

No toxic components.
Newly introduced to the market (2009).
Has not yet established a track record.
Limited size availability.

Silver-zinc chemistry.
Smaller volume than equivalent Li-ion.
Extremely expensive due to silver.
Very high energy density.
Very high drain capable.
For many years considered obsolete due
to high silver prices.
Cell suffers from oxidation if unused.
Reactions are not fully understood.
1.86
AgZn 460 Terminal voltage very stable but suddenly
1.5
drops to 1.5 volts at 70–80% charge
(believed to be
due to presence of both argentous and
argentic oxide in positive plate – one is
consumed first).
Has been used in lieu of primary battery
(moon buggy).
Is being developed once again as a
replacement for Li-ion.

LiFePO4 3.3 360 790 Lithium-Iron-Phosphate chemistry.

 Energy
Cell Specific
density
Chemistry voltag energy Comments
(kJ/liter
e (kJ/kg)
)

3.0

Various lithium chemistries.

Very expensive.
Very high energy density.
Not usually available in "common"
battery sizes.
Lithium polymer battery is common in
laptop computers, digital cameras,
camcorders, and cellphones.
Lithium ion 3.6 460
Very low rate of self-discharge.

Terminal voltage varies from 4.2 to 3.0

volts during discharge.
Volatile: Chance of explosion if short-
circuited, allowed to overheat, or not
manufactured with rigorous quality
standards.

Solid-state batteries

On 28 February 2017, the University of Texas at Austin issued a press release about a new
type of solid-state battery, developed by a team led by lithium-ion battery inventor John
Goodenough, "that could lead to safer, faster-charging, longer-lasting rechargeable batteries
for handheld mobile devices, electric cars and stationary energy storage". [68] More specifics
about the new technology were published in the peer-reviewed scientific journal Energy &
Environmental Science.
Independent reviews of the technology discuss the risk of fire and explosion from lithium-ion
batteries under certain conditions because they use liquid electrolytes. The newly developed
battery should be safer since it uses glass electrolytes that should eliminate short circuits. The
solid-state battery is also said to have "three times the energy density", increasing its useful
life in electric vehicles, for example. It should also be more ecologically sound since the
technology uses less expensive, earth-friendly materials such as sodium extracted from
seawater. They also have much longer life; "the cells have demonstrated more than 1,200
cycles with low cell resistance". The research and prototypes are not expected to lead to a
commercially viable product in the near future, if ever, according to Chris Robinson of LUX
Research. "This will have no tangible effect on electric vehicle adoption in the next 15 years,
if it does at all. A key hurdle that many solid-state electrolytes face is lack of a scalable and
cost-effective manufacturing process," he told The American Energy News in an e-mail. [69]

Homemade cells

Almost any liquid or moist object that has enough ions to be electrically conductive can serve
as the electrolyte for a cell. As a novelty or science demonstration, it is possible to insert two
electrodes made of different metals into a lemon,[70] potato,[71] etc. and generate small amounts
of electricity. "Two-potato clocks" are also widely available in hobby and toy stores; they
consist of a pair of cells, each consisting of a potato (lemon, et cetera) with two electrodes
inserted into it, wired in series to form a battery with enough voltage to power a digital clock.
[72]
Homemade cells of this kind are of no practical use.

A voltaic pile can be made from two coins (such as a nickel and a penny) and a piece of paper
towel dipped in salt water. Such a pile generates a very low voltage but, when many are
stacked in series, they can replace normal batteries for a short time.[73]

Sony has developed a biological battery that generates electricity from sugar in a way that is
similar to the processes observed in living organisms. The battery generates electricity
through the use of enzymes that break down carbohydrates.[74]

Lead acid cells can easily be manufactured at home, but a tedious charge/discharge cycle is
needed to 'form' the plates. This is a process in which lead sulfate forms on the plates and,
during charge, is converted to lead dioxide (positive plate) and pure lead (negative plate).
Repeating this process results in a microscopically rough surface, increasing the surface area,
increasing the current the cell can deliver.[75]
Daniell cells are easy to make at home. Aluminium–air batteries can be produced with high-
purity aluminium. Aluminium foil batteries will produce some electricity, but are not
efficient, in part because a significant amount of (combustible) hydrogen gas is produced.
Bearings:

A bearing is a machine element that constrains relative motion to only the desired
motion, and reduces friction between moving parts. The design of the bearing may, for
example, provide for free linear movement of the moving part or for free rotation around a
fixed axis; or, it may prevent a motion by controlling the vectors of normal forces that bear
on the moving parts. Most bearings facilitate the desired motion by minimizing friction.
Bearings are classified broadly according to the type of operation, the motions allowed, or to
the directions of the loads (forces) applied to the parts.

Rotary bearings hold rotating components such as shafts or axles within mechanical
systems, and transfer axial and radial loads from the source of the load to the structure
supporting it. The simplest form of bearing, the plain bearing, consists of a shaft rotating in a
hole. Lubrication is used to reduce friction. In the ball bearing and roller bearing, to reduce
sliding friction, rolling elements such as rollers or balls with a circular cross-section are
located between the races or journals of the bearing assembly. A wide variety of bearing
designs exists to allow the demands of the application to be correctly met for maximum
efficiency, reliability, durability and performance.

The term "bearing" is derived from the verb "to bear";a bearing being a machine
element that allows one part to bear (i.e., to support) another. The simplest bearings
are bearing surfaces, cut or formed into a part, with varying degrees of control over the form,
size, roughness and location of the surface. Other bearings are separate devices installed into
a machine or machine part. The most sophisticated bearings for the most demanding
applications are very precise devices; their manufacture requires some of the highest
standards of current technology.

TYPES OF BEARINGS AND THEIR APPLICATIONS

1. BALL BEARINGS:

A ball bearing is a type of rolling-element bearing which uses balls to maintain the
separation between the moving parts of the bearing.
 The purpose of a ball bearing is to reduce rotational friction and support radial and
axial loads. It achieves this by using at least two races to contain the balls and transmit
the loads through the balls. Usually one of the races is held fixed. As one of the bearing
races rotates it causes the balls to rotate as well. Because the balls are rolling they have a
much lower coefficient of friction than if two flat surfaces were rotating on each other.

Ball bearings tend to have lower load capacity for their size than other kinds of
rolling-element bearings due to the smaller contact area between the balls and races.
However, they can tolerate some misalignment of the inner and outer races.

Compared to other rolling-element bearings, the ball bearing is the least expensive,
primarily because of the low cost of producing the balls used in the bearing. There are
several common designs of ball bearing, each offering various trade-offs. They can be
made from many different materials, including: stainless steel, chrome steel, and
ceramic. A hybrid ball bearing is a bearing with ceramic balls and races of metal.

1.1. Single-row ball bearing:

a) General:

The rigid bearing with a row of balls is a bearing presenting a very good
performance/price ratio; it is relatively universal.

b) Aptitudes:

It has a good capacity to support the radial loads and also the axial loads in the two
directions. It presents a swivelling and exists in an instrumented version making it
possible in particular to determine the rotational speed of the shaft.

c) Uses:

This type of bearing is used in all the fields of mechanical engineering in general
(flaps, bearings of jet engines, transmissions of helicopters, on-board equipment...). It is
available with a segment which allows an axial immobilization without any retaining
wall in the housing.
1.2. Double-row ball bearing:

a) General:

These bearings require a good coaxiality between the shaft and the housing.

b) Aptitudes:

This type of bearing allows strong radial and axial loads in the two directions.

A preferential way is sometimes noticed, in case of filling notches. This bearing can
be installed alone or together with another bearing (where alignment is necessary).

c) Uses

This type of bearing is used in pumps, reducers (wheel and screw), equipment...
1.3. Double-row self-aligning ball bearing:

a) General:

The self-aligning ball bearing has two rows of balls and a common concave sphered
raceway in the outer ring. The bearing is consequently self-aligning and insensitive to
angular misalignments of the shaft relative to the housing.

b) Aptitudes:

Self-aligning ball bearings with extended inner ring are designed for less
demanding applications using commercial grade shafting. The special bore tolerance
allows easy mounting and dismounting.

c) Uses

It is particularly suitable for applications where considerable shaft deflections or

misalignment are to be expected.

Additionally, the self-aligning ball bearing has the lowest friction of all rolling
bearings, which allows it to run cooler even at high speeds.
Self-aligning ball bearings with extended inner ring are axially located on the shaft by
means of a pin or shouldered screw, which engages in a slot at one side of the inner ring
and also prevents the inner ring from turning on the shaft.

When two self-aligning ball bearings with extended inner ring are used to support a
shaft, they should be positioned so that the inner ring slots either face each other, or are
at the outboard positions of the bearings.

If this is not the case, the shaft is axially located in one direction only.

1.4. Single and double -row angular contact bearing:

a) General:

Angular contact ball bearings have raceways in the inner and outer rings that are
displaced with respect to each other in the direction of the bearing axis. This means that
they are designed to accommodate combined loads, i.e. simultaneously acting radial and
axial loads.

b) Aptitudes:

The axial load carrying capacity of angular contact ball bearings increases with
increasing contact angle.
 The contact angle is defined as the angle between the line joining the points of
contact of the ball and the raceways in the radial plane, along which the load is
transmitted from one raceway to another, and a line perpendicular to the bearing axis.

The contact angle varies from 15° to 40° and is measured relative to a line running
perpendicular to the bearing axis. Angular contact bearings are unidirectional thrust
bearings that can withstand heavy thrust loads and moderate radial loads.

See below: Single angular contact bearing.

c) Uses:

Angular contact bearings can have a number of different styles of seals or

shielding. Seals and shields provide protection from contamination and as a retainer for
lubricant.

Seals provide better protection and lubricant containment than shields, but have
lower maximum speed capabilities.

Bearings with ball screw support are specially designed for use in ball screw or lead
screw applications.

Some bearings may also be flanged. Angular contact bearings may have a variety
of lubrication options.

See below: Double-row angular contact bearing.

2. ROLLER BEARINGS:

Roller bearings are one of the most widely used industrial bearings. They are called
as roller bearings because they are able to carry a load by placing round elements
between the two pieces. With the movement of the two pieces, these round elements roll,
thereby helping to carry the load.

Most roller bearings use cylinder whose length is slightly greater than its diameter.
Roller bearings have higher radial load capacity compared to ball bearings but higher
friction and a low axial capacity under axial loads.

2.1. Applications of roller bearings:

Roller bearings are used in rotary applications to replace sliding movement with
low friction, rolling.

Automated roller bearing setting techniques offer many advantages like reduced
setting time, assembly cost, and and reliable setting. To select the right roller bearing,
one must determine the desired bearing life and a sufficient basic dynamic load rating to
meet that life requirement.

Roller bearings are used in power generation, wind turbines, gear drives, rolling
mills, machine tool spindles, gear reduction units etc.

Roller bearings are the earliest known type of rolling-element-bearing.

2.2. One row, two row cylindrical bearings:

a) General:

This type of bearing supports axial loads only in one direction. They are thus
generally used in pairs, opposing each other. Their play must be regulated in order to
obtain a good rigidity for the connection. They can also be installed side by side.

Conical tapered roller bearings:

a) General:

These bearings consist of an internal ring (the cone), conical rollers spaced by a
cage and an external ring (the basin) separated from the rest. They support the axial loads
only in one direction and are generally installed in pairs, opposing each other. Their play
must be adjusted.

b) Aptitudes:

They are bearings adapted to the high axial and radial loads, but they do not support
high rotational speeds. For high axial loads, a bearing with a significant contact angle,
which can vary from 10° to 30°, is used.
 c) Uses:

They are installed in reducers, wheels of the landing gear, etc

Electronic circuit

The die from an Intel 8742, an 8-bit microcontroller that includes a CPU, 128 bytes of RAM,
2048 bytes of EPROM, and I/O "data" on current chip.

A circuit built on a printed circuit board (PCB).

An electronic circuit is composed of individual electronic components, such
as resistors, transistors, capacitors, inductors and diodes, connected by
conductive wires or traces through which electric current can flow. To be referred to
as electronic, rather than electrical, generally at least one active component must be present.
The combination of components and wires allows various simple and complex operations to
be performed: signals can be amplified, computations can be performed, and data can be
moved from one place to another.[1]

Circuits can be constructed of discrete components connected by individual pieces of wire,

but today it is much more common to create interconnections by photolithographic
techniques on a laminated substrate (a printed circuit board or PCB) and solder the
components to these interconnections to create a finished circuit. In an integrated circuit or
IC, the components and interconnections are formed on the same substrate, typically
a semiconductor such as silicon or (less commonly) gallium arsenide.[2]

An electronic circuit can usually be categorized as an analog circuit, a digital circuit, or a

mixed-signal circuit (a combination of analog circuits and digital circuits). The most widely
used semiconductor device in electronic circuits is the MOSFET (metal-oxide-
semiconductor field-effect transistor).[3]

Breadboards, perfboards, and stripboards are common for testing new designs. They allow
the designer to make quick changes to the circuit during development.

Analog circuits
Main article: Analogue electronics

A circuit diagram representing an analog circuit, in this case a simple amplifier

Analog electronic circuits are those in which current or voltage may vary continuously with
time to correspond to the information being represented. Analog circuitry is constructed from
two fundamental building blocks: series and parallel circuits.
In a series circuit, the same current passes through a series of components. A string of
Christmas lights is a good example of a series circuit: if one goes out, they all do.

In a parallel circuit, all the components are connected to the same voltage, and the current
divides between the various components according to their resistance.

A simple schematic showing wires, a resistor, and a battery

The basic components of analog circuits are wires, resistors, capacitors, inductors, diodes,
and transistors. (In 2012 it was demonstrated that memristors can be added to the list of
available components.) Analog circuits are very commonly represented in schematic
diagrams, in which wires are shown as lines, and each component has a unique symbol.
Analog circuit analysis employs Kirchhoff's circuit laws: all the currents at a node (a place
where wires meet), and the voltage around a closed loop of wires is 0. Wires are usually
treated as ideal zero-voltage interconnections; any resistance or reactance is captured by
explicitly adding a parasitic element, such as a discrete resistor or inductor. Active
components such as transistors are often treated as controlled current or voltage sources: for
example, a field-effect transistor can be modeled as a current source from the source to the
drain, with the current controlled by the gate-source voltage.

An alternative model is to take independent power sources and induction as basic electronic
units; this allows modeling frequency dependent negative resistors, gyrators, negative
impedance converters, and dependent sources as secondary electronic components.[clarification
needed][citation needed]

When the circuit size is comparable to a wavelength of the relevant signal frequency, a more
sophisticated approach must be used, the distributed-element model. Wires are treated as
transmission lines, with nominally constant characteristic impedance, and the impedances at
the start and end determine transmitted and reflected waves on the line. Circuits designed
according to this approach are distributed-element circuits. Such considerations typically
become important for circuit boards at frequencies above a GHz; integrated circuits are
smaller and can be treated as lumped elements for frequencies less than 10GHz or so.
Digital circuits
Main article: Digital electronics

In digital electronic circuits, electric signals take on discrete values, to represent logical and
numeric values.[4] These values represent the information that is being processed. In the vast
majority of cases, binary encoding is used: one voltage (typically the more positive value)
represents a binary '1' and another voltage (usually a value near the ground potential, 0 V)
represents a binary '0'. Digital circuits make extensive use of transistors, interconnected to
create logic gates that provide the functions of Boolean logic: AND, NAND, OR, NOR, XOR
and combinations thereof. Transistors interconnected so as to provide positive feedback are
used as latches and flip flops, circuits that have two or more metastable states, and remain in
one of these states until changed by an external input. Digital circuits therefore can provide
logic and memory, enabling them to perform arbitrary computational functions. (Memory
based on flip-flops is known as static random-access memory (SRAM). Memory based on the
storage of charge in a capacitor, dynamic random-access memory (DRAM) is also widely
used.)

The design process for digital circuits is fundamentally different from the process for analog
circuits. Each logic gate regenerates the binary signal, so the designer need not account for
distortion, gain control, offset voltages, and other concerns faced in an analog design. As a
consequence, extremely complex digital circuits, with billions of logic elements integrated on
a single silicon chip, can be fabricated at low cost. Such digital integrated circuits are
ubiquitous in modern electronic devices, such as calculators, mobile phone handsets, and
computers. As digital circuits become more complex, issues of time delay, logic races, power
dissipation, non-ideal switching, on-chip and inter-chip loading, and leakage currents,
become limitations to circuit density, speed and performance.

Digital circuitry is used to create general purpose computing chips, such as microprocessors,
and custom-designed logic circuits, known as application-specific integrated
circuit (ASICs). Field-programmable gate arrays (FPGAs), chips with logic circuitry whose
configuration can be modified after fabrication, are also widely used in prototyping and
development.

Mixed-signal circuits
Main article: Mixed-signal integrated circuit
Mixed-signal or hybrid circuits contain elements of both analog and digital circuits.
Examples include comparators, timers, phase-locked loops, analog-to-digital converters,
and digital-to-analog converters. Most modern radio and communications circuitry uses
mixed signal circuits. For example, in a receiver, analog circuitry is used to amplify and
frequency-convert signals so that they reach a suitable state to be converted into digital
values, after which further signal processing can be performed in the digital domain.

Motor

Electric motors are so much a part of everyday life that we seldom give them a second
thought. When we switch on an electric drill, for example, we conWdently expect it to run
rapidly up to the correc speed, and we do not question how it knows what speed to run at, or
how it is that once enough energy has been drawn from the supply to bring it up to speed, the
power drawn falls to a very low level. When we put the drill to work it draws more power,
and when we Wnish the power drawn from the mains reduces automatically, without
intervention on our part. The humble motor, consisting of nothing more than an arrangement
of copper coils and steel laminations, is clearly rather a clever energy converter, which
warrants serious consideration. By gaining a basic understanding of how the motor works, we
will be able to appreciate its potential and its limitations, and (in later chapters) see how its
already remarkable performance can be further enhanced by the addition of external
electronic controls. This chapter deals with the basic mechanisms of motor operation, so
readers who are already familiar with such matters as magnetic Xux, magnetic and electric
circuits, torque, and motional e.m.f can probably aVord to skim over much of it. In the course
of the discussion, however, several very important general principles and guidelines emerge.
These apply to all types of motors and are summarised in Section 1.8. Experience shows that
anyone who has a good grasp of these basic principles will be well equipped to weigh the
pros and cons of the diVerent types of motor, so all readers are urged to absorb them before
tackling other parts of the book.

PRODUCING ROTATION
Nearly all motors exploit the force which is exerted on a currentcarrying conductor placed in
a magnetic Weld. The force can be demonstrated by placing a bar magnet near a wire
carrying current , but anyone trying the experiment will probably be disappointed to discover
how feeble the force is, and will doubtless be left wondering how such an unpromising eVect
can be used to make eVective motors. We will see that in order to make the most of the
mechanism, we need to arrange a very strong magnetic Weld, and make it interact with many
conductors, each carrying as much current as possible. We will also see later that although
the magnetic Weld (or ‘excitation’) is essential to the working of the motor, it acts only as a
catalyst, and all of the mechanical output power comes from the electrical supply to the
conductors on which the force is developed. It will emerge later that in some motors the
parts of the machine responsible for the excitation and for the energy converting functions are
distinct and self-evident. In the d.c. motor, for example, the excitation is provided either by
permanent magnets or by Weld coils wrapped around clearly deWned projecting Weld poles
on the stationary part, while the conductors on which force is developed are on the rotor and
supplied with current via sliding brushes. In many motors, however, there is no such clear-cut
physical distinction between the ‘excitation’ and the ‘energy-converting’ parts of the
machine, and a single stationary winding serves both purposes. Nevertheless, we will
Wnd that identifying and separating the excitation and energy-converting
functions is always helpful in understanding how motors of all types operate.
Returning to the matter of force on a single conductor, we will Wrst look at what determines
the magnitude and direction of the force,

before turning to ways in which the mechanism is exploited to produce rotation. The concept
of the magnetic circuit will have to be explored, since this is central to understanding why
motors have the shapes the do. A brief introduction to magnetic Weld, magnetic Xux, and
Xux density is included before that for those who are not familiar with the ideas involved.

Magnetic field and magnetic flux

When a current-carrying conductor is placed in a magnetic Weld, it experiences a force.
Experiment shows that the magnitude of the force depends directly on the current in the wire,
and the strength of the magnetic Weld, andthat the forceis greatestwhen themagnetic Weld
isperpendicular to the conductor. In the set-up shown in Figure, the source of the magnetic
Weld is a bar magnet, which produces a magnetic Weld as shown in Figure . The notion of a
‘magnetic Weld’ surrounding a magnet is an abstract idea that helps us to come to grips with
the mysterious phenomenon of

magnetism: it not only provides us with a convenient pictorial way of picturing the
directional eVects, but it also allows us to quantify the ‘strength’ of the magnetism and hence
permits us to predict the various eVects produced by it.
The dotted lines in Figure are referred to as magnetic Xux lines, or simply Xux lines. They
indicate the direction along which iron Wlings (or small steel pins) would align themselves
when placed in the Weld of the bar magnet. Steel pins have no initial magnetic Weld of their
own, so there is no reason why one end or the other of the pins should point to a particular
pole of the bar magnet.
However, when we put a compass needle (which is itself a permanent magnet) in the Weld
we Wnd that it aligns itself as shown in Figure. In the upper half of the Wgure, the S end of
the diamond- haped compass settles closest to the N pole of the magnet, while in the lower
half of
the Wgure, the N end of the compass seeks the S of the magnet. This immediately suggests
that there is a direction associated with the lines of Xux, as shown by the arrows on the Xux
lines, which conventionally are taken as positively directed from the N to the S pole of the
bar magnet.
The sketch in Figure 1.2 might suggest that there is a ‘source’ near the top of the bar magnet,
from which Xux lines emanate before making their way to a corresponding ‘sink’ at the
bottom. However, if we were to look at the Xux lines inside the magnet, we would Wnd that
they were continuous, with no ‘start’ or ‘Wnish’. (In Figure 1.2 the internal Xux lines have
been omitted for the sake of clarity, but a very similar Weld pattern is produced by a circular
coil of wire carrying a d.c. See Figure
1.6 where the continuity of the Xux lines is clear.). Magnetic Xux lines always form closed
paths, as we will see when we look at the ‘magnetic circuit’, and draw a parallel with the
electric circuit, in which the current is also a continuous quantity. (There must be a ‘cause’ of
the magnetic Xux, of course, and in a permanent magnet this is usually pictured in terms of
atomic-level circulating currents within the magnet material. Fortunately, discussion at this
physical level is not necessary for our purpose.)

GENERAL PROPERTIES OF ELECTRIC MOTORS

All electric motors are governed by the laws of electromagnetism, and are subject to
essentially the same constraints imposed by the materials (copper and iron) from which they
are made. We should therefore not be surprised to Wnd that at the fundamental level all
motors – regardless of type – have a great deal in common. These common properties, most
of which have been touched on in this chapter, are not usually given prominence. Books tend
to concentrate on the diVerences between types of motors, and manufacturers are usually
interested in promoting the virtues of their particular motor at the expense of the competition.
This divisive emphasis causes the underlying unity to be obscured, leaving users with little
opportunity to absorb the sort of knowledge which will equip them to make informed
judgements.
The most useful ideas worth bearing in mind are therefore given below, with brief notes
accompanying each. Experience indicates that users who have these basic ideas Wrmly in
mind will find themselves able to understand why one motor seems better than another, and
will feel much more conWdent when faced with the diYcult task of weighing the
pros and cons of competing types.
Operating temperature and cooling
The cooling arrangement is the single most important factor in determining the output from
any given motor. Any motor will give out more power if its electric circuit is worked harder
(i.e. if the current is allowed to increase). The limiting factor is normally the allowable
temperature rise of the windings, which depends on the class of insulation.
For class F insulation (the most widely used) the permissible temperature rise is 100 K,
whereas for class H it is 125 K. Thus if the cooling remains the same, more output can be
obtained simply by using the higher-grade insulation. Alternatively, with a given insulation
the output can be increased if the cooling system is improved. A throughventilated motor, for
example, might give perhaps twice the output power of an otherwise identical but totally
enclosed machine. Torque per unit volume For motors with similar cooling systems, the rated
torque is approximately proportional to the rotor volume, which in turn is roughly
proportional to the overall motor volume. This stems from the fact that for a given cooling
arrangement, the speciWc and magnetic loadings of machines of diVerent types will be more
or less the same. The torque per unit length therefore depends Wrst and foremost on the
square of the diameter, so motors of roughly the same diameter and length can be expected to
produce roughly the same torque. Power per unit volume – importance of speed
Output power per unit volume is directly proportional to speed. Low-speed motors are
unattractive because they are large, and therefore expensive. It is usually much better to use a
high-speed motor with a mechanical speed reduction. For example, a direct drive motor for a
portable electric screw driver would be an absurd proposition. Size effects – specific torque
and efficiency
Large motors have a higher speciWc torque (torque per unit volume) and are more eYcient
than small ones. In large motors the speciWc electric loading is normally much higher
than in small ones, and the speciWc magnetic loading is somewhat higher. These two factors
combine to give the higher speciWc torque. Very small motors are inherently very ineYcient
(e.g. 1% in a wristwatch), whereas motors of over say 100 kW have eYciencies above 95%.
The reasons for this scale eVect are complex, but stem from the fact that the resistance volt-
drop term can be made relatively small in large electromagnetic devices, whereas in small
ones the resistance becomes the dominant term. Efficiency and speed The eYciency of a
motor improves with speed.
For a given torque, power output rises in direct proportion to speed, while electrical losses are
– broadly speaking – constant. Under these conditions, eYciency rises with speed.
Rated voltage
A motor can be provided to suit any voltage. Within limits it is always possible to rewind a
motor for a diVerent voltage without aVecting its performance. A 200 V, 10 A motor could
be rewound for 100 V, 20 A simply by using half as many turns per coil of wire having twice
the cross-sectional area. The total amounts of active material, and hence the performance,
would be the same. Short-term overload Most motors can be overloaded for short periods
without damage. The continuous electric loading (i.e. the current) cannot be exceeded
without damaging the insulation, but if the motor has been running with reduced current for
some time, it is permissible for the current (and hence the torque) to be much greater than
normal for a short period of time. The principal factors which inXuence the magnitude and
duration of the permissible overload are the thermal time-constant (which governs the rate of
rise of temperature) and the previous pattern of operation. Thermal time constants range from
a few seconds for small motors to many minutes or even hours for large ones. Operating
patterns are obviously very variable, so rather than rely on a particular pattern being
followed, it is usual for motors to be provided with overtemperature protective devices (e.g.
thermistors) which trigger an alarm and/or trip the supply if the safe temperature is exceeded.

Shaft
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

A shaft is a rotating machine element, usually circular in cross section, which is used
to transmit power from one part to another, or from a machine which produces power to a
machine which absorbs power.[1] The various members such as pulleys and gears are mounted
on it.

Shaft animation

Types
They are mainly classified into two types.

 Transmission shafts are used to transmit power between the source and the machine
absorbing power; e.g. counter shafts and line shafts.
 Machine shafts are the integral part of the machine itself; e.g. crankshaft.

Materials
The material used for ordinary shafts is mild steel. When high strength is required, an alloy
steel such as nickel, nickel-chromium or chromium-vanadium steel is used.
Shafts are generally formed by hot rolling and finished to size by cold
drawing or turning and grinding.

Standard sizes
Source:[2]

Machine shafts

 Up to 25 mm steps of 0.5 mm

Transmission shafts

 25 mm to 60 mm with 5 mm steps
 60 mm to 110 mm with 10 mm steps
 110 mm to 140 mm with 15 mm steps
 140 mm to 500 mm with 20 mm steps

The standard lengths of the shafts are 5 m, 6 m and 7 m.

Stresses
The following stresses are induced in the shafts.

1. Shear stresses due to the transmission of torque (due to torsional load).

2. Bending stresses (tensile or compressive) due to the forces acting upon the machine
elements like gears and pulleys as well as the self weight of the shaft.
3. Stresses due to combined torsional and bending loads.

Design stresses
The maximum permissible (design) stresses in bending (tension or compression) may be
taken as:

1. 112 N/mm2 for shafts with allowance for keyways.

2. 84 N/mm2 for shafts without allowance for keyways.

The maximum permissible (design) shear stresses may be taken as:

1. 56 N/mm2 for shafts with allowance for keyways.

2. 42 N/mm2 for shafts without allowance for keyways.
BLOCK DIAGRAM
WORKING PRINCIPLE

The arm and leg strap made of Velcro strip will be cuffed with the patients arm or leg.
The dc motor will be connected through rope and pulley system in order to make linear
motion. The linear motion will be make up and down format by changing the polarity of the
dc motor. The polarity changing along with timing will be adjusted by the microcontroller
and regulating system. Thus the therapy system will be done using this portion.

CALCULATION
DESIGN OF CAM SHAFT

CAM SHAFT:

Cam Shaft is divided into three main parts according to this project.

 Motor Connecting Shaft.

 Bearing Step.
 Cam Parts.

This Cam Shaft is simply supported type beam. Here two sides are supported by two bearings.

CAM:

In Cam the area is divided into two main regions.

 Angle of lift - 180

 Angle of fall - 180

CAM DEWELL:

Angle of Dewell = 30 to 40

Lower Dewell = Maximum Suction

 Upper Dewell = Maximum Delivery

ECCENTRIC CAM:

Maximum =x =5

Minimum = Y = 17.5

Stroke length = x-Y= 12.5

CONCLUSION
In this project, Microcontroller based arm was developed in order to provide therapy
for paralysis case with upper extremity. This method of therapeutical approach is more
efficient and cost effective compared to the making regular visit to the therapist. However
with the advancement in the proposed system, therapy can be provided to all types of
paralysis patients in same manner and thereby ensuring the rehabilitation of the defective
parts. With the help of Government, this system could be improved and made easily available
to the people under poverty line.
REFERENCES

[1] https://www.encylopedia.com/medicine/diseases-and-conditions/pathology/paralysis

[2] https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/paralysis

[3] https://www.heaalthline.com/health/paraly sis

[4] https://ww.portea.com/physiotherapy/paral ysistreatment-at-home/

[5] https://www.athworks.com/discover/deep-learning.html

[6] Md.Mamunur Rahman, Swarup Chakraborty, Avradip Paul, Ali Mohammed Jobayer, Md. Azad
Hossain, Feb (2017), “Wheel Therapy Chair: A smart system for disabled person with therapy
facility”, IEEE transaction on robotic and automation, Vol.2, No.10, pp.630 – 635.

[7] Emerson, J.Potgieter, W.L.Xu, Apr(2016), “Control Implementation for an integrated robotic and
virtual mirror therapy system for stroke rehabilitation”, IEEE advanced motion control.

[8] Sarah J. Housman, Kelly M. Scott, David J. Reinkensmeyer, Jun (2009), “A Randomized Controlled
Trial of Gravity-Supported, Computer-Enhanced Arm Exercise for Individuals with Severe
Hemiparesis”, Neuro rehabilitation and Neural Repair, Vol.23, No.5, pp.505 – 514.