Ferronickel[edit]

See also: Iron–nickel clusters

In 2014, about 33% of the world’s annual Characteristics,

new nickel was ferronickel, an extensive review article of which was
[8] 17–24% Ni[7]
published by Swartzendruber et al in 1991.[9] Many of the meteorites that
fall to Earth turn out to be ferronickel,[9] and take the form Density 3.8 g/cm3
of kamacite and/or taenite.[citation needed] Ferronickel has a face-centred
cubic crystal structure (via Ni).[10] It can take the form Melting point 1500°C
of ferrite, martensite, or austenite. The binary Fe-Ni system has been
investigated for analogic purposes to steel because the presence of Boiling point 2900°C
nickel in high-alloy steels such as austenitic stainless
steels and maraging steels is a key driver for the transition from body-centered cubic ferrite to face-
centered cubic austenite. [11]
In the late 20th century, 60% of nickel production was based on the matte smelting of sulfide ores,
this did not lend itself to ferronickel production.[12] According to 2003 data, the share of laterites in
primary nickel production was reported to be 42%.[12] World annual production of ferronickel in 2014
was around 250,000 tonnes.[8] The two largest producers were BHP and Société Le
Nickel.[8] Laterite ores are often used to supply the production process.[13][14] The RKEF process is
often used.[15] The energy consumption per tonne of product is high for laterite ores because of the
low-grade feed, and hence produces a lot of waste slag and gaseous pollution. [16] Generally, over
90% of the furnace output is in the form of slag.[8] The technique of refining molten ferronickel is a
topic for specialists,[17] and because of ore content variability the processes might even need to be
tailored by source: for example the Larco process of Greek ores. [18] "The main reason for adding
nickel in ferrous alloys is to promote an austenitic microstructure. Nickel generally increases ductility,
toughness and corrosion resistance."[19] Nickel pig iron is distinguished from ferronickel by the
former's low weight fraction (4–10%) of nickel and high carbon content (>3%). In contrast, ferronickel
is a relatively pure binary alloy.[19]
In 2008, the major ferronickel-producing countries were Japan (301,000 t), New Caledonia (144,000
t) and Colombia (105,000 t). Together, these three countries accounted for about 51% of world
production if China is excluded. Ukraine, Indonesia, Greece, and Macedonia, in descending order of
gross weight output, all produced between 68,000 t and 90,000 t of ferronickel, accounting for an
additional 31%, excluding China. China was excluded from statistics because its industry produced
large tonnages of nickel pig iron in addition to a spectrum of conventional ferronickel grades, for an
estimated combined output of 590,000 t gross weight. The nickel content of individual Chinese
products varied from about 1.6% to as much as 80%, depending upon customer end use.[2]
In the United States, the steel industry accounted for virtually all the ferronickel consumed in 2008,
with more than 98% used in stainless and heat-resistant steels; no ferronickel was produced in the
US in 2008.[2]
The nickel pig iron is a low grade ferronickel made in China, which is very popular since the 2010s.

Ferrosilicon[edit]
Main article: Ferrosilicon
 Ferrosilicon
Silicon ferroalloy consumption is driven by cast iron and steel production, where silicon alloys are
used as deoxidizers. Some silicon metal was also used as an alloying agent with iron. On the basis
of silicon content, net production of ferrosilicon and miscellaneous silicon alloys in the US was
148,000 t in 2008. China is the major supplier, which in 2008 produced more ferrosilicon (4.9 Mt)
than the rest of the world combined. Other major manufacturers are Norway (0.21 Mt), Russia (0.85
Mt) and US (0.23 Mt).[2]

Ferrotitanium[edit]
Main article: Ferrotitanium
Titanium is used in steelmaking for deoxidation, grain-size control, and carbon and nitrogen control
and stabilization. During steelmaking, titanium is usually introduced as ferrotitanium because of its
relatively low melting temperature and high density. Steels with relatively high titanium content
include interstitial-free, stainless and high-strength low-alloy steels. Ferrotitanium is usually
produced by induction melting of titanium scrap with iron or steel; however, it also is produced
directly from titanium mineral concentrates. The standard grades of ferrotitanium are 30% and 70%
titanium. Ferrosilicon-titanium also is produced to allow the simultaneous addition of silicon and
titanium. The leading ferrotitanium producing countries include Brazil, China, India, Japan, Russia,
Ukraine, United Kingdom and the United States. [2]

Ferrotantalum[edit]
Main article: Ferrotantalum
Ferrotantalum is added to molten steel to create hardenable specialty steels. It is also used as
welding material, spraying powder, and for powder metallurgy applications. [20]

Ferrotungsten[edit]
Main article: Ferrotungsten
Tungsten is an important alloying element in high-speed and other tool steels, and is used to a
lesser extent in some stainless and structural steels. Tungsten is often added to steel melts as
ferrotungsten, which can contain up to 80% tungsten. World ferrotungsten production is dominated
by China, which in 2008 exported 4,835 t (gross weight) of the alloy. Ferrotungsten is relatively
expensive, with the prices around $31–44 per kilogram of contained tungsten. [2]