Advanced Mathematics Form Five

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Mathematics
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Form Five
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Tanzania Institute of Education

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© Tanzania Institute of Education 2022
Published 2022
ISBN: 978 – 9987 – 09 – 404 – 2
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P.O. Box 35094
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Dar es Salaam
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Mobile number: +255 735 041 168 / +255 735 041 170
Email: director.general@tie.go.tz
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Web: www.tie.go.tz
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All rights reserved. No part of this textbook may be reproduced, stored in any
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retrieval system or transmitted in any form or by any means whether electronic,

mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, without the prior written
permission of the Tanzania Institute of Education.
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Advanced Mathematics for Secondary Schools
Form Five
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Table of contents
Acknowledgements..................................... vii Universal sets................................................ 59

Preface.........................................................viii Basic operations of sets................................. 60
Union of sets................................................. 60
Chapter One: Calculating devices............... 1 Intersection of sets........................................ 61
Complement of sets....................................... 62
Scientific calculators....................................... 1 Difference of sets.......................................... 62
Basic features of non-programmable scientific Symmetric difference of sets......................... 63
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calculators....................................................... 2 Representation of sets on a number line....... 66
Keys and functions of non-programmable Fundamental laws of algebra of sets............. 69
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scientific calculators........................................ 3 Proof of the fundamental laws of algebra of sets.
Steps of operating some basic keys of non- ...................................................................... 69
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programmable scientific calculators............... 5 Venn diagrams............................................... 74
Computer packages....................................... 36 Operations of sets using Venn diagrams....... 75
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Spreadsheets.................................................. 40 Number of elements/cardinality of sets ....... 78
Chapter summary....................................... 49 Chapter summary....................................... 85
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Revision exercise 1...................................... 50 Revision exercise 2...................................... 86
Chapter Two: Sets....................................... 54 Chapter Three: Logic................................. 92

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Methods of representing sets........................ 54 Concept of logic............................................ 92

Descriptive method....................................... 54 Statements..................................................... 92
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Roster method............................................... 54 Types of mathematical statements................ 93

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Set builder notation....................................... 54 Truth table..................................................... 94

Types of sets.................................................. 55 Negation of a statement ............................... 94
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Empty or null set........................................... 55 Logical connectives...................................... 95

Equal sets...................................................... 56 Conjunction................................................... 95
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Equivalent sets.............................................. 57 Disjunction ................................................... 97

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Subsets ......................................................... 57 Conditional statements (implications).......... 98

Power set....................................................... 58 Biconditional statements............................... 99
Finite and infinite sets................................... 58 Converse, Inverse, and contrapositive........ 102
Singleton sets................................................ 59 Laws of algebra of propositions.................. 107
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Arguments................................................... 109 Equation of a tangent to a circle................. 153

Testing the validity of an argument............. 110 Equation of a normal to a circle.................. 156
Electrical networks...................................... 113 Point of intersection of circles.................... 158
Electrical switches and statements.............. 113 Orthogonal circles....................................... 161
Series and parallel switches ....................... 113 Length of a tangent from a point to a circle ......
Chapter summary..................................... 119 .................................................................... 163
Revision exercise 3.................................... 120 Chapter summary..................................... 165
Revision exercise 4.................................... 166
Chapter Four: Coordinate geometry I ... 124
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Chapter Five: Functions........................... 170
Rectangular Cartesian coordinate system... 124
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Plotting points on the Cartesian coordinate Graphs of functions..................................... 170
system......................................................... 125 Polynomial functions.................................. 171
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Area of a rectangle by coordinates of vertices.. Graphs of rational functions........................ 180
.................................................................... 125 Composite functions................................... 187
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Proof of parallelogram properties by using Chapter summary..................................... 203
rectangular Cartesian coordinates............... 127 Revision exercise 5.................................... 203
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Angle between two lines............................. 132
Perpendicular distance of a point from a line..... Chapter Six: Algebra................................ 207
.................................................................... 135
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Equations of angle bisectors....................... 138 Indices and logarithms................................ 207

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Locus........................................................... 140 Indices......................................................... 207

Ratio theorem.............................................. 142 Logarithms.................................................. 211
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Internal division ......................................... 142 Natural logarithms...................................... 214

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External division ........................................ 143 Conversion of logarithm from one base to

Applications of ratio theorem..................... 146 another......................................................... 215
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Circle........................................................... 146 Sequences and series................................... 217

Standard equation of a circle....................... 146 Proofs by mathematical induction.............. 228
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The general equation of a circle ................. 147 Roots of a polynomial function................... 233
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Equation of a circle given end points of a Relationships between roots and coefficients of
diameter....................................................... 148 a quadratic equation ................................... 234
Equation of a circle passing through three given Relationships between roots and coefficients of
points........................................................... 149 a cubic equation.......................................... 237
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Remainder theorem..................................... 240 Chapter Eight: Linear programming..... 394

Inequalities.................................................. 250
Quadratic inequalities................................. 251 Formulation of linear programming problems ...
Rational inequalities.................................... 254 .................................................................... 394
Absolute value inequalities......................... 256 Decision variables....................................... 394
Matrices....................................................... 260 Objective function....................................... 394
Binomial theorem........................................ 285 Constraints.................................................. 395
Partial fractions........................................... 303 Non-negativity constraints.......................... 395
Decomposition of a rational function......... 303 Graphical solution....................................... 400
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Chapter summary..................................... 314 Steps for solving linear programming problems
Revision exercise 6.................................... 316 graphically................................................... 400
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Transportation problems............................. 407
Chapter Seven: Trigonometry................. 320 Formulation of transportation problems..... 408
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Chapter summary..................................... 423
Trigonometric ratios.................................... 320 Revision exercise 8.................................... 424
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Trigonometric identities ............................ 324
Compound angle formulae.......................... 329 Chapter Nine: Differentiation.................. 430
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Double angle formulae................................ 334
Trigonometric equations of the form Derivatives.................................................. 430
acosθ + bsinθ = c......................................... 342 Differentiation of a function from first
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Factor formulae........................................... 357 principles..................................................... 431

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Radians and small angles ........................... 364 Differentiation of a function........................ 437

Converting degrees to radians..................... 364
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Derivatives of polynomial functions........... 437

Domain and range of trigonometric functions.... Derivative of product of polynomials......... 441
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.................................................................... 374 Chain rule ................................................... 446

The graph of sine and cosine functions....... 375
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Differentiation of implicit functions........... 449

Inverse trigonometric functions.................. 378 Further implicit differentiation of functions.......
Graphs of the inverse trigonometric functions....
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.................................................................... 451
.................................................................... 385 Derivatives of trigonometric functions ...... 453
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Chapter summary..................................... 387 Derivatives of inverse trigonometric functions...

Revision exercise 7.................................... 389 .................................................................... 459
Computer packages in differentiating polynomial
and trigonometric functions........................ 463
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Derivatives of logarithmic functions .....468 Integration of simple expressions.............. 514

Derivatives of exponential functions......472 Techniques of integration.......................... 517
The second derivative of a function........474 Integration of trigonometric functions ...... 541
Derivatives of parametric functions........476 Definite integrals of polynomial, trigonometric,
Applications of differentiation................479 exponential, logarithmic, and rational functions .
Solving problems on small changes........479 ...................................................................574
Real life problems involving maximum and
Applications of integration....................... 580
minimum values......................................489
Area of a region between two curves........ 586
Taylor’s and Maclaurin’s series..............496
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Length of an arc....................................... 590
Introduction to partial derivatives...........502
Volumes of revolution of solids................. 597
Identifying functions of two variables ...502
Chapter summary................................... 612
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Chapter summary.................................505
Revision exercise 10................................ 613
Revision exercise 9................................506
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Answers................................................... 617
Chapter Ten : Integration....................511 SE
Glossary.................................................. 708
Bibliography........................................... 712
Inverse process of differentiation.............. 511
Index....................................................... 713
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Anti-derivative and integral notation......... 510
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Acknowledgements
The Tanzania Institute of Education (TIE) would like to acknowledge the

contributions of all organisations and individuals who participated in designing
and developing this textbook. In particular, TIE wishes to thank the University of
Dar es Salaam (UDSM), the University of Dodoma (UDOM), Sokoine University
of Agriculture (SUA), Dar es Salaam University College of Education (DUCE),
School Quality Assurance Department, Teachers ’Colleges, and Secondary Schools.
Besides, the following categories of individuals are acknowledged,
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Writers: Dr Victor L. Mwesiga (TIE), Ms Ivy P. Bimbiga (TIE),
Mr Luckford D. Hamsini (TIE), Ms Emaline J. Ndelwa (TIE),
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Ms Neema J. Kiroga (Tambaza Secondary School), and
Mr Elia M. James (Tambaza Secondary School).
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Editors: Dr Makungu S. Mwanzalima (UDSM),
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Dr Augustino I. Msigwa (UDSM), Dr James P. Mpele (DUCE),
Dr Jason M. Mkenyeleye (UDOM),
Dr Michael H. Mkwizu (SUA), Mr Elikana E. Manyilizu (SQA-DSM),
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and Mr Hussein J. Juma (Jangwani Secondary School).
Designer: Mr Halifa R. Halifa

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Illustrator: Mr Godlove S. Kyando

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Coordinator: Ms Ivy P. Bimbiga

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TIE also appreciates the participation of the secondary school teachers and students
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in the trial phase of the manuscript. Likewise, the Institute would like to thank the
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Ministry of Education, Science and Technology for facilitating the writing and
printing of this textbook.
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Dr Aneth A. Komba
Director General
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Form Five
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Preface
This textbook, Advanced Mathematics for Secondary Schools is written specifically

for Form Five Students in the United Republic of Tanzania. It is written in accordance
with the 2010 Advanced Mathematics Syllabus for Advanced Level Secondary
Schools Education, Form V - VI issued by then, the Ministry of Education and
Vocational Training.
The book consists of ten chapters, namely; Calculating devices, Sets, Logic,
Coordinate geometry 1, Functions, Algebra, Trigonometry, Linear programming,
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Differentiation, and Integration. Each chapter contains illustrations, activities,
and exercises. The answer for questions for proofs, show, verifications, and some
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illustrations are not provided. You are encouraged to do all activities and exercises
together with other assignments provided. Doing so, will enable you to develop
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the intended competencies.
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Form Five
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Chapter
One Calculating devices
Introduction
There are several calculating devices such as an abacus, slide rule, computer,
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electrical calculator, and electronic calculators. The useful devices for
calculations are electronic calculators. Electronic calculators are made to
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serve different purposes like in businesses, banking, mathematics, science, and
engineering. In this chapter, you will learn about scientific calculators and
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computer packages. Calculating devices are widely used in commercial and
numerical computations. The competencies developed will help you to compute
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different calculations in mathematics, businesses, and other related fields.
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Scientific calculators
Activity 1.1: Identifying different
Sientific calculators are designed to
compute numerical values in science, types of calculators
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engineering, business, and mathematics.

They can handle various functions like Individually or in a group, study
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polynomial, trigonometric, exponential, carefully each of the following

logarithmic, and many other functions.
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electronic calculators and perform

the tasks that follow:
There are two types of scientific
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calculators. These are programmable

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and non-programmable scientific

calculators. Their differences are based
on their functionalities. Programmable
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scientific calculators can write, store,

and graph the input data, whereas non-
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programmable scientific calculators are

not capable of graphing the input data. In
this case, non-programmable scientific
calculators will be emphasized as a part (a) Simple calculator
of calculating devices.
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Form Five
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1. List non-programmable and

programmable scientific calculators.
2. Give reasons for your choices in task 1.
3. What challenges did you face in
performing tasks 1 and 2?
4. Share your results with your fellow
students for more inputs.
(b) Graphing calculator
Basic features of non-programmable scientific
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calculators
Scientific calculators have many features that
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may differ depending on the manufacturers as
well as on the models. However, their basic
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operations remain the same. Figure 1.1 shows
(c) Scientific calculator the basic features of a non-programmable
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scientific calculator.
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Cursor control Display

button
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Alpha Mode key

key On key
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Shift
key
Function key
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(d) Printing calculator Delete key

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Number
keys All clear key
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Standard Unit (US) Metric Unit
Gender Basic operation

Male
keys
Age
Last answer
Equals
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43
key
Weight
Maintain weight 2638
key
Lose weight 2638
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Loose weight Fast 2638
Figure 1.1: Basic features for non- programmable

Height
59
Activity
Moderate Active
scientific calculator
Calculator
(e) Online calculator
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Keys and functions of non-programmable scientific calculators

In most scientific calculators, buttons have more than one function. The symbols for
the functions are differentiated by colours. Table 1.1 shows some basic keys / buttons
of a non-programmable scientific calculator and their functions.
Table 1.1: Keys and functions of a non-programmable scientific calculator
Keys/Buttons Name Second function /shift Example
Making a calculator
Switching on
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ready for use
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Clear all Switching off
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Deletion Insertion
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Replay Copy
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Mode Clear
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A, B, C, D, E, F, X,
Alpha
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Y, and M
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Inverse Factorial notation 3−1 , 6!

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Basic
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arithmetic
4 + 6 − 2×5 ÷ 2
operations
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symbols
Brackets Argument and modulus 7 × (2 × 4 + 116) ÷ 3

insertion of complex numbers Arg ( 2 + i ), Abs (2+ i)
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Number
Number in simple 1 1
in mixed 5 ,
fractions 2 4
fractions
Used for calculating the
square, cube, nth root, and 2 3 4
Exponents 4 ,3 ,5
numbers raised to other
exponents
symbol for executing the
Equal sign 2+5=7
answer of certain inputs
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Square root Cube root 1258, 3 217
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Logarithms
Anti-logarithms log1000, ln1000
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and natural
exponential functions 105, e5
logarithm
functions functions
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Trigonometric Inverse of trigonometric
sin 40 , sin −1 (0.5)
Standard
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Value of π 4Ε − 4, 4π
form/notation
Hyperbolic
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sinh(2)
functions
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Data separation in
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Comma statistics and conjugate of

a complex number
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Degree/ Degree, minutes, and

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minutes/ second convention to 15° 40′ 59′′, 15.6831

seconds degrees
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Integration
π ydy, d / dx ( x 2 , 1)
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functions
Derivative functions ∫1
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5 x + 2 y =
14
Calculate Solve 
3 x + 4 y =
14
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yellow colour while the “ALPHA” key

Steps of operating some basic keys
of non-programmable scientific precedes all keys with pink colour to
calculators access their functions. The steps for
An electronic calculator with brand name using these keys are as follows:
CASIO fx-991MS is a non-programmable
scientific calculator which is used to perform Step 1: Press “SHIFT” or “ALPHA”
different calculations. This calculator key.
is common due to its affordability and
Step 2: Press the key corresponding to
availability in the market. Most of these
the colour which is preceded
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calculators have multi-line displays, which in Step 1.
enables the user to see both the expression
under operations and the result.
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(c) Exponent and roots
(a) Replay (cursor control) button A non-programmable scientific calculator
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A usefully non-programmable scientific can calculate the exponent of a number
calculators have a replay button which or the xth root of a number. The buttons
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is used to review previous calculations. for performing these two operations are
The replay button is marked with four labelled “ ∧ ” and “ x
”, respectively.
arrows as shown in Table 1.1. It is used
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for moving a cursor to the left, right, The following are steps for finding
top, and bottom following the directions exponent of a number:
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of the arrows. The “REPLAY” button Step 1: Enter the number.

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for some non-programmable scientific Step 2: Press the “ ∧ ” key followed

by exponent. If the exponent
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calculators has a functionality of

is in fraction, enclose it with
“COPY” as a second function.
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parenthesis.
(b) Preceding keys Step 3: Press the “ = ” key to obtain

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A non-programmable scientific calculator the value of exponential.

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has preceding keys which are used to

The steps for finding the xth root of a
precede the other keys depending on number using a non-programmable
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their colours. There are two preceding scientific calculator are as follows:
keys in scientific calculators, namely Step 1: Enter the root index number
“SHIFT” key and “ALPHA” key. The (2 for square root, 3 for cube
“SHIFT” key precedes all keys with root, 4 for fourth root).
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Step 2: Press the “SHIFT” key.

Step 3: Press the “ ∧ ” key and the symbol “ x ” will be displayed.
Step 4: Enter the number whose root is required.
Step 5: Press the “ = ” key.
Example 1.1
Use a non-programmable scientific calculator to evaluate each of the following:

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(a) 12
9788 (c) (8.9)
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(b) 5
243 (d) 4 135
Solution
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Following the stated steps, the displayed answers are:
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(a) 12
9788 = 2.15059103
(b) 243 = 3
5
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(c) (8.9) = 704.969
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(d) 4
135 = 3.408658099
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(d) Memory keys
A non-programmable scientific calculator can store answers for a while and retrieve
using “RCL” when needed for use in calculations.
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The following are the steps used to store results for a while in a non-programmable
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scientific calculator:
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Step 1: Type a number to be stored.

Step 2: Press “SHIFT” key.
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Step 3: Press “STO” key and then “M+” to store the number displayed.
Step 4: Press “RCL” followed by “M+” key to recall the stored number.
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Step 5: Press “=” key to obtain the result.

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Example 1.2
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Use appropriate memory keys of a non-programmable scientific calculator to

200
evaluate .
−31.5 + 2.5
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Solution 1. Set your non-programmable scientific

Step 1: Type −31.5 and press “+” calculator to fix the answers in any
key. number of decimal places.
Step 2: Type 2.5 and press “=” key. 2. Use a non-programmable scientific
Step 3: Press “SHIFT” key. calculator to evaluate each of the
Step 4: Press “STO” and then press following:
“M+” key. 2
(a) in 2 decimal places
Step 5: Type 200 and press “ ÷ ”. (46 ×10 −2 )
Step 6: Press “RCL” key and then
(3 + 2 ) in 4 decimal places
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“M+” key. (b)
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Step 7: Press “=” key to obtain the
answer. 0.95 tan 23
(c) in 3 decimal places
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After completing the steps, the result 9.1245
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200 3. By using a non-programmable scientific
is= − 6.896551724.
−31.5 + 2.5 calculator, write all the steps of fixing
(e) Scientific notation

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numbers with specified number of
decimal places.
Scientific notation, also referred to
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as standard notation (form), is a way Example 1.3
of expressing numbers in the form of
Express 1245384791 in scientific notation
m×10n , where n, the exponent, is an
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by using a non-programmable scientific

integer and m satisfies the condition calculator.
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1 ≤ m < 10 .
The steps for expressing a number Solution
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in scientific notation are as follows: Step 1: Type 1245384791.

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Step 1: Type the number using Step 2: Press “=” key.

number key. Step 3: Press “ENG” key.
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Step 2: Press “=” key.

After following the steps, the result is
Step 3: Press “ENG” key.
1.245384791×1009.
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Activity 1.2: Writing numbers in

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scientific notation with specified

Also, a number can be expressed in
decimal places
scientific notation with a specified number
Individually or in a group, perform of significant figures or decimal places.
the following tasks:
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The following are steps for expressing Solution

numbers in scientific notation with Step 1: Type the number 0.0024587
specified number of significant figures and press “=” key.
Step 2: Press the “MODE” key five
or decimal places.
times.
Step 1: Press the “MODE” key five Step 3: Select “Sci” key by pressing
times. the key numbered 2 as
Step 2: Select “Fix“ for writing figure instructed on the calculator.
in a certain number of decimal Step 4: Type number 3 from the limit
places, “Sci” for writing
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0 ~ 9.
figure in a certain number
Step 5: Press “=” key to get the result
of significant figures, and
in 3 significant figures.
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“Norm” for writing number in
After following the steps, the result
a normal form. The screen of
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the calculator looks as follows: is 2.46 × 10− 03.
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(f) Logarithmic functions to base
10 and base e
Scientific calculators can compute
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common logarithms (base ten)
Step 3: Type the number of decimal and natural logarithms (base e) of
places, or significant figures numbers and their inverses.
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from the given limit 0 ~ 9.

(i) Base 10 logarithms
Step 4: Use the number button to type
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The following steps are used to

the number of decimal places, find the logarithm of a number
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or significant figures specified. to base ten:

Step 5: Press “=” key to get the result Step 1: Press the “log” key.
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in decimal places, or significant Step 2: Enter the number

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figures specified. whose logarithm is to

be determined.
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Example 1.4 Step 3: Press the “ = ” key,

then the logarithm
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Use a non-programmable scientific of a number will be

calculator to express 0.0024587 in displayed.
scientific notation with 3 significant
figures.
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Example 1.5 Step 1: Press the “SHIFT” key.

Step 2: Press the “log” key.
Evaluate log 45000 using a non- Step 3: Enter the number whose
programmable scientific calculator. anti-logarithm is required.
Step 4: Press the “ = ” key, then the
Solution logarithm of a number will be
Step 1: Press the “log” key.
displayed.
Step 2: Type 45000.
Step 3: Press the “ = ” key. Example 1.7
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After following the steps, the result
for log 45000 = 4.653212514. Find the anti-logarithm of 0.1284 using a
non-programmable scientific calculator.
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Note that, if the base is not 10 then
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apply base change, by using, Solution
log a Step 1: Press the “SHIFT” key.
logb a = . Step 2: Press the “log” key.
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log b
Step 3: Enter 0.1284.
Step 4: Press the “ = ” key.
Example 1.6
After following the steps, the result for
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Using a non-programmable scientific anti-logarithm of 0.1284 = 1.344002263.
calculator, evaluate log5 6.
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(iii) Natural logarithms (log to base e )

Solution
The natural logarithm of any number is its
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log5 6, this can be written as,

logarithm to the base of the mathematical
log 6
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log5 6 = . constant “ e ” which is an irrational number

log 5
approximately equal to 2.718281828459.
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Then, following the steps as in Example The natural logarithm of x is generally

1.5, the result is 1.113282753.
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written as ln x or log e x .
Therefore, log5 6 = 1.113282753.
The following steps are used to find the
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(ii) Anti-logarithms to base 10 natural logarithm of a number:

logarithms Step 1: Press the “ln” key.
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The following steps are used Step 2: Enter the number whose natural
to find the anti-logarithm of a logarithm is required.
number to base 10: Step 3: Press “ = ” key to obtain the result.
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Example 1.8 2. Use a non-programmable

scientific calculator to compute
Find ln 628 by using a non-programmable
each rational expressions in task
scientific calculator.
1 for=a 2,= b 3,= c 4, d = 2,
Solution and f = 1.
Step 1: Press the “ln” key. 3. Write the steps you have used to
Step 2: Enter 628. compute the expressions in task 1
Step 3: Press the “ = ” key to obtain the and 2.
result.
4. Share your results with your fellow
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After following the steps, the result for
students for further discussion.
ln 628 = 6.442540166.
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ln x Exercise 1.1
e x e=
Note that, ln= x . For instance,
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e 2 e=
ln= ln 2
2. 1. Use a non-programmable scientific
Activity 1.3: Computing various SE calculator to evaluate each of the
expressions with an exponential numbers following expressions. Write the
exponential numbers to base e results in standard notation (in four
significant figures):
Individually or in a group, perform the
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following tasks:
(a) 7
0.064
1. Study careful the following rational
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expression where e is an exponetial (b) log 3 13

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number from a non- programmable 4

(c) e × ln19 × 279 × log 325
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scientific calculator and the variables a,
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b, c, d, and f , where e is an exponential 21.7

number and a, b, c, d , f ∈  + ⎛ 8 ×102 ⎞
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(d) ln ⎜ ⎟
1 ⎝ 2log 9 ⎠
( ae )
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b d
+ ce b
(a) 5.23 × ln 7 ÷ ln 3
fe (e)
be 186 log 2021
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a
ea + bee ⎛
3
(b) log 7 631 ⎞
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(f) ⎜
bec ⎜ ln121 + 4 ln 2 ⎟⎟
ab ⎝ ⎠
a +b
e + log e 3
(c) (g)  303 × 4 + 16 ×1.26543 
c ln ec − ln a ln e ( log beb
)  −8
 1.03 ×10 × ln 3 

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e log3
+ log5 5  2.17 + 5.176 
(h) (h) 3  in 2
5
 3.16 × 0.984 
eln 3  
2. Evaluate each of the following significant figures.
expressions by using a non-
programmable scientific calculator. 3
Correct the answer to the stated decimal   1.3563 + 0.9242  
(i)  log  
places or significant figures   46.89 − 22.78  
log178 × ln190 in 6 significant figures.
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(a) in 4 decimal
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3.87935 × 273
2
places.  4 ×10−3 
(j) ln  −3 
in 5 decimal
N
 3 × 10 
(b) 23.37 + log 5 312.34 in 3 significant
O
517 × eln316 places.
figures.
3
0.3854 × (12.3456 )
3
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(g) Degree button
(c) in 6 The degree button “ °,,, ” is used to
( 0.056749 )
4
× 987
5
insert a number of degree format into
U
significant figures. the calculator. The number in degree
format has three parts which are Degree
1
‚
“ ° ”, Minutes “ ”, and Seconds “ ”.
E
 e0.3 − e −0.3   3.946 × eln 2.67  3

(d) 6  0.3 −0.3  ×  1.5 
 e + e   log10 
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in 4 decimal places. The following are the steps of inserting

a number in degree format in a non-
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programmable scientific calculator.

0.06709 − 0.2347 2
N
(e) in 5 significant
6.87 4 + 734.8 Step 1: Enter the degree part number
O
figures.
followed by “ °,,, ” key.
log 3.14 × ln 2.3567 Step 2: Enter the minutes part of the
R
(f)
2.5 ×102
in 6 decimal number followed by “ °,,, ” key.
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places. Step 3: Enter the seconds part of the

3 4 number followed by “ °,,, ” key.
(g) 0.316 ×1.6754
5 3
in 4 significant Step 4: Press “ = ” key to obtain the result
1
4.567 4 in degree format.
figures.
11
Form Five
FOR ONLINE USE ONLY
DO NOT DUPLICATE
Example 1.9
Use a non-programmable scientific

calculator to write the following
numbers in the standard degree form: Step 2: Enter the required degree
(a) 20°45′18′′ (d) 15°46′′ number to be converted to
(b) 25′55′′ (e) 45°80′ radians.
(c) 79′′ Step 3: Press the “SHIFT” key
Solution followed by “ANS” key.
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After following the required steps Step 4: Press the “1” key to access
for inserting numbers into degree degree symbol in the display.
format gives; Step 5: Press the “=” key to obtain the
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(a) 20°45′18′′ = 20°45′18′′ result in radian format.
(b) 25′55′′ = 0°25′55′′
O
Note that, convert minutes and seconds
(c) 79′′ = 0°1′ 19′′
into degrees if the given angle contains
(d) 15°46′′ = 15°0′46′′ SE
them.
(e) 45°80′ = 46°20′0′′
The following are steps for conversion

A number in degree format can be
U
of minutes and seconds into degrees:
converted to radian format and vice
versa by using a non-programmable Step 1: Enter the required angle to be
scientific calculator. The conversion
E
converted.
involves the relationship between radian
Step 2: Press the “=” key.
N
and degree, that is; 2π radian = 360°. Step 3: Press the “SHIFT” key followed
,,,
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by “ ° ” key.
(i) Steps of converting a number Step 4: Press the “SHIFT” key followed
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from degree format to radian by “ANS” key.

Step 5: Press the “1” key to access degree
O
Step 1: Change the calculator symbol in the display.

into radian by pressing Step 6: Press the “=” key to obtain the
R
the “MODE” button result in radian format.

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four times and then

press “ 2 ”. The screen
of the calculator looks
as follows.
12
Form Five
FOR ONLINE USE ONLY
DO NOT DUPLICATE
Activity 1.4: Comparing trigonometric ratios in degrees and in radians mode
Individually or in a group, perform the following tasks:

1. Consider the following special angles of trigonometric ratios
Table 1.2: Values of special trigonometric ratios
Trigonometric ratios Value
sin 45° 2
= 0.707106781
2
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cos 45° 2
= 0.707106781
2
N
tan 45° 1
O
2. Use a non-programmable scientific calculator in “Rad” mode to compare
the value of trigonometric ratios in Table 1.2.
SE
3. Are the values in task 2 the same as in Table 1.2? if not why?
4. From your calculator, what can you do to make the values to be the same
as in Table 1.2?
U
5. Share your results with your fellow students for further discussion.
(ii) Steps in converting a number from radian to degree measure

E
Step 1: Make sure your calculator is in degree by pressing the “MODE” button
N
four times and then press “1”.

Step 2: Enter the radian number.
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Step 3: Press the “SHIFT” key followed by “ANS” key.

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Step 4: From the menu, press “2” followed by “ = ”.

O
Step 5: Press the “SHIFT” key followed by “ °,,, ” key to display the answer in degrees.
R
Example 1.10
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Use a non-programmable scientific calculator to convert each of the following

numbers to their respective form:
(a) 40°35′18′′ to radian form (c) 0.27854 to degree form
(b) 0.345 to degree form (d) 46°20′ to radian form
13
Form Five
FOR ONLINE USE ONLY
DO NOT DUPLICATE
Solution (a) 24°6′34′′ + 0.9 rad in radian

(a) 40°35′18′′ = 0.708400054 to form.
radiation
(b) 34°56′4′′ + 0.983rad
(b) 0.345= 19° 46′ 1.36′′ to radian in radian form.
form
(c) 60°46′44′′ − 0.067 rad
(c) 0.27854 = 15°57′33′′ to degree in degree form.
form
(d) 76°29′34′′ + 0.215rad
(d) 46°20′ = 0.80866922 to radian in degree form.
form
(e) 96°16′54′′ + 0.135rad
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in radian form.
Exercise 1.2 (f) 208°26′33′′ − 1.767 rad
in radian form
N
1. Use a non-programmable (g) 247°2′11′′ + 0.785rad
scientific calculator to convert
O
in degree form.
each of the following degree to (h) 324°6′34′′ + 1.9 rad
radian form: SE in radian form.
(a) 45° (e) 540°7′45′′
(b) 30° (f) 78°6′23′′ (h) Trigonometric functions
The values of trigonometric functions
U
(c) 360° (g) 7′54′′
such as sine, cosine, tangent, and their
(d) 19° (h) 45°0′18′′
inverses can be determined using
2. Use a non-programmable scientific
E
scientific calculators. The buttons for

calculator to convert each of the these functions are written as “sin”,
N
following radians to degree form: “cos”, and “tan” on the calculator.

2
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For a non-programmable scientific

(a) π (e) 0.3rad
3 calculator, the steps for computing
N
5 values of trigonometric ratios are as

(b) π (f) 0.1235 rad
3 follows:
O
(c) 3π (g) 0.78 rad Step 1: With the scientific calculator

π in degree mode “D”, press
R
(d) (h) 0.786 rad the key of the trigonometric

4
FO
ratio required. For example,

3. Evaluate each of the following
sin, cos, and tan .
using a non-programmable
Step 2: Enter the angle whose
scientific calculator. Providing trigonometric ratio is
the answers in the stated form: required.
14
Form Five
FOR ONLINE USE ONLY
DO NOT DUPLICATE
Step 3: Press the “=” key. 2π

(a) cos (d) sin16
If the trigonometric function has an 5
angle in radian format, for instance (b) cos −1 0.257 (e) tan −1 1.4
π (c) tan 54°5′34′′ (f) tan 330°35′57′′
3 radians, or radians, then the mode
3
of the calculator should be in radians. Solution
2π
(a) cos = 0.309016994
Activity 1.5: Identifying the useful 5
keys/buttons on a scientific calculator (b) cos −1 0.257 = 1.310879679
used for determining trigonometric (c) tan 54°5′34′′ = 1.381079275
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ratios and their inverses (d) sin16 = − 0.287903316
Individually or in a group, perform (e) tan −1 1.4 = 0.95054684
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the following tasks: (f) tan 330°35′57′′ = − 0.563490204
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1. Set your calculator in radian
mode. Activity 1.6: Identifying the
2. Identify all keys/buttons with
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reciprocal of trigonometric ratios
trigonometric ratios and their Individually or in a group, perform
inverses. the following tasks:
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3. Use the identified buttons 1. Use a non-programmable
in task 2 to determine scientific calculator to evaluate
sin 40°, cos 40°, tan 40° the following; sin (45°), cos (45°),
E
sin −1 (0.5), cos −1 (0.5), and and tan (45°).

N
tan −1 (0.5). 2. Find the reciprocal of all

trigonometric functions evaluated
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4. Write all steps of finding the

in task 1.
trigonometric ratios and their
3. Evaluate the following trigonometric
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inverses.
functions using the knowledge
5. Share the identified steps in task
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obtained in tasks 1 and 2.

4 with other students.
(a) sec ( 35° ) (c) cot ( − 80°)
(b) cos ec ( 320° )
R
Example 1.11 4. Identify the steps you have used to

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evaluate the trigonometric functions

in task 3.
calculator to evaluate each of the
5. Share the identified steps with
following trigonometric ratios:
your fellow students for more
inputs.
15
Form Five
FOR ONLINE USE ONLY
DO NOT DUPLICATE
π
If x ≥ 1, then the inverses of the reciprocals tan + cos cos −1 ln 2
(c) 4
of the trigonometric ratios are given by, cos−1 0.3 + sin −1 0.467
 1
sec −1 x = cos −1   (to 5 decimal places).
 x
 1
3
0.5677
cosec −1 x = sin −1   (d)
 x
π sec−1 ( 2.34 ) + 5.7 ×10−2
 1
cot −1 x = tan −1  
 x (to 3 significant figures).
5.672 cos 40°27′29′′
(e)
Exercise 1.3 90.34 + tan 67°1′ 12′′
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1. Use a non-programmable scientific (to 6 significant figures).
calculator to evaluate each of the π
N
cos ec −1 sin + log 5 3 ×10− 3
following: 2
3 (f)
ln 2 + tan −1 tan 30°21′ 41′′
O
(a) sin 30°4′54′′ (f) cosec π
5
π 2 (to 6 decimal places).
(b) cos (g) tan tan −1 SE
4 3 log 7 10.5 + cot −1 3.14
(g)
1 23.90 + cos π
(c) cos −1
(h) sec cos π
−1
2 3
U
3
tan 45° + ln cosec−1
(d) sec −1 2 (i) cot −1 tan 45°6′27′′ 2
(h)
cos 0.345 + 0.367 ×10−3
−1
−1 3
(e) cot
E
4 14.32 × tan 20°36′45′′

3. If tan θ =
2. Use a non-programmable scientific 78.90 × cos17°5′37′′
N
calculator to evaluate each of the using a non-programmable

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following expressions. (Give the scientific calculator determine

answer correct to the stated number of the value of θ .
N
decimal places or significant figures): (a) In degrees, correct to 4 decimal

O
sin −1 0.5 + log 5 places

(a)
⎛ 22 ⎞ (b) In radian, correct to 4 decimal
3 ln 5
⎜ − sin 45°0′30′′ ⎟
⎝ 7
R
⎠ places.
(to 4 significant figures).
FO
2 (i) Operations on fractions

⎛ −1 ⎞
(b) ⎜ tan 0.345 + ln 19.78 ⎟
3
A non-programmable scientific
⎜ cos 78°39′40′′ + log π ⎟
⎝ ⎠ calculator can perform operations on
(to 3 decimal places). fractions using the fraction key “ a b ”.
c
16
Form Five
FOR ONLINE USE ONLY
DO NOT DUPLICATE
The following steps can be used to enter A non-programmable scientific
the fraction in the scientific calculator: calculator can convert numbers from
Step 1: Type the numerator. fractions to decimals and vice versa.
Step 2: Press the fraction button key,
b The following steps are used to convert
that is “ a ”. fractions to decimal numbers:
c
Step 3: Type the denominator. Step 1: Type the numerator.
Step 4: Press the “ = ” key to obtain the Step 2: Press the fraction button
b
result in fraction format. key, that is “ a ”.
c
The following steps can be used to Step 3: Type the denominator.
enter a mixed fraction in the scientific Step 4: Press the “=” button key to
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calculator: obtain the result in fraction
Step 1: Type the whole number part. format.
N
Step 2: Press the fraction button key, Step 5: Press the fraction button
b again, that is “ a b ” key to
O
that is “ a ”.
c c
Step 3: Type the numerator. obtain the result in decimal
Step 4: Press the fraction key, that is
SE format.
“ a b ”. When converting numbers from decimal
c to fraction form, follow the following
U
Step 5: Type the denominator.
steps:
Step 6: Press the “ = ” button key to obtain Step 1: Type the decimal number.
the result in fraction format. Step 2: Press the “ = ” key to obtain
E
the result in decimal form.

Example 1.12
N
Step 3: Press the fraction button key,

b
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Use a non-programmable scientific that is “ a ” to obtain the

calculator to obtain the value of each c
result in fraction form.
N
of the following expressions:

18 3 1 3 4
O
(a) ÷ (b) 9 + 2 − 2 Example 1.13

5 12 5 8 5
Solution Use a non-programmable scientific
R
Following the stated steps, calculator to convert each of the

following numbers into the indicated
FO
18 3 2
(a) ÷ = 14
5 12 5 forms:
1 3 4 31 8
(b) 9 + 2 − 2 = 8 (a) 7 into decimal form.
5 8 5 40 21
(b) 2.6 into fraction form.
17
Form Five
FOR ONLINE USE ONLY
DO NOT DUPLICATE
Solution ⎛ ⎞
⎜ 98.2 × ( 0.0076 ) ×107 ⎟
−1
Following the stated steps, the (b) log ⎜
π π ⎟
displayed answers are: ⎜ tan × cos3 ⎟
8 ⎝ 3 4 ⎠
(a) 7 = 7.380952381 (to 6 significant figures).
21
3
(c) sin (ln 2) + tan (cos 45°23′12′′)
−1 2
(b) 2.6 = 2
5 6
(log e 24) 5
Exercise 1.4 (to 4 significant figures).
LY
1. By using a non-programmable (d) 0.4856 + tan −1 (1.54) × e3
scientific calculator, evaluate each 62.544 × cosec-1 3.5
of the following expressions: (to 4 decimal places).
N
(a) 19 1 × 7 1  −  4 1 ÷ 2 1 
3
⎛ 68.48 × sin 35.56 ⎞ 5
O
    (e) ⎜
 2 4  8 2 ⎟
3 7 3 3 ⎝ tan 46.65 × 3 751 ⎠
(b) 2 + − 1 ÷ 3 SE (to 3 decimal places).
4 9 7 5
2 5 1
4 +7 −6 (f) 6
e3 + (log 23.4)5 3 375.56
(c) 3 9 5
U
5
2 7 (to 3 significant figures).
×1
7 9
(g) sin 25°20′ − 0.05e

3 −3
E
(d) π
7 log 7 (8 ×10 ) +
2
log 2 3.2 + 0.006e0.3
4
N

sin 30°7′ log 2 5.3
(e)
LI
+ 5
cos −1 0.5 e−1 ⎛ (9.621)(7.0678) ⎞ 7
. (h) ⎜ 5
5 ⎜ 35.34 + 0.34605 ⎟⎟
N
2 −1
(f) 2 + 5 e + sin 0.3 ⎝ ⎠
7
O
2. By using a non-programmable (to 3 decimal places).

scientific calculator, compute each (i) log e (e4 + 2 ln 7.36) + log 2 7
R
of the following expressions: (to 3 decimal places).

ln 1
FO
240 × e 3 sin 22° 2

(a) ⎛ ⎞3
sec−1 (17 ) × 34ln11 (j) ⎜ 200.31× 2000 ⎟
⎜ 1721× log 3 ⎟
⎝ 7 ⎠
18
Form Five
FOR ONLINE USE ONLY
DO NOT DUPLICATE
After entering the data into the calculator
2
2 + log 3 122 × ln 315 on the “SD” mode, the steps to determine
(k) 3 5
e0.9 sum of data values ( ∑ x ) , sum of squared
7
values ( )
x 2 , mean ( x ) , and standard
⎛ ⎛ 2 ⎞2 ⎞ 9 deviation (δ x ) are as follows:
−1
⎜ ⎜ 5 ⎟ × cosec 2.3 ⎟ Step 1: Press the “SHIFT” button.
⎝ 7⎠
(l) ⎜ ⎟
Step 2: Press the button key numbered
⎜ log e 168.9 ⎟
⎜ ⎟ 1 or 2 to obtain different options
⎝ ⎠ of statistical values.
(to 5 significant figures). Step 3: Select the statistical value needed
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by pressing the relevant button
(j) Statistical calculations as instructed on the screen of the
In a non-programmable scientific calculator.
N
Step 4: Press the “=” key to obtain the
calculator, statistical data in numerals
result.
O
can be processed to determine various
statistical parameters such as sum, mean, Activity 1.7: Computing the central
and standard deviation for ungrouped
SE
tendency and dispersion of data
and grouped data.
Individually or in a group, perform
U
(i) Ungrouped statistical data
Use the following steps in computations 1. Use a tape measure to measure
involving ungrouped statistical data: the heights of your fellow
E
students.
Step 1: Press the “MODE” key two
2. Enter the heights into a non-
N
times.
Step 2: Select “SD” mode by pressing the programmable scientific calculator.
LI
button numbered 1 as instructed Then,

on the screen of the calculator. compute the following values:
N
The screen of the calculator (a) Mean, x

(c) Sum of data values, ∑ x
O
looks as follows.
(b) Standard deviation, δ x
R
(d) Sum of squared data

values, x2
FO
Step 3: Type the number (value) then 3. Did you face any challenges in
press the “M+” key. doing the computations? If Yes,
Step 4: Repeat Step 3 for each of the discuss with your fellow students
values. on how to solve the challenges.
19
Form Five
FOR ONLINE USE ONLY
DO NOT DUPLICATE
Example 1.14
Given the following data 3, 4, 6, 2, 8, 7, 5, 9, 1. Use a non-programmable
scientific calculator to find each of the following:
(a) x (b) δ x (c) ∑ x
Solution
Following the required steps, the results are:
(a) x = 5 (b) δ x = 2.581988897 (c) ∑ x = 45
(ii) Grouped statistical data
LY
For the case of grouped data, apply the following steps:
Step 1: Press the “MODE” key two times.
N
Step 2: Select “SD” by pressing the key number 1.
Step 3: Type the class mark data.
O
Step 4: Press the “SHIFT” key followed by comma to obtain “;”.
Step 5: Type the corresponding frequency of the class mark.
SE
Step 6: Press “M+” key.
Step 7: Repeat steps 3 to 6 for each class mark and its corresponding
frequency.
U
Step 8: Press the “SHIFT” key, then press key number 1 or 2 to obtain
different options of statistical value.
Step 9: Select the statistical value needed by pressing the relevant key
E
as instructed on the display of the calculator.

N
Step 10: Press the “=” key to obtain the result.

LI
Example 1.15
N
Given the following frequency distribution table, calculate the mean and
standard deviation using a non-programmable scientific calculator.
O
Class interval Class mark (x) Frequency (f)

R
11 – 20 15.5 15
21 – 30 25.5 9
FO
31 – 40 35.5 7
41 – 50 45.5 11
51 – 60 55.5 6
61 – 70 65.5 8
20
Form Five
FOR ONLINE USE ONLY
DO NOT DUPLICATE
Solution
Following the required steps, the results are:
(a) x = 36.92857143.
(b) δ x = 17.67045268.
Note that, once the statistical data are stored in a non-programmable scientific
calculator, they cannot be cleared by turning off the calculator or by pressing the
“ON” or “AC” keys. This can only be erased by either changing the “MODE”
or by running the steps for clearing statistical data.
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The following are steps for clearing statistical data in a non-programmable
N
O
Step 2: Press the “MODE” key.
Step 3: Press the “3” key. SE
Step 4: Press the “=” key two times.
Exercise 1.5
U
1. Use non-programmable scientific calculator to find the mean of the following data:
2 5 2 4 1 1 1 2 1 3
E
3 2 1 2 1 1 2 4 3 2
N
1 2 3 1 4 2 3 1 1 2
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2. Use a non-programmable scientific calculator to find x , ∑ x, ∑ x , δ x , and δ x2

2
for each of the following data:

N
1 1 1 1 1 1 1
(a) 44 , 47 , 50 , 53 , 56 , 59 , and 62
O
2 2 2 2 2 2 2
(b) 0.85, 0.88, 0.89, 0.93, 0.94, and 0.96
R
x 121 122 123 124 125

(c)
FO
f 14 25 32 23 6
x 27 28 29 30 31 32
(d)
f 30 43 51 49 42 35
21
Form Five
FOR ONLINE USE ONLY
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3. The speeds to the nearest kilometre per hour of 120 vehicles passing at a check
point were recorded and grouped as shown in the following table:
Speed km/h 21 – 25 26 – 30 31 – 35 36 – 40 41 – 45
Number of vehicles 22 48 25 16 9
Use a non-programmable scientific calculator to find the mean and standard
deviation of the speed of the vehicles.
4. Use a non-programmable scientific calculator to compute the mean and standard
deviation for the following data:
LY
x 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
f 4 10 16 28 34 44 32 16 10 6 0
5. Use a non-programmable scientific calculator to find the mean and the standard
N
deviation of the following test scores of Form Five students.
O
Scores 1 – 10 11 – 20 21 – 30 31 – 40 41 – 50
Frequency ( f ) 13 4 SE 20 21 10
6. Outline the steps for:

(a) Editing statistical data entered in a non-programmable scientific calculator.
U
(b) Clearing statistical data in a non-programmable scientific calculator.
7. Use a non-programmable scientific calculator to evaluate x, ∑ x2 , and
∑
x of the following data set:
E
x 61 64 67 70 73
N
Frequency 5 18 42 27 8
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(k) Probability calculations

N
A non-programmable scientific calculator can also be used to perform various

probability calculations.
O
(i) Combination of items

To find the number of combinations of n items in groups of r items by using a
R
non-programmable scientific calculator, observe the following steps:

FO
Step 1: Type the n value.

Step 3: Press the “ ÷ ” key to obtain n Cr function.
Step 4: Type the r value to complete the expression for combination.
22
Form Five
FOR ONLINE USE ONLY
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(ii) Permutations of items

To find the number of permutations of n items in groups of r items by using
a non-programmable scientific calculator, observe the following steps:
Step 1: Type the n value.
Step 3: Press the “ × ” key to obtain n Pr function.
Step 4: Type the r value to complete the expression for permutations.
(iii) Factorial of numbers
LY
To find the factorial of a number x by using a non-programmable scientific
calculator, observe the following steps:
Step 1: Enter the x value.
N
O
Step 3: Press the “ x −1 ” key to obtain x !.
Using a non-programmable scientific calculator, calculate each of the following:
SE
(a) 6 C3 (c) 15 P5 (e) 8! + 2(2!)
(b) 7 C2 (d) 8 P2

U
Solution
6
(a) C3 = 20 (c) 15
P5 = 360360 (e) 8! + 2(2!) = 40324
7
(b) C2 = 21 (d)
E
8
P2 = 56
N
(iv) Normal distribution

To find the probability from normal distribution by using a non-programmable
LI
scientific calculator, observe the following steps:

Step 1: Press the “MODE” key two times.
N
Step 2: Select “SD” by pressing number 1.

Step 3: Press “ S H I F T ” key followed by number 3 to obtain “DISTR”. The
O
screen of the calculator looks as follows:

R
FO
Step 4: Select “P” by pressing number 1 if P( z ≤ a ) , “Q” by pressing number 2

if P(a ≤ z ≤ b) , and “R” by pressing number 3 if P(z ≥ a).
Step 5: Enter the value of z as required.
23
Form Five
FOR ONLINE USE ONLY
DO NOT DUPLICATE
Note that,
Exercise 1.6
(i) P gives the probability from
the variable to the left, that 1. Use a non-programmable
is P( z ≤ a). For instance, scientific calculator to evaluate
P( z ≤ −1.83) = 0.03362. each of the following:
(a) 5!
(ii) R gives the probability from
the variable to the right, that (b) 7!− 2!
3!
is P( z ≥ a). For instance, (c)
4!2!
LY
P( z ≥ 1.2) = 0.11507.
2. Using a non-programmable
(iii) Q gives the probability from scientific calculator evaluate the
zero to the variable, that is following:
N
P(0 ≤ z ≤ a). For instance, (a) 10 C 2 ×7 C 2
O
P( z ≤ 1.5) =0.5 + Q(1.50) =0.93319 (b)
11
C 4 + 6 C3
Example 1.17
SE
3. Use a non-programmable
scientific calculator to evaluate
each of the following:
Using a non-programmable scientific
U
(a) P( z ≤ 0.85)
calculator, calculate each of the
following: (b) P( z ≤ −1.377)
E
(a) P( z ≤ −1.53) (c) P( z > −1.377)

N
(b) P(−2 ≤ z ≤ 0.27) (d) P(0.345 ≤ z ≤ 1.751)

LI
(c) P( z ≥ 0.8) (e) P( z ≤ 1.5)

N
Solution
(l) Solutions of simultaneous,
(a) P( z ≤ −1.53) = 0.06301
O
quadratic, and cubic equations

(b) P(−2 ≤ z ≤ 0.27) = Q(−2) + Q(0.27) = 0.58367
A non-programmable scientific calculator
2 ≤ z ≤ 0.27) = Q(−2) + Q(0.27) = 0.58367
R
can be used to calculate the unknowns in

(c) P( z ≥ 0.8) = 0.21186 the system of simultaneous equations with
FO
two or three unknowns, quadratic, and cubic

equations.
24
Form Five
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Activity 1.8: Solving simultaneous Step 3: Choose the number of unknowns,

equations with two and three 2 for simultaneous equations
unknowns with two unknowns or 3 for
simultaneous equations with
three unknowns will appear on
the display. Press the number
1. Set a non-programmable scientific key corresponding to the number
calculator in the mode that allows of unknowns in the system of
to solve simultaneous equations simultaneous equations. That is
LY
with two or three unknowns. either the key labelled 2 or 3.
2. Use a non-programmable Coefficients of the unknown x, y,
scientific calculator to and z in the equations are named
N
solve each of the following as follows:
O
simultaneous equations: A system of linear simultaneous equations
5 x − y =2 with two unknowns has the form;
(a)  SE
x + 3y =10 ⎧ a1 x + b1 y = c1
x − 3y + 2z =
8 ⎨
⎩a2 x + b2 y = c2
(b) 2 x + y + 2 z =
19
U
x − y − 2z =2 A system of linear simultaneous equations

3. Write all the steps you have used with three unknowns has the form;
⎧ a1 x + b1 y + c1 z = d1
E
to solve simultaneous equations ⎪

⎨a2 x + b2 y + c2 z = d 2
N
with two or three unknowns in

⎪a x + b y + c z = d
task 2. ⎩ 3 3 3 3
LI
4. Share the identified steps in task Step 4: Once the number of unknown is
N
3 with your fellow students for set, the calculator’s display will
more inputs. indicate the value of a1.
O
Step 5: Insert the number representing

Steps for solving simultaneous equations the coefficient a1, and then press
R
Step 1: Press the “MODE” key three the “ = ” key.

times until the option for Step 6: Continue with step 5 for the
FO
choosing “EQN” (equation) rest of the coefficients until you

appears on the display. obtain their corresponding last
Step 2: Choose “EQN” by pressing constants (c2 for 2-unkowns and
the key of its option number. d3 for 3-unkowns).
25
Form Five
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Step 7: Press the “ = ” key to display the Step 4:Arrange the equation in
values of the unknowns. an acceptable format for
inserting coefficients in the
Activity 1.9: Solving quadratic and calculator. For a quadratic
cubic equations equation it should be
Individually or in a group, perform the ax2 + bx + c = 0 and for a
following tasks: cubic equation it should be
1. Set your non-programmable 0.
ax 3 + bx 2 + cx + d =
scientific calculator in the mode Step 5: Insert the coefficient a , and
that allows to solve quadratic or then press the “ = ” key.
LY
cubic equations. Step 6: Continue with step 5 for
2. Use the non-programmable coefficients b up to c or d
scientific calculator to calculate depending on the type of the
N
the values of each of the equation.
O
following: Step 7: Once the last value, c or d
(a) x 2 + 3x − 4 = 0 is inserted in the calculator,
(b) x3 + 6 x + 6 = 0 SE the first solution x1 will be
3. Write the steps you have used to displayed. Press the “ = ”
solve the equations in task 2. button to get other solutions.
U
4. Share the identified steps in task 3 Exercise 1.7
with your fellow students for more
inputs.
E

calculator to evaluate each of the
N
Steps for solving quadratic and cubic

equations following equations:
LI
Step 1: Press the “MODE” button 1. x3 − 23x 2 + 120 x = 0

three times until the option for 2. 3x 2 − 46 x + 120 = 0
N
choosing “EQN” appears on the 3. x3 − 2 x 2 − x + 2 = 0

O
display. 2
Step 2: Choose “EQN” and press the 4. x − 2 2 x + 2 = 0
right arrow of the “REPLAY”
R
5. x 2 + x + 34 = 0
key to choose the degree of the
⎧x + 2 y = 3
FO
equation. 6. ⎨
Step 3: Choose the degree of the ⎩2 x + 3 y = 4
equation to be solved (that is, ⎧x − y + z = 2
2 for quadratic equation and 3 ⎪
7. ⎨ x + y − z = 0
for cubic equation). ⎪− x + y + z = 4
⎩
26
Form Five
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Step 3: Press key number 1 and

⎧7 x + 2 y = 11 choose the name of the
8. ⎨ matrix, by pressing “ 1” for
⎩4 x + y = 7
naming it as matrix A, “ 2”
⎧6 x + y = 9 for B, and “3” for C.
9. ⎨
Step 4: Set the dimension m × n
⎩− y + 4 x = 7
of the matrix by typing
⎧3x − y + 2 z = 13
⎪ the value of m (number
10. ⎨2 z + 3 y + x = 15
⎪ y + 4x − z = 4 of rows). Then press
⎩ “ = ” key and type again
LY
⎧3x + 4 y + z = 5 the dimension n (number
⎪
11. ⎨2 x − y − z = 4 of columns) and then press
⎪x + 3y + z = 1 “ = ” key. If the matrix is 2
N
⎩
by 2, then m is 2 and n is
⎧x + y + z = 6
O
2 or if the matrix is 3 by 2,
12. ⎪
⎨3x + y + z = 8 then m is 3 and n is 2.
⎪x + 2z − y = 5 SE
⎩
Steps for inserting entries of a matrix
After the name and dimension of the
(m) Calculations involving matrices
matrix have been set, entries of the
U
A non-programmable scientific calculator
stores matrices and performs different matrix are required. The following are
operations such as addition, subtraction, steps of recalling the stored matrices:
E
and multiplication. In order to store the

Step 1: Press the first entry “ MatA11 ” if
matrix in the calculator, some steps are
N
the matrix is named as A, then,

required.
press “ = ” key.
LI
Steps for storing matrices in a non- Step 2: Press the second entry “ MatA12 ”
programmable scientific calculator then press “ = ” key. Following
N
Step 1: Press the “MODE” key the same steps until the last entry
O
three times until the matrix of the entire matrix is entered.

mode “MAT” appears on
The entries of matrices are named as
R
the display and then choose

illustrated in the following cases:
it by pressing its option
For a 2 by 2 matrix A, the entries are
FO
number.
named as:
Step 2: While the calculator is in
⎛A A12 ⎞
matrix mode press the A = ⎜ 11 ⎟
“SHIFT” key, then press ⎝ A 21 A 22 ⎠
the 4 key “MAT”.
27
Form Five
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For a 3 by 3 matrix A, the entries are Step 6: Select the matrix whose
named as: determinant is required.
Step 7: Press the “=” key to obtain
⎛ A11 A12 A13 ⎞
⎜ ⎟ the result.
A = ⎜ A 21 A 22 A 23 ⎟
⎜A Note that, the same steps mentioned are
⎝ 31 A32 A33 ⎟⎠
used for finding transpose of the matrix
In other words, A11 means an entry of by choosing transpose “Trn” instead of
matrix A at the position of first row and “Det”.
first column. Similarly, A12 refers to the
Inverse of a matrix
entry of matrix A at first row and second
After inserting the entries of a matrix,
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column.
use the following steps to determine
Steps for editing entries of a matrix
its inverse:
Step 1: Press the “SHIFT” key,
N
then press 4, “MAT” key.
Step 2: Select “Edit”. Step 2: Press 4, “MAT” key.
O
Step 3: Select the name of the Step 3: Select “MAT” then press
matrix whose dimension has SE number 3 for the matrix.
been set. Step 4: Select the matrix whose
Step 4: Enter the correct value of inverse is required.
the entry and then press Step 5: “ MatA ” will appear on the
the “=” key. Continue with
U
display, then press x – 1 to
these steps until all the
obtain “ MatA −1 ” which is
entries are edited.
the inverse of matrix then
E
Determinant, transpose, and inverse press “ = ” key. The first

N
of a matrix entry for MatAns11 will

After inserting the entries of a matrix, appear, continue scrolling
LI
the steps to obtain the determinant of the right key until the last
the matrix are as follows: value is displayed.
N
Step 1: Press "SHIFT" key.

O
Exercise 1.8
Step 2: Press 4, “MAT” key.
Step 3: Scroll the right arrow of
1. Given the following matrices, use
R
the replay button and select

“Det” by pressing number a non-programmable scientific
FO
1 key. calculator to answer each of the

Step 4: Again press "SHIFT" key. questions which follows:
Step 5: Press 4, “MAT” key, then
select “MAT” by pressing
number 3 key.
28
Form Five
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⎛1 1 0 ⎞ ⎛ 8 −4 ⎞
⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟
A = ⎜1 0 −1⎟ and B = ⎜ 0 12 ⎟
⎜1 1 2 ⎟ ⎜4 0 ⎟
⎝ ⎠ ⎝ ⎠
(a) Compute the determinant and transpose of matrix A.

(b) Compute the inverse of each of the matrix A.
(c) Compute A + A−1
(d) Compute A 2
LY
⎛ 2 3 −1⎞ ⎛ 7 6 −1⎞ ⎛1 0 0⎞
2. If A = ⎜⎜ 2 0 8 ⎟⎟ , ⎜
B = ⎜0 0 8⎟
⎟ , and I = ⎜ 0 1 0 ⎟ , use a non-
⎜ ⎟
N
⎜2 4 5⎟ ⎜2 4 3⎟ ⎜0 0 1⎟
⎝ ⎠ ⎝ ⎠ ⎝ ⎠
O
programmable calculator to:
(a) compute the value of 2 det(A) + det(B)
SE
(b) compute the value of 2A + 3B − 4I
(c) Verify that,
U
(i) AA−1 = A−1A = I
T
(ii) det(B) = det(B )
E
(iii) AB ≠ BA
(d) Compute 4AB + 5BA T
N
LI
(n) Evaluating derivatives and definite integrals of functions

N
A non-programmable scientific calculator can be used to calculate the definite

derivatives and integral of functions. The key for integral of functions is labelled
O
d
as ∫ dx with its alternate functional key labelled as . The functional key ∫ dx
dx d
R
is used for performing calculations which require integration, while is for

dx
FO
differentiation.
29
Form Five
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The following are steps for calculating Exercise 1.9

definite integral by using a non-
programmable scientific calculator: Using a non-programmable scientific
Step 1: Press “ ∫ dx ” key. calculator, evaluate each of the following:
Step 2: Press the “ALPHA” key in 5
dx
1. ⌠⎮
order to insert a function in ⌡0 1 + x 2
terms of x. Every variable of d ⎛ 3 3⎞
x
the function to be inserted 2. ⎜ x − 4e + 2 x − ⎟ , when x = 1
dx ⎝ 2⎠
must be preceded by pressing 3
“ALPHA” key. 3. ∫ (6 x 2 − 3x + 7)dx
LY
−1
Step 3: Press comma, then insert d π
lower limit of integration.
4. ( tan x − sin x ) , when x =
dx 4
N
Step 4: Press again comma to insert π
5. ∫ 2
cos 2 x dx
upper limit of integration and 0
O
close bracket. d ⎛ x2 −1 ⎞
Step 5: Press the “=” key to obtain 6. ⎜ 3log x 2 − ⎟ , when x = 2
SE dx ⎜⎝ x3 ⎟⎠
the result.
Also, the following are the steps for (o) Conversion of units
calculating the derivative of a function at
U
Unit conversion is one of the functions of a
a point by a non-programmable scientific scientific calculator. A non-programmable
calculator. scientific calculators converts units under
E
Step 1: Press the “SHIFT” button metric systems. Types of unit conversion to
be carried out by a particular calculator are
N
then press “ ∫ dx ” key.

listed on the user’s manual and on the inner
Step 2: Press the “ALPHA” key to
LI
part of the plastic cover of the calculator. Thus,

insert a function in terms of before converting the units, identify the number
N
x. which represent the type of conversion needed.

Step 3: Press comma, then insert
O
The following are steps for unit conversions.

a point given and close
Step 1: Press a number to be converted.
bracket.
R

Step 4: Press the “=” key to obtain Step 3: Press the “CONST” key.
FO
the result. Step 4: Press a number to recall the

unit.
Step 5: Press “=” key to obtain the
result.
30
Form Five
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For example, the constant for acceleration

Activity 1.10: Conversion of units
due to gravity (g) is assigned number 35.
Therefore, to recall it press the button
the following tasks by using a non- “CONST”, then type 35 and press (=)
programmable scientific calculator: key to view its value.
1. Identify all types of units’

Activity 1.11: Operation with constants
conversion that can be performed
by a non-programmable scientific Individually or in a group, perform
calculator. the following tasks by using a non-
LY
2. Convert each of the following: programmable scientific calculator:
(i) 10 ft → inch
1. Identify any constants of your
N
2
(ii) 4m → acres choice and their assigned numbers.
(iii) 80 km/h → m/s
O
2. Perform each of the following:
(iv) 60 cal → J
SE (a) Add any two constants.
3. Identify the steps you have used
to convert units in task 2. (b) Subtract any two constants.
4. Share the identified steps in task (c) Multiply any two constants.
U
3 with your fellow students for (d) Divide any two constants.
more inputs.
3. Identify all the steps you have
E
used to obtain the values of the

(p) Physical constants and quick constants in task 2.
N
access to constants such as Pi and e

4. Share the identified steps in task
Physical constants are useful in
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3 with your fellow students for

calculations. Sometimes, constants
more inputs.
N
are not given hoping that the learners

can obviously get them from their
O
scientific calculators. Constants which (q) Calculations involving vectors

can be recalled by a particular scientific A non-programmable scientific calculator
R
calculator are listed on the inner part of stores vectors and performs different
the plastic cover of the calculator as well operations such as addition, subtraction
FO
as in the user’s manual. As in the case and multiplication. In order to store a

of units’ conversion, each constant is given vector in the calculator, some steps
assigned a number in order to recall it. are required.
31
Form Five
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The following are steps for storing For 2-dimension vector A , the entries are
vectors in a non-programmable scientific named as VctA1 i + VctA 2 j .
calculator
Step 1: Press the “MODE” key three For 3-dimension vector A , the entries are
times until vector mode “VCT”
named as VctA1 i + VctA 2 j + VctA 3 k .
appears on the display and then
choose it by pressing a key The following are steps for editing
number 3. components of a vector
Step 2: Press the “SHIFT” button, and Step 1: Press “SHIFT” key, then press
then press a key numbered 5. the key number 5.
LY
Step 3: Press the key numbered 1 to Step 2: Select “Edit” by pressing its
set dimension. option number.
Step 4: Press the key numbered 1 to Step 3: Select the name of the vector
N
choose the name of the vector, whose dimension has been set.
by pressing 1 for naming it as
O
Step 4: Enter the correct value of the
vector A, 2 for B, and 3 for C . entry, then press “ = ” key.
Step 5: Press the dimension m of SE Continue with these steps until
the vector by typing the value all the components are edited.
of m . If the given vector is
2- dimensional then the value (i) Addition and subtraction of vectors
U
of m is 2 and m is 3 for a After inserting the components of a vector,
3-dimensional vector. the steps to add or subtract the given vector
are as follows:
E
Steps for inserting components of a vector

Step 1: Press “SHIFT” button.
Once the name and dimension of a vector
N
Step 2: Press a key number 5, select the

have been set, the next step is to enter the
first vector by pressing a key
LI
entries of the given vector, which is done

numbered 3. Select the name
using the following steps:
of the vector to be added or
N
Step 1: Press the first entry “ VctA1 ” subtracted by pressing its option
O
if the vector is named A . Then, numbers.

press “ = ” key. Step 3: Press “ + ” key for addition or
Step 2: Press the second entry “ VctA 2 ”, “ − ” key for subtraction.
R
then press “ = ” key. If the vector Step 4: Press a key numbered 5, then
FO
is of a 3-dimension follow the press a key numbered 3, select

same steps until the final entry the name of vector by pressing
is entered. its option number.
The components of vectors are named as Step 5: Press “ = ” key to obtain the
illustrated in the following cases. result.
32
Form Five
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(ii) Modulus of a vector (iv) Cross product of vectors

After entering the components of vector, After entering the components of vectors,
use the following steps to determine its use the following steps to determine the
modulus: cross product of vectors:
Step 1: Press the “SHIFT” key, then
Steps 1: Press the “SHIFT” key, then press a key numbered 5.
press “ ) ” key to obtain “Abs”. Step 2: Select “Vct” by pressing a key
Step 2: Press the“SHIFT” key, then numbered 3.
press a key numbered 5. Step 3: Select the first vector to be
Step 3: Select “Vct” by pressing a key crossed.
Step 4: Press “ × ” key, then repeat
LY
numbered 5.
Step 1 to Step 2 and select the
Step 4: Select the name of the vector second vector to be crossed.
whose modulus is required by Follow the same steps until
N
pressing its option number. the last vector to be crossed
Step 5: Press “ = ” key to obtain the is inserted.
O
result. Step 5: Press “ = ” key to obtain the
SE result.
(iii) Dot product of vectors
Exercise 1.10
After entering the components of vectors,
use the following steps to determine the
U
1. If a = 2i + 3 j + 4k and
dot product of vectors:
b =i − j + k , use a non-
programmable scientific
E
press 5 “VCT” key.

calculator to find:
Step 2: Select “Vct” by pressing the
N
key numbered 3. (a) a + b (b) b − a

!!!"
LI
Step 3: Select the first vector to be 2. Given OA = 4i − 3k and

!!!"
dotted. OB = −2i + 4 j + k , using a
N
Step 4: Scroll the right arrow of replay non-programmable scientific

button and select “Dot” by calculator, evaluate each of the
O
pressing the key numbered 1. following:

!!!" !!!" !!!" !!!"
Step 5: Again press the “SHIFT” key. (a) OA ⋅OB (c) OA × OB
R
Step 6: Press the key numbered 5, then !!!" !!!"

(b) OA × OB
select “Vct” by pressing the key
FO
numbered 3. 3. Use a non-programmable

Step 7: Select vectors to be dotted. scientific calculator
Step 8: Press “ = ” key to obtain the to determine vector
result. 2a + b − 3c such that
33
Form Five
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Step 3: Press “+” key for addition or

a = i + j + k , b = 4 j + k and “ − ” for subtraction.
c = 4i − 3 j + 6k Step 4: Repeat step 2 to insert the
second complex to be added
4. If u =2i + 3 j + k , v =+
i 2j+k
or subtracted.
and r =5i + 3 j + k , using a non- Step 5: Press “=” key to obtain the
programmable scientific calculator, real part of the result.
verify that: Step 6: Press the “SHIFT” key,
(a) u × v ≠ v × u (b) u ⋅ r = r ⋅ u then “=” key to obtain the
imaginary part of the result.
LY
(r) Calculations involving complex
numbers (ii) Multiplication and division of
A complex number is a number in a complex numbers
N
form a + bi where a is the real part and
Step 1: Press the “MODE” key once,
O
b is an imaginary part of a complex
then select complex mode
number. A non-programmable scientific
SE “CMPLX” by pressing a
calculator can perform different operations
key numbered 2.
on complex numbers such as addition,
Step 2: Insert open bracket by pressing
subtraction, multiplication, and division.
“(” key, insert a real part of
U
the complex number followed
(i) Addition and subtraction of
by “+” or “ − ” sign, then by
complex numbers
imaginary part, press “ENG”
E
To add or subtract complex numbers using

key to insert i then insert
a non-programmable scientific calculator
N
close bracket by pressing

use the following steps:
“)” key.
LI
Step 1: Press the “MODE” key

Step 3: Press “ × ” key for
once, then select complex multiplication or “ ÷ ” key
N
mode “CMPLX” by pressing for division.

O
number 2 key. Step 4: Repeat step 2 to insert the

Step 2: Insert open bracket by second complex number
pressing “(” key, insert real multiplied or divided.
R
part of the complex number Step 5: Press “=” key to obtain the
FO
followed by “+” or “ − ” sign, real part of the result.

then by imaginary part, press Step 6: Press “SHIFT” key, then “=”
the “ENG” key to insert i key to obtain the imaginary
then insert close bracket by part of the results.
pressing “)” key.
34
Form Five
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(iii) Conjugate of a complex number (v) Argument of a complex number

To obtain the conjugate of a complex To obtain the argument of a complex
number use the following steps: number use the following steps.
Step 1: Press the “MODE” key once Step 1: Press the “MODE” key once,
select complex mode “CMPLX” then select complex mode
by pressing a key numbered 2. “CMPLX” by pressing a key
Step 2: Press the “SHIFT” key then “,” numbered 2.
key to obtain the “Conjg” key. Step 2: Press the “SHIFT” key then
Step 3: Insert the complex number “(” key to obtain “arg” key.
LY
whose conjugate is required, Step 3: Insert the complex number
enclose it in brackets. whose argument is required,
Step 4: Press “=” key to obtain the real enclose it in brackets. Press
N
part of the result. “=” key to obtain the result.
O
“=” key to obtain the imaginary
Exercise 1.11
part of the results.
SE
(iv) Modulus of a complex number 1. Given z1 = 2 + 3i, z2 = 4 − i, and z3 = 1 − i ,
U
To obtain the modulus of a complex and use a non-programmable scientific
number, use the following steps: calculator, evaluate each of the following:
Step 1: Press the “MODE” key z
(a) z1 + z2 − z3 (c) 1
E
once, then select complex z3

z
N
mode “CMPLX” by pressing (b) z1 z2 (d) 6 z1 − 4 z1 z2 + 3

z1
number 2 key.
LI
2. If z1 = i, z2 = 3 − i, and z3 = 2 + 4i, using

Step 2: Press the “SHIFT” key then
N
“)” to obtain “Abs”. a non-programmable scientific calculator,

compute each of the following:
O
Step 3: Insert the complex number

⎛zz ⎞
whose modulus is required, (a) z1 z2 (c) Conjg ⎜ 1 2 ⎟
enclose it in brackets. ⎝ z3 ⎠
R
⎛z ⎞
Step 4: Press “=” key to obtain the (b) arg ⎜ 2 ⎟
FO
⎝ z1 ⎠
results.
35
Form Five
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(ii) Syntax error

3. If z1 = 3 + 2i, z2 = 1+ i, and This occurs when the format of the
z3 = 4 – 3i, using a non- calculation inserted does not make sense.
programmable scientific calculator, For instance,
verify each of the following:
45° tan, calculator will display “syntax
(a) z1 z2 = z1 z2 ERROR” since there is problem with the
z1 z format of calculation inserted.
(b) = 1
z2 z2
⎛ z1 ⎞ (iii) Dimension error
(c) arg ⎜ ⎟ = arg z1 − arg z2 This will occur especially when preforming
LY
⎝ z2 ⎠
calculation with matrices or vectors whose
(d) arg ( z1 z3 ) = arg z1 + arg z3
dimensions do not allow that type of
N
calculations. For instance,
(s) Errors in a non-programmable
⎛ 1 ⎞⎛ 2 0 6 ⎞
O
scientific calculator ⎜ ⎟⎜ ⎟
A non-programmable scientific calculator ⎜ 2 ⎟⎜ 6 0 5 ⎟ ,
⎜ 3 ⎟⎜ 2 1 3 ⎟
displays an error message whenever an error ⎝ ⎠⎝
SE ⎠
is made. The replay button can be used to the calculator will display “Dim ERROR”
move the cursor within the calculation on since it is not possible to multiply a 3 ×1
U
the calculator screen, and then the character
matrix by 3 × 3 matrix.
can be inserted at the location simply by
pressing the appropriate buttons. In some (iv) Stack error
E
cases it may be easier to abandon what has This occurs when the capacity of numeric
been typed and start again by pressing the all
N
stack or command stack exceeded

clear “AC” key. The following are messages during calculation, for instance, find
LI
that a calculator displays to alert an error

14BC + 6CBT given matrices
that has been occurred.
N
⎛ 3 2 −1⎞ ⎛ 7 6 −1⎞
⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟
(i) Math error B = ⎜ 3 0 8 ⎟ , C = ⎜ 0 0 8 ⎟.
O
This occurs when the calculation inserted ⎜3 4 5 ⎟ ⎜2 4 3 ⎟

⎝ ⎠ ⎝ ⎠
make sense but the result cannot be A non-programmable calculator will
R
calculated, such as attempting to divide by display “Stack ERROR”.

FO
zero or when the calculation is too large for

the calculator to handle. For instance, 5 ÷ 0 Computer packages
, calculator will display “Math ERROR”, Computer packages are used in various
because a number cannot be divided by zero. disciplines depending on the application
relevant to the field. There are various
36
Form Five
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computer packages which are useful in Computer’s calculation modes

computations, simulation, and analysis of the Even though Windows 10 has
mathematical models. The useful packages a different version as compared
include Maple, MATLAB, Mathematica, to Windows 7, the computer
and Spreadsheet which are more advanced calculators are the same in both
in executing mathematical computations operating systems. The interfaces
and graphing. In this section, only installed are the same and their features are
computer calculator and spreadsheet are identical.
discussed. The computer calculator in
Windows 10 has four (4) main
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The computer’s calculator modes for which calculations can
The computer’s calculator offers precise be done:
calculations and has a powerful interface. It (a) The standard mode
N
has integrated the basic standard calculations (b) The programmer mode
O
with programming, scientific calculations, (c) The scientific mode
and statistics. Furthermore, there are also (d) The statistics mode
other features which are very useful like
mortgage calculation and multifunctional
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Each mode enables the user to
converter. perform basic operations, unit
U
conversion, time conversion, or
Opening the computer’s calculator worksheet calculations. Thus, the
The following are useful steps to access the mode and type of operations have
E
computer’s calculator in Window 10 to be set first before calculations

(See Figure 1.2):
N
so that the particular kind of

Step 1: Click the Start Menu. functional keys can be seen and
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Step 2: Choose the calculator in the given used.

options.
N
(a) The standard mode

O
When the computer’s calculator is

opening, the standard mode will
be selected by default as shown
R
in Figure 1.3. The keyboard

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number values, the keypad

(with the number key activated)
or the mouse can be used to do
calculations.
Figure 1.2: Start menu of the computer
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N
Figure 1.4: The programmer mode of the
computer’s calculator
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(c) The scientific mode
Figure 1.3: Standard mode of the computer’s
This mode resembles a non-programmable
calculator
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scientific calculator. In this mode, any
(b) The programmer mode calculation which can be performed using
U
This mode gives the function keys of a a scientific calculator may be executed.
programmable scientific calculator. It To access this mode, click on the option
offers the possibility to do operations with menu in the computer’s calculator and
E
bases such as binary, octal, hexadecimal, select the scientific option. (See Figure.
and decimal. One can convert values 1.5).
N
from one base to another. For example,

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conversion from a base two number

system (binary 0, 1) to a base ten number
N
system (decimal 0 – 9). This mode also

O
offers the logical bit operations such as

XOR, OR, and AND.
To access this mode, click on the option
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menu in the computer’s calculator and

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select the programmer option. (See

Figure.1.4).
Figure 1.5: The scientific mode of the

computer’s calculator
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(d) Statistics mode entered in the dataset list, click on any

Like in the standard mode of the operation such as sum, mean, or standard
computer’s calculator, operations in deviation and the corresponding result
statistics mode are done by clicking on will be displayed at the bottom of the
a number, followed by an operation then dataset list.
insert the second number, and finish up
by clicking the equal sign to obtain the Note that, clicking the C button in the
final answer. (See Figure 1.6) statistics mode deletes the current data
entered before clicking the add button
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and the CAD button clears all the data
from the dataset.
N
Other options in the computer’s
O
calculator
A computer’s calculator includes other
tools which are used in measurements
SE
such as mass, time, volume, weight,
light intensity, and distance. Thus, a
U
computer’s calculator has more functions
to do than a pocket or hand- scientific
Figure. 1.6: Statistics mode of the
computer’s calculator calculator.
E
N
How to create a dataset in statistics Exercise 1.12

mode
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A dataset is a collection of data in 1. By using a computer’s calculator,

numbers that can be used in performing evaluate each of the following
N
different operations. To create a dataset, expressions:

O
click the number (s) which form the set

4
of a particular data and then click the add  7
 1 6
(a)   13  
÷ − 13 
  4
R
button. Repeat these steps until all the  7  

 
data are entered. Each time you press the
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( −1.76 ) + ( 3.0006 )
5 7
add button, the number of count changes.

   4  
8
“Count” represents the total number of
data entered. The data will be displayed
 ( 

)
(b)  ( 2.12 ) × 44 −  0.0009 +    
−3
 7   

on the dataset list. When all the data are
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2. By using a computer’s calculator, determine the value for each of the

following expressions:
4
15
(a) 3 tan 60° + ( cos 45° − sin120° )
7
−1    log 315   
(b) tan  sin  cos     , compute in radian.
   ln 2   
3. Compute the mean, sum of squares, and the standard deviation of the
following data using a computer’s calculator:
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12, 74, 29, 10, 70, 12, 36, 90, 10, 52, 39, 70, and 12
4. Convert each of the following using a computer’s calculator:
N
(a) 60° into radians
O
(b) 100 acres into square metres
(c) 1000 cm3 into m3 SE
(d) 1000 cm3 into litres
5. Use a computer’s calculator to find the difference in years, weeks, and days
between the following periods:
U
(a) 9 /12 /1961 − 12 / 4 /1962

(b) 07 / 7 /1964 − 30 /10 /1995
E
(c) 14 / 9 /1999 − 8 / 9 / 2017

N
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Spreadsheets
A spreadsheet is an interactive computer Microsoft Excel is one of the spreadsheet
N
application program for organizing, programs offered in the Microsoft Office

analyzing, and storing data. The program
O
software package. This program allows

operates on data represented as cells of the user to perform calculations such as
an array organized in rows and columns. average, addition, subtraction, and finding
R
Each cell of the array may contain either the maximum and minimum values of
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numeric or text data. numbers. In addition, Microsoft Excel can

be used to create histograms, pie charts,
The results from the formulae can
and plot graphs of any function.
automatically be calculated and displayed
in the other cell within the worksheet.
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Starting Microsoft Excel

The steps for opening Microsoft Excel depend on the type of a computer’s operating
system (Microsoft Windows). In this section, Microsoft Excel as one of the
applications (Microsoft Offices 2016) will be used as an example. The following
steps shows how to open Excel in Microsoft Windows 10:
1. Click the start menu.
2. Select the Microsoft Office.
3. Select the Microsoft Excel.
Then, the program opens in a display similar to that shown in Figure1.7.
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N
O
SE
U
E
Figure 1.7: Microsoft Excel spreadsheet display

N
LI
The Excel sheet is divided into grids B1 cell is B4. Before performing any
called cells where the data can be calculations, data (numbers) have to
N
entered. The cell is named by notation be entered to the cells. Normally, the
O
representing column and row. The cell name appears in the “Name box’ as
columns are assigned capital letters of shown in Figure 1.7.
the alphabet while the rows are assigned
R
To enter the data, click on the cell and

numbers. Thus, the first cell is named as
type the data. The next data can be
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A1 which means the cell is in column

entered along the same column or row.
A and in row 1 as shown in Figure.1.7,
The vertical and horizontal navigation
while B1 means the cell is in another
arrows are used for moving the cursor to
column B in the same row (row 1),
another cell. You may also use the “mouse
and the fourth cell vertically below the
pointer” by clicking the required cell.
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Activity 1.12: Entering and analyzing data in Excel

1. Use Microsoft Excel to enter the following scores in a worksheet; 30, 50,
60, 70, 25, 80, 20, 50, 40, 90, 30, and 70.
2. Sort the score in descending order.
3. Find the sum, average, maximum, and minimum score.
4. Identify the steps you have used to insert data, sort and analyse the data in
tasks 1, 2, and 3, respectively.
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5. Share the identified steps with your fellows students.
Note that, in Excel sheet, for easy operations, the data have to be entered in
N
one column or one row. For example, the column of the data in Activity 1.12
should appear as shown in Figure 1.8.
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SE
U
E
N
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N
O
Figure 1.8: Scores of students in a certain test

R
Rearrangement of data
To rearrange the data in Excel, first select the data, then on home tab, click the
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sort button and select the type of arrangement preferred. Observe the illustration
in Figure.1.9.
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Figure 1.9: Scores rearrangement
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Calculation of the sum and average of data
To find the sum or average of data, select the data and then click the sum/average
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button. On the menu that appears after clicking, select the option either sum or
average. The result will be displayed at the next cell from the last. Figure.1.10
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illustrates the steps for calculating the sum and average of data.
U
E
N
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N
O
Figure 1.10: Determination of the sum or average of data

R
Setting a formula for performing calculations in Excel

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In Excel, a formula can be set and applied to execute operations. In other words,
Excel provides room for processing data using a formula of user’s choice. Thus,
the user may create a formula that involves some steps which depend on the type
and length of the formula.
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Before creating a formula, the user (+) , and then the second term and so on.
should be aware of the basic symbols. For example, to add a number in A1 and
Table 1.2 shows basic symbols used in the other in B1, use the following steps:
defining a formula.
Step 1: Click the cell where you want
Table 1.3: Basic calculation symbols the result to appear.
in Excel
Step 2: Put the equal sign (=) .
Step 3: Click the cell of the number
Symbol Meaning
before the addition sign.
+ Addition
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Step 4: Type the addition sign (+) .
− Subtraction
Step 5: Click the cell of the number to
∗ or × Multiplication be added.
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Division Step 6: Press enter key to obtain the
÷ or /
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answer.
^ Exponent
While following the addition steps, the
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Excel formula for addition formula is created and displayed along
The process of adding numbers in Excel
the fx area (formula bar) as illustrated
starts with an equal sign (=) , followed in Figure 1.11.
U
by the first term/number, then plus sign
E
N
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N
O
R
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Figure 1.11: Cell selection and formula display
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The cell at which the formula is typed can be used as a reference. If the same
formula applies to other data, place the cursor at the bottom of the right corner of
the reference cell (the symbol + will appear), click, and hold the cursor and drag
down across all the rows. After releasing the mouse, the formula will be applied
to all the cells through which the dragging process took place. (See Figure 1.12).
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N
O
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Figure 1.12: Sum of A1 and B1
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Example 1.18
1. Use Excel to evaluate each of the following:

E
4
(a) (12 + 6)
N
3 5
(b) (40 × 35) ÷ (4 − 250)
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Solution
N
(a) To evaluate (12 + 6) 4 use the following steps:

O
Step 1: Enter 12, 6, and 4 in three consecutive Excel cells (A1, B1, and C1)
R
Step 2: Write an Excel formula using symbols and cell names (A1 + B1) C1 as
shown in Figure 1.13(a).
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Step 3: Press enter to obtain the answer as shown in Figure 1.13(b).
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Figure 1.13(a): Illustrating the formula in Excel
N
O
SE
U
E
N
Figure 1.13(b): Illustrating the answer obtained in Excel

LI
Therefore, following the required steps, the result is 104,976.

N
(b) To evaluate (40 × 35)3 ÷ (45 − 250) use the following steps:
O
Step 1: Enter the numbers 40, 35, 3, 4, 5, and 250 in Excel.

R
Step 2: Make an Excel formula of your choice for representing the

expression (40 × 35)3 ÷ (45 − 250) as shown in Figure 1.14(a).
FO
Step 3: Press enter to obtain the answer as shown in Figure 1.14(b).
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Figure 1.14(a): Illustrating the formula in Excel
N
O
SE
U
E
N
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Figure 1.14(b): Illustrating the answer obtained in Excel

N
Therefore, following required steps, the result is 3,545,220.

O
R
FO
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Exercise 1.13
1. Study the following figure and then answer the questions that follow.
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N
O
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(a) What does the figure represent?
U
(b) Provide the grid name for the cells with letters P, Q, R, and S.
2. Write the steps for setting an Excel formula to calculate, (12 ×13) + (8 ÷ 2) − 27.
E
3. Use Excel to compute each of the following:

N
2(23 + 11)
(a) (c) 21.8 + 4 781
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(7 − 10) ÷ 0.9
N
( )
2
6
(b) (12 ×13) − (4 ÷ 8) + 270 (d) 1 + (0.00031)
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4. The following table presents the examination scores of ten best candidates
in five subjects.
R
(a) Write the steps for finding the total and mean of the scores using Excel.
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(b) Determine the total and the mean score of each candidates.
(c) Rearrange the scores in descending order of total score and then state
the best three candidates.
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S/N Candidates BAM PHYSICS CHEMISTRY BIOLOGY G.S

1. Candidate 1 80 77 63 90 78
2. Candidate 2 40 94 44 78 90
3. Candidate 3 55 79 98 57 69
4. Candidate 4 77 96 55 88 65
5. Candidate 5 49 88 81 50 33
6. Candidate 6 73 98 59 85 55
7. Candidate 7 45 71 94 70 88
8. Candidate 8 92 43 77 97 72
9. Candidate 9 68 39 68 99 56
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10. Candidate 10 88 29 69 64 91
5. Complete the following table by using an Excel Spreadsheet:
N
x y x2 y2 (xy)2 x2y2
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11 101
21 91
31 81
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41 71
U
51 61
∑x ∑ y = ∑x 2
= ∑y 2
= ∑ ( xy) 2
= ∑x y
2 2
=
E
N
6. Use a computer spreadsheet to find the mean, median, mode, variance, and
standard deviation of the following data: 3, 13, 63, 43, 23, 83, 53, 33, 93,
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73, 13, 53, 73, 15, 78, 45, 73, and 63.
N
Chapter summary
O
1. Scientific calculators are calculators designed to compute numerical values

in science, engineering, business, and mathematics.
R
2. Scientific calculators have many features that may differ depending on the
FO
manufacturers as well as the model.

3. Most of the buttons of a scientific calculator have more than one function.
4. A proposed electronic calculator named CASIO fx-991MS is a non-
programmable scientific calculator which performs different calculations
in mathematics.
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5. A non-programmable scientific calculator displays an error message

whenever an error is made.
6. Computer packages are used in various disciplines depending in their

applications in the intended field.
7. A computer’s calculator gives correct calculations and has a powerful

interface.
8. A spreadsheet is an interactive computer application program for organizing,

analyzing, and storing data.
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Revision exercise 1
N
O
1. Use non-programmable scientific calculator to compute each of the
following expressions:
(a)
(0.6284) 2 (62.45)3 (142.72) 4
SE(c) 3
C8 ×10 P8 × sin −1 (0.8695)
12
(12.68)3 (150.76)5 812.5 × tan −1 (1.5) × ln (18.62)

sin 62o × cos 43.5o
U
(b)
10−2 × log140.5 × tan 75.2o
2. Use non-programmable scientific calculator to evaluate each of the following:
E
d 4
(a) ( x + 4 x3 + 2 x 2 − 10 x + 6), when x =
0.5654
N
dx
d
LI
(b) 1 + 4 x + x 2 , when x =
6
dx
N
3. Use non-programmable scientific calculator to evaluate each of the following

O
definite integrals:
1 3
(a) ∫ dx (b) ∫ (2 x3 + 8 x 2 − 6 x − 16)dx
2
(2 x + 1)e x + x +1
−2
0
R
4. By using a non-programmable scientific calculator, solve each of the

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following systems of simultaneous equations:

⎧5 x + 6 y = 450 ⎧ 6 x + 6 y = 900
(a) ⎨ (b) ⎨
⎩ 2 x + 2 y = 160 ⎩12 x + 8 y = 1440
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5. By using a non-programmable scientific calculator, solve each of the

following systems of simultaneous equations:
⎧ 3x + 3 y + 3z = 21 ⎧ 5 x + 10 y − 15 z = −20
(a) ⎪ 5 x + 10 y + 15 z = 80 (b) ⎪⎨ 8 x + 12 y + 8 z = 8
⎨
⎪7 x + 21y + 28 z = 154 ⎪24 x − 24 y − 32 z = 88
⎩ ⎩
6. Use non-programmable scientific calculator to find the solution of each of
the following equations:
(a) 24 x 2 − 38 x + 15 = 0 (c) x3 − 5 x 2 − 102 x + 216 = 0
(b) x 2 + 9 x − 400 = 0 (d) 30 x3 − 43x 2 − 7 x + 6 = 0
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7. Enter the following statistical data in a non-programmable scientific
N
calculator and answer the questions that follow:
O
x 15.5 25.5 35.5 45.5 55.5 65.5 75.5 85.5 95.5
f 25 10 8 12 48 SE 4 26 34 33
Find:
∑x ∑x
2
(a) x (b) δ x (c) (d)
U
8. Complete the following table by using Excel Spreadsheet:

E
x 8 12 24 16 10 30 25 5 ∑x =
N
y ∑y =
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16 18 20 14 12 22 32 48
N
x2 ∑x 2
=
O
y2 ∑y 2
=
R
( xy ) 2 ∑ ( xy) 2 =
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x2 y 2 ∑(x y ) =2 2
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9. Using Excel Spreadsheet, complete the following table of scores for ten
best candidates in HGE Combination at a certain school.
S/N History Geography Economics GS BAM Total Average Rank
1 70 72 68 81 46
2 65 52 67 35 30
3 54 48 72 69 15
4 82 88 80 64 75
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5 76 75 62 51 40
6 50 86 47 38 42
N
7 38 54 60 73 21
8 45 61 35 64 25
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9 86 92 70 65 83
10 72 60 57
SE
85 31
10. The length (in cm) of 15 rods in a shop are given as follows; 38, 52, 80.5,
U
75.8, 47, 68.4, 16.7, 29.8, 37.5, 80.6, 78.2, 65.9, 18.7, 29.7, 83.2. Compute
the following using Microsoft Excel:
(c) ∑ x (d) ∑ x
2
(a) x (b) δ x
E
11. Use Microsoft Excel to compute each of the following expressions:

N
64.3 + 5 162.8 − (2.68)3

( )
4
(a) (c) 16.59 + (0.00045)7
LI
(71.6 − 19.9) ÷ 0.58

(72.5 ×12.8)6 ÷ (84 + 267)
N
(b) (46 × 95) − (16 ÷ 0.05) + (292 − 12) (d)

(64 × 43 ) − (192 + 23 )
O
12. Using a computer calculator, determine the value of each of the following:
(a) 1
R
3
6sin 32.5o + 4 cos 82.5o −
12.8
3
−1 2 3
FO
(b) tan [(0.6875) + (1.028) ] , give answer in radians.
(c) The mean and standard deviation of the following data:

126 158 162 145 136 192 181 175 168 170
140 160 154 164 170 161 191 194 141 132
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⎛⎛88 12
12 1414⎞⎞ ⎛⎛−−22 −−44 10
10⎞⎞
13. Given the matrices A
⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟
andBB== ⎜⎜ 99 −−55 −−77⎟⎟ ,
A ==⎜⎜55 22 33 ⎟⎟ and
⎜⎜66 77 −−11⎟⎟ ⎜⎜ 11 1313 −−33⎟⎠⎟⎠
⎝⎝ ⎠⎠ ⎝⎝
use a non-programmable scientific calculator to find the following:
(a) AB (b) A−1 + B−1 (c) (AB)T (d) AB
14. The following is a frequency distribution table of scores in a certain
mathematics test.
Class
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10 – 20 20 – 30 30 – 40 40 – 50 50 – 60 60 –70 70–80 80–90
Interval
Frequency 25 19 18 26 28 20 43 21
N
Use a non-programmable scientific calculator to find each of the following:
O
(a) Mean of the scores (b) Standard deviation (c) ∑x 2
15. Using a non-programmable scientific calculator, convert each of the

SE
following:
(a) 315°F into degree of Celsius
(b) 400 miles to kilometres
U
(c) 160 m/s into km/h
1
16. If a = −7 i + 4 j + k and b = 6 i − 5 j − k , use a non-programmable
E
2
scientific calculator to evaluate each of the following;
N
(a) a ⋅ b (b) a × b (c) a × b (d) −6 a + 7 b

LI
17. If z1= 4 − 3i and z2 = 5 − 12i , use a non-programmable scientific calculator

to evaluate each of the following:
N
(a) z1 z2 (c) 4 z1 − 5 z2 (e) conjg ( z1 z2 )

O
z2  z1 
(b) (d) arg  
z1  z2 
R
18. Use a non-programmable scientific calculator to evaluate each of the

FO
following:
1 1
π
⌠ 3y ⌠ 4u 2 + 9u + 8
(a) ∫ 2
cos 4 x cos3 xdx (b)  dy (c)  du
( ) ( )( )
5 2
0
⌡0 4 y 2
− 1 ⌡0 u + 2 u + 1
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Chapter
Two Sets
Introduction
A set is a collection of objects which have common properties. The set is usually
denoted by a capital letter, and its objects are listed between curly brackets
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{ } separated by commas. Each object inside the set is called an element of
that set. Some basic mathematical concepts, such as relations and vectors,
N
are precisely specified using theoretical concepts of sets. In this chapter, you
O
will learn about the number of elements in the set, basic set operations, Venn
diagrams, and simplification of set expressions. The competencies developed
SE
can be applied to perform various tasks such as organizing, creating, and
categorizing objects.
U
Methods of representing sets Roster method

E
The useful methods which are used In a roster or listing method, the elements
N
to represent sets are descriptive or of a set are listed inside the curly brackets.
statement form method, roster or listing The elements are separated by using
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form method, and rule or set builder commas. For example, if B is a set of all
notation. factors of 42, then it can be represented
N
as B = {1, 2, 3, 6, 7, 14, 21, 42}.

O
Descriptive method
In this method, the elements of a set are Set builder notation
described by words and the description is
R
This is a method that uses formulas

enclosed in curly brackets. For instance, to describe sets. The elements of the
FO
if A is the set of positive even numbers set are described by using symbols,
less than or equal to twenty, it can be usually x followed by a colon (:) which
written as A = {positive even numbers is read as “such that”, and followed by
less than or equal to twenty}. a description of the elements. The whole
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description is enclosed in curly brackets. For instance, if C is a set of odd numbers,

it can be described as C = {x : x = 2n − 1, where n ∈ } ; which is read as, “C is the
set of all elements x such that x is an odd positive number”.
Exercise 2.1 sets, proper and improper subsets,

supersets, power sets, singleton set,
1. By using the descriptive method,
and universal set.
describe each of the following sets:
(a) A = {1, 8, 27,…}
Empty or null set
(b) B ={3, 6, 9, 12,…}
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An empty set is a set which does
(c) C = {− 4, −3, −2, −1, 0, 1, 2, 3, 4}
(d) D = {dog, cat, sheep, goat, cow} not have any element. The empty
N
set is denoted by ∅ and read as
2. Using the set builder notation, empty set. In roster form an empty
O
describe each of the following set is denoted by { } . For example,
sets:
A = {three sided rectangles} is
SE
(a) A = {1, 4, 9, 16,…}
an empty set because there is no
(b) B = {1, 8, 27, 64,…} rectangle with three sides. Also, set
(c) C = {–3, 3} B { x : 7 < x < 8; x ∈ } is the
U
=
(d) D = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5,…} empty set because there is no natural
(e) E = {2, 4, 6, 8,…} number between 7 and 8.
E
(f) F = {0, 1,... }

N
Example 2.1
3. If x is an integer, use the roster
LI
method to describe each of the Given that K

= {x : −10 ≤ x ≤ −1}.
following sets:
N
Find the natural numbers x ∈ 

(a) A = {x : x2 –1 = 0} from this set.
O
(b) B = {x : x ≥ 3} Solution
{x : x + 3 0}
R
(c) =
C 2
− 4x = Natural numbers are counting
numbers 1, 2, 3, 4, …
FO
Types of sets There are no counting numbers

There are various types of sets. These between {x : −10 ≤ x ≤ −1} .
include the empty or null set, equal sets, Therefore, K = { }.
∅ or K =
equivalent sets, subsets, finite and infinite
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Example 2.2 Unequal sets are sets which have at least

one uncommon element. Unequal sets
Given that P = {1, 3, 5, 7, 9, 11}. C and D are denoted by C ≠ D.
Identify a set of even numbers E in For example, if C = {a, b, c, d, e, g} and
set P. D = {a, b, c, d, e, f}, then sets C and D
are not equal.
Solution
Note that, not all elements in set C are
A number which is divisible by
in set D and vice versa, although the two
2 without a remainder is an even
sets have the same number of elements.
number.
LY
Therefore, C ≠ D .
There are no even numbers in set
P = {1, 3, 5, 7, 9, 11}.
N
Therefore, E = { } or E = ∅ . Example 2.4
O
Given that A = {Halima, Angelina,
Example 2.3
Christian, Sarapia} and B = {Halima,
SE
If A = {Hemedi, Shedrack, Peter, Angelina, Christian, Sarapia}. Are
Jonathan, Patrick}, find the set of the two sets equal?
names of girls (G) from set A. Solution
U
Since each element of set A is in set
Solution
B and vice-versa, then A = B.
There are no girls’ names in set A.
E
Therefore, G = { } or G = ∅. Therefore, the two sets are equal.

N
LI
Equal sets
Example 2.5
Two or more sets are said to be equal, if
N
they have the same elements and the

Given that C = {2, 4, 6, 8} and
same number of elements and elements
O
D = {2, 4, 6, 8, 10, 12}. Are the two

must be alike. For instance, if A = {1,
sets equal?
2, 3, 4, 5} and B = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5}, then A =
R
B. The two sets are equal meaning that Solution

FO
the same elements in set A are found in Since set D has the elements 10 and
set B, and the two sets have the same 12 which are not in set C, then C ≠ D .
number of elements. The comparison
written as A=B and it is read as set A is Therefore, the two sets are not equal.
equal to set B.
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Equivalent sets
Solution
Two sets A and B are said to be Since G = {3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9}
equivalent if they have the same number Thus, n(D) = 7 and n(G) = 7, then
of elements. The elements do not need n(D) = n(G).
to be the same. What matters is the sets Therefore, the two sets are equivalent.
to have one-to-one correspondence of
elements. Let A = {a, e, i, o, u} and Subsets
B = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5}, If the number of Set A is said to be a subset of set B if all
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elements in sets, A and B are denoted by the elements of set A are also elements
n(A) and n(B) , respectively, then sets of set B. A symbol for subset is ⊂ .
A and B are equivalent if n(A) = n(B) . For instance, if set F = {all English
N
Set equivalence is denoted by set A ≡ B . alphabets} and set G = {all vowels},
O
then set G is a subset of set F. This is
Example 2.6 written as G ⊂ F .
SE
Given that S = {x : x is a counting Note that, the number of subsets in a set
number less than 7} and is given by 2n , where n is the number
U
G = { x : 1 ≤ x ≤ 6, x is an integer}. of elements in the given set. The terms
Determine whether or not the two “proper” and “improper” subsets are used
sets S and G are equivalent. in sets. A proper subset, denoted by the
E
Solution symbol ⊂ , is a subset containing some of

N
Given S = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6} and elements (not all elements) of the original

LI
G = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6}. set, whereas an improper subset denoted

Since n(S) = 6 and n(G) = 6, then by the symbol ⊆ is a set containing every
N
n(S) = n(G).
element in the original set. Any set has
O
Therefore, sets S and G are equivalent one improper subset which is the set itself.
sets. Therefore, given set A, then A ⊆ A read
R
as “set A is an improper subset of set A”.

Example 2.7
Other subsets of A are proper subsets.
FO
Given that D = {1, 3, 5, 7, 9, 11, 13}

and G= {x :3 ≤ x ≤ 9, x ∈ } . Are
the two sets equivalent?
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Power set
The collection of all subsets of a set is called the power set. Given set A, the power
set of A is denoted by P(A), and is read as “power set of A”. Generally, if n(A) = n
then the number of subsets of set A is given by 2n. Thus, P(A) = 2n.
Example 2.8
Given set B = {1, 2, 3},

(a) List all the subsets of set B.
LY
(b) List all the improper and proper subsets of set B.
(c) Find P(B)
(d) Find n(P(B))
N
O
Solution
(a) The subsets of set B are {}, {1}, {2}, {3}, {1, 2},{1, 3}, {2, 3}, and {1, 2, 3}.
(b) Improper subsets is {1, 2, 3}
SE
Proper subsets are {}, {1}, {2}, {3}, {1, 2},{1, 3}, and {2, 3}.
U
(c) P(B) = {{}, {1}, {2}, {3}, {1,2},{1, 3}, {2, 3}, {1, 2, 3}}.
(d) n ( P(B)=) 2=
3
8.
E
N
Example 2.9
LI
List all the subsets of set K given that K = {Anna, Ally, Halima, John}.
N
Solution
The subsets of set K are {}, {Anna}, {Ally}, {Halima}, {John}, {Anna, Ally},
O
{Anna, Halima}, {Anna, John}, {Ally, Halima}, {Ally, John}, {Halima, John},
{Anna, Ally, Halima}, {Anna, Ally, John}, {Ally, Halima, John}, {Anna,
R
Halima, John}, and {Anna, Ally, Halima, John}.

FO
Finite and infinite sets

A finite set is a set with a fixed number of elements which are countable and all
elements can be listed. An infinite set is a set with uncountable or endless number
elements. In other words, the infinite set is a set that is not finite.
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For instance, if V = {a, e, i, o, u} and A = {1, 2, a, 4, 5} and B = {1, 2, 3, a, b, c, d},

P = {prime numbers}, set V is called a then the universal set associated with A and B
finite set because it contains countable is given by U = {1, 2,3, 4, 5, a, b, c, d}.
elements which are five vowels of the Note that, A ⊂ U and B ⊂ U .
English alphabets. Set P is an infinite set
Example 2.11
because it contains uncountable prime
numbers. If U = {7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13 ,14, 15, 16},
from set U list the elements of each of the
Example 2.10 following related sets:
LY
(a) A = { x : x is a factor of 60}
Identify finite and infinite sets, (b) B = { x : x is an even number}
given that A = {2y 2 : y ∈ } , (c) C = { x : x is an odd number}
N
B = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, ...}, and
Solution
O
C= { x :1 ≤ x ≤ 20, x is an integer} The elements of sets A, B, and C from the
Solution universal set “ U ” are;
SE
Sets A and B are infinite, since (a) A = {10,12, 15}
they have uncountable number of (b) B = {8, 10, 12, 14, 16}
elements, while set C is finite, since
U
(c) C = {7, 9, 11, 13, 15}
it has countable number of elements.
Exercise 2.2
E
Singleton sets
A set consisting of a single element is 1. Which of the following sets are finite or
N
called a singleton set. For example, infinite? Give reasons to support your
LI
(i) A = {0} is a singleton set answers.

(ii) B = { k } is a singleton set (a) E ={x : x is a plant on the earth's
N
(iii) C = {x : x ∈  and x3 =27} is surface}

a singleton set with a single (b)= F {x :10 ≤ x ≤ 30, x ∈ }.
O
element 3. (c) G = {x : 10 < x < 20,

x is not an odd number}
R
Universal sets
2. If H = {6, 7, 8, 9, 10},
A universal set is a set containing all
FO
elements or members of all related sets T = {Tony, James, Herry, Juma}, and
without any repetition of elements. R = {Juma, Herry, Tony, James},
The symbol U or ξ is used to denote determine which of the three sets are
a universal set. However, U is the equivalent, equal or unequal?
mostly used symbol. For instance, if
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3. Write true or false in each of the following:

(a) {4} is an element of {{4}, {4}}
(b) {1} ⊆ {0,1}
(c) {1} ⊆ {1}
(d) ∅ is an element of {}
(e) 0 is an element of {}
4. Given set K = {a, b, c, d}.
LY
(a) List all the subsets of K.
(b) Find n(K)
N
5. Given set J = {dog, cat, lion, zebra}. Find:
O
(a) The power set, P(J)
(b) n [ P(J) ] SE
6. Find the universal set associated with V and S, if V = {all prime numbers
less than 20} and S = {2, 3, 4, 6, 7, 8, 10, 11, 14} .
U
Basic operations of sets

Set operations are performed on two or more sets in order to build a relationship.
E
There are four main set operations which are union of sets, intersection of sets,
N
complement of a set, and difference of sets.

LI
Union of sets
N
The symbol “ ∪ ” is used to denote the union of sets. The union of two sets
A and B is the set of all elements that are either in set A or in set B, or in
O
both sets A and B without repetition of elements. In set notation it is written as

A ∪ B = { x : x ∈ A or x ∈ B } .
R
For example, if A = {2, 4, 6, 7} and B = {1, 2, 3, 5} , then

FO
A∪B
= {2, 4, 6, 7} ∪ {1, 2,=3, 5} {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7} .
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Example 2.12
Find A ∪ B if A = {a, b, c, d, e, f, g, h} and B = {a, e, i, o, u} .
Solution
A ∪ B denotes the set of all elements that are either in set A or in set B or in
both. That is, A ∪ B = {a, b, c, d, e, f, g, h, i, o, u}.
Therefore, A ∪ B = {a, b, c, d, e, f, g, h, i, o, u} .
Example 2.13
LY
Find A∪ B if A = {3, 5, 7, 8, 10, 11, 14, 16} and B = {1, 2, 6, 9, 12} .
N
Solution
∩ {1, 2, 6, 9, 12}
O
From the given sets, A ∪ B ={3, 5, 7, 8, 10, 11, 14, 16}
Therefore, A ∪ B = {1, 2, 3, 5, 6, 7, 8,9,10, 11, 12, 14, 16}.
SE
Intersection of sets
The symbol “ ∩ ” is used to denote the intersection of sets. The intersection of two
U
sets A and B is the set of elements that belong to both A and B. In set notation it
= { x : x ∈ A and x ∈ B} .
is written as, A ∩ B
E
For instance, if A = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8} and B = {1, 3, 5, 7, 9}, then

A ∩ B = {1, 3, 5,7}.
N
If the intersection of sets is an empty set (no common elements), then the sets are
LI
said to be disjoint. Otherwise, they are joint sets.

N
Example 2.14
O
Find A ∩ B, if A = {a, e, i, o, u} and B = {a, b, c, d, e, f, g, h,i}.

R
Solution
From the given sets,
FO
A ∩ B = {a, e, i, o, u} ∩ {a, b, c, d, e, f, g, h, i}
= {a, e, i}.
Therefore, A ∩ B = {a, e, i}.
Note that, A and B have three elements in common, thus they are joint sets.
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Example 2.15 Example 2.17
If A = {a, e, i, o} and Given U = {a, e, i, o, u},

B = {b, c, f, g} , find A ∩ B and B = {e, i, u}, find B′.
state whether A and B are joint or Solution
disjoint sets.
Given B = {e, i, u}, then B′ = {a , o} .
Solution
Therefore, B′ = {a, o} .
From the given sets,
A ∩ B ={a, e, i, o} ∩ {b, c, f, g}
Example 2.18
= ∅.
LY
Therefore, A and B are disjoint Given U = {4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12,
sets because they have no common 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18},
N
element(s). A = {5, 7, 11, 13, 15, 17}, and
B = {4, 6, 8, 10, 12, 14} find:
O
Complement of a set (a) A′ ∪ B′ (b) A ∩ B′
The complement of a set A, denoted as SESolution
A′ or A c is the set that contains all the
The compliment of sets A and B are:
elements of the universal that are not in
set A, or it is the difference between the A′ = { 4, 6, 8, 9, 10, 12, 14, 16, 18}
U
universal set and set A. This means that, and
if A is a subset of a universal set, then B′ = { 5, 7, 9, 11, 13, 15, 16, 17, 18}
the elements of the universal set which
E
Therefore,
are not in A form the complement of A.
(a) A′ ∪ B′ =
{4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11,
N
For instance, if U = {a, b, c, d,..., z} and

12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18}
A = {a, b, c, d, e} then Aʹ = {f, g, h, ..., z}.
LI
(b) A ∩ B′ = {5, 7, 11, 13, 15, 17} .

N
Example 2.16
Difference of sets
O
G i v e n U = {125, 245, 365, 475, 585} The difference of two sets A and B, written
and A = {365}, find A . as A − B , is the set of all elements of set
R
A that are not in set B. Consider two sets

Solution A and B whereas, A = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5} and
FO
Given U = {125, 245, 365, 475, 585} B = {3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8}. The difference of these
and A = {365}. two sets is found by writing all the elements
Thus, A = {125, 245, 475, 585} of set A, and then remove all element of A
Therefore, A′ = {125, 245, 475, 585}. which are also elements of B. Since set A
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shares the elements 3, 4, 5 with set B, then A − B = {1, 2}. The same results can
be obtained by finding A ∩ B′ .
In general, A − B = A ∩ B′ .
Example 2.19
Given A = { 4, 7, 8, 12, 15, 17} and B = { 4, 6, 8, 10, 12, 14}, find

(a) A − B (b) B − A
Solution
(a) A − B contains elements that are only in set A but not in set B, that is,
LY
A − B = {7, 15, 17}.
(b) B − A contains elements that are only in set B but not in set A, that is,
N
B − A = {6, 10, 14}.
O
Symmetric difference of sets SE
A symmetric difference of two sets A and B is the set (A − B) ∪ (B − A) , and is
denoted by A ∆ B It is the set of all elements which belong to either set A or set B but
not to both. This means that, if x ∈ ( A ∆ B ) , then A ∆ B = { x : x ∈A or x ∈ B and
U
x ∉ A ∩ B} .
Example 2.20
E
Determine A∆B for A = {1, 2, 3, 9, 12, 15} and B = {1, 3, 9, 14, 13, 20, 12, 25}.
N
Solution
LI
The set A∆B is formed by the elements which belong to either set A or B but
N
not to both sets. Thus, A – B = {2, 15} and B – A = {13, 14, 20, 25}.
⇒ A∆B = (A − B) ∪ (B − A)
O
= {2, 13, 14, 15, 20, 25}.
Therefore, A ∆ B ={2, 13, 14, 15, 20, 25}.

R
FO
Example 2.21
Determine AΔB for A = {mango, pineaple, orange, banana, apple} and

B = {orange, mango, watermelon, avocado, apple}.
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Solution
The set AΔB contains the elements which belong to either set A or set B but not to
both sets. That is, A ∆ B = {pineapple, banana, watermelon, avocado} .
Therefore, A ∆ B = {pineapple, banana, watermelon, avocado} .
Exercise 2.3
In questions 1 – 10, find the union and intersection of the given sets.
1. A = {first five letters of the English alphabets} , B = {a, b, c, d, e, f, g, h}
LY
2. A = {Even numbers} , B = {Counting numbers}
3. G = {25, 30, 45} , H = {20, 25}
N
4. J = {0, ∆,3}, K = {∆}
O
5. A = {All positive multiples of 6 less than 60} ,
B = {All positive multiples of 4 less than 48} SE
6. W = {14, 16,18, 20} , Z = { }
7. A = {94, 110, 120, 131,140}, B = {94, 110, 265}
U
8. A = {Prime factors of 72} , B = {Prime factors of 15}
9. A = {all even number less than 28} , B = {all multiples of 3 less than 27}
10. A = {a, b, c, d} , B = {a,d, e}, and C = { }
E
11. Find the intersection of M = {a, b, c, d, e, g} and N = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7} .

N
12. What is the name of sets which have no common elements?

13. If U = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12} , M = {1, 2, 3, 4} and N = {1, 3, 7, 9, 11} ,
LI
find Mʹ and Nʹ.

N
14. If U = {mango, orange, tomato, cabbage, pineapple, watermelon},

A′ = {mango, watermelon, tomato}, list the elements of set A.
O
15. If A = {1, 3, 5, 7, 9} and B = {2, 4, 6, 8, 10}, list the elements of A ∪ B.

R
16. Given that; U = {3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13} , A = {3, 4,5, 6} , and
B = {5, 6,7,8} , find each of the following:
FO
(a) ( A ∩ B′) (c) B′ ∪ A′
(b) B ∪ A′ (d) A′ ∩ B
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17. Given that U = {0, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17} , P = {0, 11, 13} , and
Q = {15,1 6, 17} .write T for a true statement and F for a false statement
in each of the following:
(a) P′ = Q (c) n(P ∩ Q) =
1
(b) P′ ∩ Q′ = (P ∪ Q)′ (d) n(P′ ∪ Q′) = 9

18. If U = {magenta, red, pupple, green, pink, blue, black, white}, find A′ if A
R = {green, pink, white, pupple, black} .
19. Given that U = {a, b, c, d, e, f, g, h, i, j} , A = {a, b, c, d, e, f }, and
LY
B = {a, d, e} , find each of the following:
(a) A ∩ B (c) A′ ∩ B (e) A′ ∩ B′
N
(b) A ∪ B (d) A ∩ B′ (f) A′ ∪ B′
O
20. Find the union and intersection in each of the following sets:
(a) A = {22, 24, 26} , F = {24, 26, 28, 30}

SE
(b) Y = {x : 2 < x ≤ 18}, W = {x : 7 ≤ x < 23}
21. Given that A = {13, 14, 15} and B = {14, 15, 16, 17, 18}, determine
U
(a) A − B (b) B − A
22. If M = {32, 34, 36, 38, 40, 42} and K = {33, 34, 35, 36, 37, 38, 40} , find:
(a) M − K
E
(b) K − M
N
(c) (M − K) ∪ (K − M)
23. Given three sets P, Q, and R, with P = {8, 9, 10, 11, 12}, R = {9, 11, 14, 16, 18}
LI
, and QQ = {8, 9, 14, 16, 18, 20, 22}, find each of the following:
(a) P − R
N
(b) R − P
O
(c) Q − P
24. Given that U = {all odd numbers less than 20} , A = {7, 13, 15 }, and
R
B = {3, 5, 9},. find each of the following:

(a) B − A (b) (A − B)′
FO
25. If X = {2, 4, 6, 8, 10} , and Y = {15, 17, 20} , find X − Y .

26. Given {6, 9, 12, 15} − {15} =
{6, x, y} , find the values of x and y .
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Representation of sets on a number line

A number line can be used to represent a set of values in a given interval. The
number of elements within the interval cannot be counted or listed because they
are infinite. An interval on the number line can be open, closed, half open, or half
closed.
An open interval is an interval in which the end points are excluded. For example,
if a < b , then the open interval from a to b, denoted by {a < x < b} or ( a, b ) is a
number line extending from point a to point b, excluding the end points a and b.
A closed interval from point a to point b, denoted by {a ≤ x ≤ b} or [ a, b ] is a
LY
number line extending from point a to point b, including the end points a and b.
An interval can include only one end point. This kind of interval is called
N
half-open or half-closed. A half-open interval can be left closed, right open
denoted as {a ≤ x < b} or [ a, b ) ; or it can be left opened, right closed denoted as
O
{a < x ≤ b} or ( a, b]. Table 2.1 shows the forms of intervals on the number line.
Table 2.1: Forms of intervals on a number line

SE
Interval notation Number line representation Meaning
U
Left open, right
{ x : a < x < b} or ( a, b ) open
E
Left closed, right

N
{ x : a ≤ x ≤ b} or [a, b] closed
LI
Left open, right

or ( a, b ]
N
{ x : a < x ≤ b} closed
O
Left closed, right

{ x : a ≤ x < b} or [ a, b ) open
R
FO
{ x : x ≤ a} or ( − ∞, a ] Right closed
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Interval notation Number line representation Meaning
{ x : x < a} or ( − ∞, a ] Right open
{ x : x > a} or ( a, ∞ ) Left open
Left closed
{ x : x ≥ a} or [ a, ∞ )
LY
N
Example 2.22
O
Using the number line, find A ∩ B , given that=
A { x : x ≥ −2} and=
B { x : x < 5} ,
where x ∈  . SE
Solution
U
E
Therefore, A ∩ B = {x : −2 ≤ x < 5} as represented on the number line.

N
LI
Example 2.23
N
Use a number line to represent A ∪ B , if=

A { x : x ≥ −1} and=B { x : x ≤ 6} ,
O
where x ∈ .
Solution
R
FO
Therefore, A ∪ B = { x : x ∈ } as represented on the number line.
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Example 2.24
Find A – B by using a number line, where

= A { x : x > 3} and=B { x : x < 5} ,
x ∈ .
Solution
LY
Therefore, A – B = {x : x ≥ 5} as represented on the number line.
N
O
Exercise 2.4
1. Given A = { x : 6 < x < 10} and=

SE
B { x : x < 12} , where x ∈  , use a number
line to represent each of the following:
(a) A′ (e) A – B (i) (A – B)′ (m) A′ – B′
U
(b) B′ (f) B – A (j) (B – A)′ (n) ( A − B′ ) ∩ ( A′ ∩ B′ )
(c) (A∪B)′ (g) A – B′ (k) A′ ∩ B
E
(d) ( A ∩ B )′ (h) (A – B′)′ (l) A′ ∩ B′

N
2. If A= { x : 8 < x < 20} and B= { x : x < 15} , where x ∈  , use a number

LI
line to represent each of the following:

N
(a) A′ ∩ B′ (e) B − A (i) A – B′

O
(b) (A ∪ B)′ (f) ( A – B)′ (j) (A′ ΔB)′
(c) ( A ∩ B)′ (g) (A ∪ B)′Δ(B – A) (k) A′ ΔB

R
(d) A′ (h) [(AΔB)′ ∪ (A ∩ B)]′ (l) AΔB

FO
= { x : 8 ≤ x ≤ 20} and
3. If A = B { x : x ≤ 18} where x ∈  , use a number line
to determine each of the following:
(a) ( A – B) ' (b) (B − A) ' (c) (A – B') '
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Fundamental laws of set algebra

The laws of algebra of sets are the properties of set operations and set relations.
These properties provide insight into the fundamental nature of sets. They are
used in writing set expressions in the most simplified form without changing the
meaning of the original value of the expression.
Proof of the fundamental laws of algebra of sets

The laws of algebra of sets can be proved using basic operations. Table 2.2 shows
some laws of algebra of sets, where A, B, and C are non-empty sets.
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Table 2.2: Laws of algebra of sets
S/N Set notations Laws
N
1. A ∪∅ = A
O
A∩U = A
Identity/Domination
A∪U = U SE
A ∩∅ = ∅
2. A∪A = A
Idempotent
U
A∩A = A
3. ( A′ )′ = A Double complement
E
4. A ∪B = B∪A
N
Commutative
A∩B = B∩A
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5. A ∪ (B ∪ C) = (A ∪ B) ∪ C
Associative
N
A ∩ (B ∩ C) = (A ∩ B) ∩ C
O
6. ( A ∪ B )′ =A′ ∩ B′ De Morgan’s
(A ∩ B)′ = A′ ∪ B′
R
7. A ∪ (A ∩ B) = A
FO
Absorption
A ∩ (A ∪ B) = A
8. U ; ∅′ =U
A ∪ A′ =
∅ ; U′ = ∅
A ∩ A′ =
Complement
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Form Five
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S/N Set notations Laws

9. A ∪ (B ∩ C) = (A ∪ B) ∩ (A ∪ C)
Distributive
A ∩ (B ∪ C) = (A ∩ B) ∪ (A ∩ C)
Note that, two or more sets are equal if and only if the sets are improper subsets of
each other, that is A = B if and only if A ⊆ B and B ⊆ A .
(a) Idempotent law

Given set A, then A ∪ A = A and A ∩ A = A .
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Proof
Given the set A, then
N
A ∩ A = {x : x ∈ A and x ∈ A}, which implies {x : x ∈ A} = A and
A ∪ A = {x : x ∈ A or x ∈ A}, which implies {x : x ∈ A} = A .
O
Therefore, A ∪ A = A and A ∩ A = A .
(b) Commutative law
SE
Given two sets A and B, then A ∪ B = B ∪ A and A ∩ B = B ∩ A.
Proof
U
If x ∈ A ∪ B , then either x ∈ A or x ∈ B , which implies x ∈ A or x ∈ B and
hence x ∈ B ∪ A. Similarly, it can be shown that B ∪ A ⊆ A ∪ B .
E
Therefore, A ∪ B = B ∪ A.
Also, if x ∈ A ∩ B , then x ∈ A and x ∈ B , which implies x ∈ B and x ∈ A
N
and hence x ∈ B ∩ A . Similarly, it can be shown that B ∩ A ⊆ A ∩ B.

LI
Therefore, A ∩ B = B ∩ A.
(c) Associative law
N
Suppose A, B, and C are three sets, then A ∪ (B ∪ C) = (A ∪ B) ∪ C and

O
A ∩ (B ∩ C) = (A ∩ B) ∩ C.
Proof
R
If x ∈ (A ∪ B) ∪ C , then x ∈ A ∪B or x ∈ C which implies ( x ∈ A or x ∈ B)

FO
or x ∈ C . Thus, ( x ∈ A) or (x ∈ B ∪ C). Hence, x ∈ A ∪ (B ∪ C). Therefore,

A ∪ (B ∪ C) ⊆ (A ∪ B) ∪ C.
Similarly, it can be proved that (A ∪ B) ∪ C ⊆ A ∪ (B ∪ C).
Therefore, A ∪ (B ∪ C) = (A ∪ B) ∪ C.
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(e) De Morgan’s law
Activity: Identifying associative
laws of sets Given two sets A and B, then
Individually or in a group, perform ( A ∪ B )′ =A′ ∩ B′ and ( A ∩ B)′ =A′ ∪ B′.
the following tasks: Proof
1. Select three sets A, B, and C Suppose K = ( A ∪ B )′ and N = A′ ∩ B′.
where A and B are joint sets, as Let x be an arbitrary element of K, then
well as B and C. Also, make sure
x ∈ K ⇒ x ∈ (A ∪ B)′.
that, A and B ∩ C have at least
This implies that, x ∉ (A ∪ B), x ∉ A,
one common member so as C
and A ∩B . and x ∉ B, x ∈ A′, and x ∈ B′.
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2. List the elements of A ∩B , and ⇒ x ∈ A′ ∩ B′, and x ∈ N.
elements of B ∩ C . Thus, K ⊆ N .................................. (i)
3. List the elements of A ∩ (B ∩ C).
N
4. List the elements of (A ∩ B) ∩ C. Also, let y be an arbitrary element of N,
O
then y ∈ N ⇒ y ∈ A′ ∩ B′.
5. Compare the lists in tasks 3 and 4.
6. What did you observe in task 5? This implies that,
SE
Give reasons. y ∈ A′ and y ∈ B′, y ∉ A and y ∉ B
(d) Distributive law y ∉ ( A ∪ B ) , y ∈ ( A ∪ B )′ , and y ∈ K.

U
Thus, N ⊆ K ............................... (ii)
Given three sets A, B, and C, then
A ∩ (B ∪ C) = ( A ∩ B) ∪ ( A ∩ C) and Therefore, a combination of equations
A ∪ ( B ∩ C) = (A ∪ B) ∩ (A ∪ C). (i) and (ii) proves that, (A ∪ B)′ = A′ ∩ B′.
E
N
Proof Note that, (A ∩ B)′ = A′ ∪ B′ can be

If x ∈ A ∩ (B ∪ C), then x ∈ A and proved in the same way.
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x ∈ B ∪ C . Thus, x ∈ A and ( x ∈ B
(f) Complement law
or x ∈ C ), which implies ( x ∈ A or
N
If U is a universal set and A is a finite set,

x ∈ B ) and ( x ∈ A or x ∈ C.). Hence,
then the following hold true:
O
x ∈ ( A ∪ B ) and x ∈ ( A ∪ C ).
⇒ x ∈ ( A ∪ B ) ∩ ( A ∪ C )  .
(i) A ∪ A′ = U (iii) ∅′ = U
(ii) A ∩ A′ = ∅ (iv) U′ = ∅
R
Thus,
A ∩ (B ∪ C) ⊆ (A ∩ B) ∪ (A ∩ C) Proof
FO
(i) A ∪ A′ = { x ∈ U: x ∈ A} ∪ { x ∈ U : x ∉ A} =U
Similarly, it can be shown that
(ii) A ∩ A′ = { x ∈ U: x ∈ A} ∩ { x ∈ U : x ∉ A} =
∅
(A ∩ B) ∪ (A ∩ C) ⊆ A ∩ (B ∪ C)
(iii) ∅=′ { x ∈ U : x ∉∅= } U
Therefore, (iv) U ′ = { x ∈∅ : x ∉ U} = ∅
A ∩ (B ∪ C) = (A ∩ B) ∪ (A ∩ C) .
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(g) Identity/Domination law

If U is a universal set and A is a finite set, then the following holds:
(i) A ∪ ∅ = A (ii) A ∩ U = A (iii) A ∪ U = U (iv) A ∩ ∅ = ∅
(h) Double complement law

If U is a universal set and A is a finite set, then ( A′ )′ ⊆ A.
Proof
If x ∈ (A′)′, then x does not belong to A′, that is x ∉ A′, then x ∈ A ⇒ ( A′ )′ ⊆ A .
Similarly, it can be shown that A ⊆ ( A′ )′ .
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Therefore, (A′)′ = A.
(i) Absorption law
N
If A and B are two sets, then A ∩ (A ∪ B) = A and A ∪ (A ∩ B) = A
O
Proof
Given A ∩ (A ∪ B)
Then A ⊆ A and A ⊂ A ∪ B.
SE
Therefore, A ∩ (A ∪ B) = A. Also, given A ∪ (A ∩ B)
Then A ⊆ A and A ⊂ A ∩ B.
U
Therefore, A ∪ (A ∩ B) = A.
Example 2.25
E
N
Use the laws of algebra of sets to simplify (A ∪ B)′ ∩ A.

LI
Solution
N
Given (A ∪ B)′ ∩ A, then

(A ∪ B)′ ∩ A = (A′ ∩ B′) ∩ A
O
De Morganʹs law
=A ∩ (A′ ∩ B′) Commutative law
R
= (A ∩ A′) ∩ B′ Associative law

FO
= ∅ ∩ B′ Complement law
= ∅ Identitylaw
Identity law
Therefore, (A ∪ B)′ ∩ A =∅.
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Example 2.26
By using the laws of algebra of sets, simplify [ A − (A ∩ B′)] ∪ (A ∩ B) .
Solution
Given [ A − (A ∩ B′)] ∪ (A ∩ B), then
[ A − (A ∩ B′)] ∪ (A ∩ B) = [ A ∩ (A ∩ B′)′] ∪ (A ∩ B) By definition A − B = A ∩ B′
= [ A ∩ (A′ ∪ B) ] ∪ (A ∩ B) De Morgan's law
= ( A ∩ A′ ) ∪ (A ∩ B)  ∪ (A ∩ B) Distributive law
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=[∅ ∪ (A ∩ B)] ∪ (A ∩ B) Complement law
= (A ∩ B) ∪ (A ∩ B) Identity law
N
=A ∩ B Idempotent law
O
Therefore, [ A − (A ∩ B′) ] ∪ (A ∩ B) =A ∩ B. SE
Example 2.27
U
Use the laws of algebra of sets to simplify A ∩ (A ∪ B).
Solution
E
Given A ∩ (A ∪ B), then

N
A ∩ (A ∪ B) = (A ∪∅) ∩ (A ∪ B) Identity law

LI
= A ∪ (∅ ∩ B) Distributive law
= A ∪∅ Domination law
N
=A Identity law
O
Therefore, A ∩ (A ∪ B) = A .
R
Exercise 2.5
FO
1. By using the laws of algebra of sets prove that:

(a) (B ∩ A) ∪ (U ∩ A) = A (b) (∅ ∪ B) ∩ (B ∪ A) = B
73
Form Five
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Venn diagrams
2. If A, B, and C are any three sets,
show that: Sets can be geometrically shown by
(a) (C − A) ∪ (B ∩ A′) = (C ∪ B) − A drawings called Venn diagrams. Venn
diagrams were introduced by the
(b) (A ∩ B) ⊆ B
English Mathematician John Venn. Venn
(c) B ⊆ (A ∪ B) diagrams consist of overlapping circles
or ovals inscribed in a rectangle which
3. Use the laws of algebra of sets
represents a universal set. Each circle or
to simplify each of the following
oval represents a set. The points inside
expressions:
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a circle represent elements of the set,
(a) (A ∪ B) ∩ (A ∪ C) while the points outside the boundary
(b) (A ∪ B)′ ∩ (A ∩ B)′ of the circle represent elements that are
N
(c) (∅ ∪ A) ∩ (B ∪ A) not in the set. Venn diagrams provide a
(d) (A ∩ B′) ∩ (B ∩ A′)
O
quick way of showing relationships of the
(e) [A ∩ (A ∩ B)′]′ sets and thus, are useful in presentations
(f) ( A – B) ∩ B and reports.
SE
(g) (A ∪ B′) ∪ [ (A – C) ∪ (B′ – C) ]
(h) (P – M) – H For example, U = {a, b, c, d, e} can be
U
(i) presented in a Venn diagram as shown
(A ∪ B) ∩ (A′ ∪ (A ∩ B))
in Figure 2.1.
(j) (A ∪ B)′ ∩ (A ∪ B) ∩ (A ∪ B)′
E
4. Use the laws of algebra of sets d U

to prove each of the following
N
a b
identities.
A
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c
(a) A − B = A − (A ∩ B) e
N
(b) (A ∩ C) − (B ∩ C) = (A − B) ∩ C
(c) (A ∪ B) = A ∪ (B − A) Figure 2.1: Venn diagram
O
5. Show each of the following In Figure 2.1, U is the universal set

R
identities by using the laws of containing the elements a, b, c, d, and

algebra of sets: e. A is the set of alphabetical letters a, b,
FO
(a) A ∩ B = A ∩ (A′ ∪ B) and c. It is clearly seen that, A is a subset

(b) (A − B) ∩ (A − C) = A − (B ∪ C) of U and A′consists of the elements d
(c) A = (A ∩ B) ∪ (A ∩ B′) and e.
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If the sets have any element in common, 9 10

7 U
then the ovals overlap. Such sets are called 6 8 B
11
A
joint sets. For example, if A = {a, b, c} 12
and B = {a, b, d} , then the relation betwen
A and B is represented as in Figure 2.2. Figure 2.4: Subsets in a Venn diagram
Operations of sets using Venn diagrams

A Venn diagram is designed in such a
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way that it depicts the sets and how its
subsets are related to each other. The
number of circles and the way they
N
Figure 2.2: Joint sets in a Venn diagram
intersect should focus on the entire
O
problem. The regions are then labelled
If the sets do not overlap in a Venn diagram,
according to the problem specifications.
they are called disjoint sets. For example,
Usually, the region corresponding to a
if A = {a, b} and B = {1, 2} the relation
SE
given set is shown by a shaded region
between A and B is shown in Figure 2.3.
with the elements belonging to the set.
U
Intersection of sets
The intersection of two or more sets is
E
shown in a Venn diagram by shading the

overlapping region of the given sets. The
N
shaded region in Figure 2.5 shows the

LI
Figure 2.3: Disjoint sets in a Venn diagram

intersection of sets A and B.
N
If all elements of set A are also elements

of set B, then set A is a subset of set B.
O
For example, if A = {7, 8, 11} and

B = {6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12}, then the Venn
R
diagram which shows set A is contained

inside set B or A is a proper subset of B
FO
as shown in Figure 2.4.

Figure 2.5: Shaded region showing the
intersection of sets A and B
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Union of sets Relative difference

The union of sets in a Venn diagram is The relative difference of set A with
represented by the combined regions respect to set B, that is A – B is the region
of all sets under consideration. For in A that does not include B. The relative
example, in Figure 2.6; the union of difference of set A with respect to set B
sets, A and B, is the shaded region. is the shaded region in Figure 2.8.
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B
N
union of sets A and B Figure 2.8: Shaded region showing the
relative difference of set A with
O
Symmetric difference of sets respect to set B
The symmetric difference of two SE
sets A and B is also known as the Complement of a set
disjunctive union set of elements which As it was described earlier, the
belong either to set A or B but not in complement of set A, denoted by
U
the intersection. In set notation, the A′ or A c is the set containing the
symmetric difference of two sets, A and elements that are in the universal set but
B is given by A∆B = ( A − B ) ∪ ( B − A ) . not in set A. In the Venn diagram, A′
E
This combination of sets is represented is shown by the region outside A within

N
by the region that does not include the the universal set as shown in Figure 2.9.
LI
intersection in the Venn diagram. For

example, the shaded region in Figure
N
2.7 represents the symmetric difference A’ U

of two sets, A and B.
O
U A
R
A
B
FO
Figure 2.9: Shaded region showing A′.

symmetric difference of sets A
and B
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Example 2.28
Represent each of the following set

expressions using a Venn diagram:
(a) A ∩ (B ∪ C) (b) (A ∪ B) ∩ (A ∪ B′)′ The shaded part of the Venn diagaram
represents A ∪ B.
Solution
(a) Given A ∩ (B ∪ C).,
First shade the region A and then the region
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B ∪ C as shown in the following figure.
The shaded region represents ( A ∪ B′ )′ .
N
The required region is the intersection
O
of the two shadings; that of A ∪ B
and that of (A ∪ B′)′ as shown in the
SE following figure.
The required region is the intersection

U
of the two shadings; that of A and that of
B ∪ C as shown in the following figure.
E
The shaded region represents

(A ∪ B) ∩ (A ∪ B′)′
N
LI
Exercise 2.6
N
Use the Venn diagrams to represent

each of the following set expressions:
O
1. (A ∪ B)′ ∩ (A ∪ C)
The shaded part of the Venn diagram
R
2. (A ∪ B)′
represents A ∩ (B ∪ C) .
3. A′ ∩ B′
FO
(b) Given (A ∪ B) ∩ (A ∪ B′)′, then

4. A ∩ B ∩ C
Shade the region A ∪ B and the region
(A ∪ B′)′ as shown in the following 5. A – B
figures. 6. (A – B) ∪ (A – C) ∪ (B – C)
77
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Number of elements/cardinality of sets By rearranging,

The cardinality of sets is a measure of n(A ∪ B) = n(A) + n(B) – n (A ∩ B).
sets size, that is the number of elements Thus, if U is the universal set with
in the set. Thus if A is a finite set with subsets A and B, then
n elements, then the cardinality of set n (A ∪ B) = n(A) + n(B) – n (A ∩ B).
A is n. Therefore, the cardinality of an
This is a general formula commonly used
empty set is zero. The cardinality of a
in solving problems involving two sets.
combined set from two or more sets
can be determined by using a general
Example 2.29
formula.
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If n (A) = 28, n(B) = 10, and
To derive the general formula, consider
n(A ∪ B) = 33, find n(A∩B) .
two arbitrary finite sets A and B enclosed
N
in a universal set as represented in Figure
Solution
O
2.10.
Given n(A) = 28, n(B) = 10 and
n(A ∪ B) = 33, from n(A ∪ B) =
SE
n(A) + n(B) – n(A∩B), we have,
n(A∩B) = n(A) + n(B) – n(A ∪ B)
= 28 + 10 – 33
U
= 38
= – 33 5
Therefore, n(A ∩ B) = 5.
Figure 2.10: Two enclosed sets in the
E
universal set
Example 2.30
N
From Figure 2.10;

There are 21 red flowers and 17
LI
n(A) = k + j
variegated flowers in a bouquet
n(B) = j + p
N
of 44 blooms. How many red and

n (A ∩ B) =
j variegated flowers are there if 7 are
O
n (A ∪ B) = k + j + p neither red nor variegated?

Adding the cardinality of set A and set Solution
R
B gives: Let R stands for red flowers and

FO
n(A) + n(B) = (k + j) + ( j + p) V stands for variegated flowers.

= (k + j + p) + j The following figure shows the
information given with x as the
= n (A ∪ B) + n (A ∩ B)
number of elements in the intersection
of sets.
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Form Five
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V 17-x x 21-x R
From n ( V ∪ R ) + n ( V ∪ R )′ = n(U)
But n ( V=
∪ R ) n(V)+n(R) − n ( V ∩ R )
⇒ n(V)+n(R) − n ( V ∩ R ) + n ( V ∪ R )′ = n(U)
⇒ (17 − x + x ) + ( 21 − x + x ) − x + 7 =44
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A ∪B∪C
1
⇒x=
N
Therefore, 1 flower is both red and variegated.
O
Cardinality of union of three sets
The formula for the cardinality of union of two sets can be extended to suit the
SE
problems involving three sets by using the laws of algebra of sets. If A, B, and C
are finite sets, then A ∪ B ∪ C and A ∩ B ∩ C are also finite. The cardinality of
A ∪ B ∪ C is given by
U
n(A ∪ B ∪ C) = n(A) + n(B) + n(C) − n(A ∩ B) − n(B ∩ C) − n (A ∩ C ) + n(A ∩ B ∩ C)
Proof
E
n (A ∪ B ∪ C) = n[(A ∪ B) ∪ C]; associative law

N
= n (A ∪ B) + n(C) – n[(A ∪ B) ∩ C]
= n(A) + n(B) – n (A ∩ B) + n(C) – n[(A ∩ C) ∪ (B ∩ C)]
LI
= n(A) + n(B) – n (A ∩ B) + n(C) − [n (A ∩ C) + n (B ∩ C)] − n[(A ∩ C) ∩ (B ∩ C)]

N
= n(A) + n(B) − n (A ∩ B) + n(C) − n (A ∩ C) − n (B ∩ C) + n(A ∩ B ∩ C).

O
Therefore,
n (A ∪ B ∪ C) = n(A) + n(B) + n(C) − n (A ∩ B) − n (B ∩ C) – n (A ∩ C) + n (A ∩ B ∩ C).
R
Example 2.31
FO
Given that
n(A)
= 10, n(B)
= 7, n(C)
= 9, n(A ∩ B=
) 4, n (B ∩ C=
) 3, n(A ∩ C=
) 3,
and n(A ∩ B ∩ C) = 1, find n(A ∪ B ∪ C).
79
Form Five
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Solution
n (A ∪ B ∪ C) = n(A) + n(B) + n(C) − n (A ∩ B) − n (B ∩ C) – n (A ∩ C) + n (A ∩ B ∩ C),
Substituting the values in the formula gives;
n (A ∪ B ∪ C) = 10 + 7 + 9 – 4 – 3 – 3 + 1
= 27 – 10
= 17
Therefore, n(A ∪ B ∪ C) = 17.
Example 2.32
LY
A factory has 45 men and 45 women. A survey showed that 60 workers in the factory
were machine operators, 42 workers were cleaners, 30 of the men were operators,
N
30 of the men were cleaners, 24 of the men were both operators and cleaners and 12
of the women were neither operators nor cleaners. How many workers in the factory
O
were both operators and cleaners?
Solution
SE
Let M and C represent the sets of men and women who are machine operators and
cleaners, respectively, and x represents the number of women who are both machine
U
operators and cleaners, then the information is summarized in the following figure:
9 U
C
M
E
6 24 6 Men
N
30-x x 12-x Women

LI
12
N
It is clear that,
(30 – x ) + x + (12 – x ) + 12 = 45.
O
Þ 30 + 12 + 12 – x = 45
R
Þ 54 – x = 45
Þ x = 54 – 45
FO
Thus, x = 9.
Hence, n(Mnc) = 24 + 9 = 33
Therefore, the number of workers who were both cleaners and operators is
33.
80
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Example 2.33
In a certain city, 85% of the people speak English, 40% speak French, and 20%
speak Spanish. Also, 32% speak English and French, 13% speak English and
Spanish, and 10% speak French and Spanish. Find the percentage of people
who speak all the three languages.
Solution
Let E, F, and S represent the sets of people who speak English, French, and
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Spanish, respectively.
Let x be the percentage of people who speak all three languages. The Venn
diagram which summarizes the given information is shown as follows:
N
O
SE
U
E
N
The total percentage is 100, that is n ( E ∪ F ∪ S) =

LI
100.
From the Venn diagram,

N
100 = x − 2 + x − 3 + 40 + x + 10 − x + 13 − x + 32 − x + x
O
⇒ 100 =90 + x
10
⇒x=
R
FO
Therefore, the percentage of people who speak all the three languages is 10.
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Example 2.34 U(300)

] 13
8) 3-
7- [8
(8 +
+
A survey of 300 summer movie

8) (8
7-
3- 8)
C(156) (5 87-8 + A(133)
+ (4
[8 1-
-
56
customers found that most movie
1 8)
8 ]
53-8 41-8
customers watched one of three

types of movies, namely comedy,
S(106)
106-[8+(53-8)+(41-8)]
story, and action.

Simplification yields
Let C represents the comedy movie
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customers,
24 79 13
C(156) A(133)
S represents the story movies 8
45 33
customers, and
N
20 S(106)
A represents the action movies
O
customers.
If n(C) = 156, n(S) = 106, SE
n(A) = 133, n(C ∩ S ∩ A) = 8, From the previous figures,
(a) If U is the universal set, then
n (C ∩ S) = 53, n (S ∩ A ) = 41, customers who did not watch a
U
comedy, stories, or action movies
n ( C ∩ A ) = 87,find
= n(∪) − n(A ∪ S ∪ C)
E
(a) how many summer movie customers

=300 − (20 + 45 + 8 + 33 + 13 + 79 + 24)
did not watch comedy or stories,
N
or action movie? = 300 − 222

LI
(b) how many watched comedy or = 78

action movie?
N
Therefore, 78 customers did not watch

(c) how many watched story movie a comedy or stories, or action movie.
O
only?
(b) Those who watched a comedy or
action movies
R
Solution
The given information can be = n(A ∪ C)
FO
represented in the Venn diagram as = 45 + 33 + 8 + 13 + 79 + 24

follows: = 202
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Therefore, 202 customers watched the (b) Number of girls in the class
comedy or the action movie. =9+3+2+1+3
(c) Those who watched story movies only = 18
= n(S) − n(S ∩ A) − n(S ∩ C) − n(S ∩ A ∩ C)
Therefore, the number of girls in
= 106 – 33 – 45 – 8 = 20
the class is 18.
Therefore, 20 customers watched the story
(c) 3 girls are white but not inteligent.
movies only.
LY
In a certain class there are 15 girls who In a certain school there are 20
N
like chocolate, 5 girls who are white, students who are girls and 20 who are
and 6 girls who are intelligent. Every boys. 15 students study Mathematics
O
white girl likes chocolate, 3 intelligent and 16 study Chemistry. 10 girls
girls do not like chocolate. If 2 girls study Mathematics and 11 boys
SE
are both white and intelligent, study Chemistry. If 8 girls and 7
boys study neither Mathematics
(a) present the above information in
U
nor chemistry, find the number of
a Venn diagram,
students who study:
(b) find the number of girls in the
(a) both subjects,
E
class,
N
(c) find the number of girls who are (b) Mathematics but not Chemistry,
white but not intelligent. (c) only one subject,
LI
(d) at least one subject.

Solution
N
(a) The given information can be Solution

O
represented in the Venn diagram Let C stands for Chemistry

as follows:
M stands for Mathematics
R
Given;
FO
Number of girls = 20
Number of boys = 20
n(M) = 15
n(C) = 16
83
Form Five
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Number of girls who study that is,

Mathematics =10 10 − x + x + 5 − x + 8 =20
Number of boys who study ⇒ 23 − x = 20
Chemistry = 11 ⇒ x = 23 − 20
8 girls study neither subject ⇒x = 3
7 boys study neither subject.

The given information can be
represented in the Venn diagram as
LY
follows:
(a) n(M ∩ C) = 3 + 3 = 6 students
N
Therefore, 6 students study both
subjects.
O
(b) n (M ∩ C′) = 2 + 7 = 9 students
Therefore, 9 students study Mathematics
SE
but not Chemistry.
(c) Only one subject
= 2 + 7 + 8 + 2 = 19 students
U
Therefore, 19 students study only
If y represents the number of boys one subject.
who study both Mathematics and (d) At least one subject
E
Chemistry, then the value of y is = 2+ 7 +3+3+8+ 2

N
obtained by equating the sum of all

= 25 students
members to the total number of boys;
LI
that is, Therefore, 25 students study at least

5 − y + y + 11 − y + 7 =20 one subject.
N
⇒ 23 − y = 20
O
Exercise 2.7
⇒ y = 23 − 20
Thus, y = 3 In questions 1 to 5, find
R
If x represents the number of (a) n(A ∩ B) (c) n ( A ∪ B)

FO
girls who study Mathematics and (b) n ( A∆B) (d) n ( A − B )

Chemistry, then the value of x is
obtained by equating the sum of all 1. A = {6, 7, 4, 3} and
members to the total number of girls; B = {3, 7, 4, 10}.
84
Form Five
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2. A = {x : 3 ≤ x ≤ 10} and
B = {x : x ≤ 6}; where x ∈ .
3. A = {0} and B = {5, 10}.
4. A = {6} and B = {4, 14, 6}.

5. B
= {=
6} and A {14, 6} .
6. Given that n(A ∪ B)′ = 63, n (A′) = 30, and n (B′) = 40, find n (A ∩ B)′.
7. Given that, n (A ∩ B) = 50, n (A ∩ B′) = 100, and n (A′ ∩ B) = 50. If A and B
are the only subsets of the universal set, find
(a) n(A) (b) n(B).
LY
8. In a certain hospital, 150 patients were diagnosed to be suffering from various
diseases as follows: 93 had Covid-19, 90 had Malaria, 64 had Tuberculosis, 32
N
had Tuberculosis and Covid-19, 60 had Covid-19 and Malaria, 25 had Malaria
and Tuberculosis. Find the number of patients who had all the three diseases.
O
9. A survey on the type of crops grown in a certain village revealed that out
of 210 families, 106 grow rice, 65 grow maize, 48 grow rice and maize, 22
SE
grow millet and maize, 14 grow rice and millet only. The number of families
who grow rice only is twice the number of those who grow millet only and 7
families grow none of the crops. Determine the number of families growing;
U
(a) all three crops
(b) exactly one crop
E
(c) at most one crop

(d) rice or maize but not millet.
N
10. Given that A= { x ∈  : x ≤ −1} , B = { x ∈  : −2 ≤ x ≤ 3} , and

LI
C= { x ∈  : x ≥ −2} . Represent on a number line the solution which defines

each of the following sets:
N
(a) A ∩ B (b) A ∩ B ∩ C (c) ( A ∩ B ∩ C )′ (d) ( A ∩ B′ ) ∪ C′

O
Chapter summary
R
1. A set is a collection of objects which have common properties.

FO
2. Sets can be presented in various forms. The common forms include descriptive
or statement, roster or listing, and set builder notation.
3. There are different types of sets, namely; the empty set or null set, equal sets,
equivalent sets, finite and infinite sets, singleton sets, power sets, proper and
improper subsets, and universal sets.
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4. The basic operations of sets include union of sets, intersection of set, complement
of sets, and difference of sets.
5. The common laws of algebra of sets are; Identity law, idempotent law, double
complement law, commutative law, associative law, De Morgan’s law, absorption
law, distributive law, and complement law.
6. The principal set operations are intersection, union, difference, symmetric
difference, and the complement of sets.
7. If A and B are non empty sets, then n(A ∪ B)= n(A) + n(B) − n(A ∩ B).
8. If A, B, and C are non empty sets, then
LY
n(A ∪ B ∪ C)= n(A) + n(B) + n(C) − n(A ∩ B) − n(A ∩ C) − n(B ∩ C) + n(A ∩ B ∩ C).
9. A symmetric difference of two sets, A and B is defined by
N
A∆B = (A − B) ∪ (B − A).
O
Revision exercise 2
SE
1. Let A = {0, 4, 8, 12, 16}, B = {0, 2, 4, 6, 8}, and C = {0, 6, 12, 18}: Find
(a) A ∪ B ∪ C (c) (i) n (A ∪ B ∪ C) (ii) n(A ∩ B ∩ C)
U
(b) A ∩ B ∩ C
2. If A = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6}, B = {8, 2, 4, 6, 9, 10}, and
E
U = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10} , in each of the following show that:

N
(a) n (A ∪ B) = n(A) + n(B) − n (A ∩ B)

(b) n (A ∩ B)′ = n (A ∩ B′) + n (B ∩ A′) − n (A′ ∪ B′)′
LI
3. How many subsets does each of the following set have?

N
(a) {1, 2, 3} (b) {6, 7, 8, 9} (c) {10, 12, 14, 16}

O
4. (a) Show the region representing by each of the following sets in a Venn
diagram:
R
(i) B − A′ (iv) A ∩ B ∩ C′ (vii) A′ ∩ (B ∪ C)

FO
(ii) (A ∩ B) ∪ (B′ ∩ C) (v) (A ∪ B) ∩ C′ (viii) A′ ∩ B′ ∩ C

(iii) A ∩ B′ ∩ C (vi) A′ ∩ B′ ∩ C′ (ix) A ∩ (B′ ∪ C)
(b) Verify that A ∪ (B∩ C) = (A ∪ B) ∩ (A ∪ C) by using Venn diagram.
86
Form Five
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5. If A = {a, b, c}, B = {b, c, d} and C = {d, e, f, g}, find each of the

following:
(a) B − C (c) A − B (e) B − A
(b) A − C (d) C − B (f) C − A
6. Given that A
= {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6} , B
= {1, 2, 4, 7, 6} ,
and C = {2, 5, 6} , show that
LY
7. Determine whether each of the following is true or false.
N
(a) A ∆ B = B ∆ C
O
(b) (A ∆ B) ∆ B =A
(c) A ∆ (B∆C) = (A ∆ B)∆C SE

(d) A ∆ C = (A ∪ C) – (A ∩ C)
(e) A ∆ C =(A – C) ∪ (B – A)
U
(f ) (A – B) – C = A – (B – C)
(g) A – C = C – B
E
(h ) (A – C)Δ(B – C) = B
N
LI
8. (a) Let E be the set of all positive integers less than 50, and A and B be
subsets of E such that:
N
A = {subset of E whose elements are multiples of 5},

O
B = {subset of E whose elements are multiples of 4}.

(i) List all the elements of A, B, A Ç B and AÈ B.
R
(ii) Describe in words the members of A ∩ B.

(iii) Find n(A), n(B), and n(A∩B).
FO
(b) Find the elements of sets A, B, and C given that

A ∪ B = {p, q, r, s}, A ∪ C = {q, r, s, t}, A ∩ B =
{q,r}, and A ∩ C={q, s}
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Form Five
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9. Given A = {x : x∊ ℝ, x ≥ 2} and B = { x : x ∊ℝ, –2 < x ≤ 5}, using the

number line find;
(a) A′ ∪ B (c) (A ∩ B)′
(b) A′ ∩ B (d) A − B
10. By using the laws of algebra of sets simplify each of the following expressions:
(a) A ∪ ( A ∩ B′)′
(f ) A ∩ (A′ ∪ B′)
⎛ ′
′ ∪ B′ ⎞ ∪ C
(b) (A − B) − (A ∩ B′) (g) ⎜ (( A ∪ B ) )
∩ C ⎟
⎝ ⎠
LY
(c) A ∩ (A′ ∩ B)′ (h) (X ∩ Y′) ∪ (X ∪ Y′)
(d) B ∩ ( B ∪ A )
(
i )[A − (B − A)] − [A ∪ (B ∩ A)]
N
(e) ( A ∪ B) ΔB′ (j) ( A′ ∩ B) Δ A
O

11. (a) Use appropriate laws of algebra of sets to simplify ⎡⎢ A ∩ ( A ∪ B )′ ⎤⎥ ,
SE ⎣ ⎦
(b) Two sets A and B are said to be equivalent if n(A) = n(B). If A, B,
and C are equivalent sets of which A and C are disjoint sets, prove that
n ( A ∪ B ∪=
C) 3n ( A ) − n ( A ∩ B) − n ( B ∩ C) .
U
=12. If U {1,=2, 3,..., 10} , and B {2, 4, 6} , in each of the following show
that:
E
(a) BΔB = ∅ (c) BΔ∅ = B

N
(b) BΔU = B′ (d) BΔB′ = U

LI
13. If A, B, and C are any three sets, prove that:

(a) A ∩ (B ∪ C) ⊆ (A ∩ B) ∪ (A ∩ C)
N
(b) A ∪ (B ∩ C) ⊆ (A ∪ B) ∩ (A ∪ C)
O
(c) U ∩ A ⊆ (A ∪ B ∪ C)
(d) [(A ∩ B′) − C ] ⊆ A – C
R
(e) (A ∩ C′) ∩ (C ∩ B′) = ∅

( B ∩ A′ ) ∪ ( C − A ) = ( B ∪ C ) ∩ A′
FO
(f)
(g) A ∩ B′ ⊆ A
(h) ( B ∩ C′ ) ∪ ( B′ ∪ C )′ =B ∩ C′
(i) (A ∩ B ∩ C)′ = A ′ ∪ B′ ∪ C′
88
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14. Out of 880 boys in a school, 224 played cricket, 240 played hockey, and
336 played basketball. Of the total, 64 played basketball and hockey, 80
played cricket and basketball, and 40 played cricket and hockey, 24 boys
played all the three games. Determine the number of boys who;
(a) did not play any game,
(b) played only one game,
(c) played cricket or hockey but not basketball,
(d) played basketball and hockey but not cricket.
LY
15. A class contains 15 boys and 15 girls. If 20 students take Science, 14 students
take Mathematics, of the boys, 10 take Science and, 10 take Mathematics,
8 of the boys take both Science and Mathematics, 4 of the girls take neither
N
Science nor Mathematics. Find the number of students in the class who take;
O
(a) both Science and Mathematics,
(b) Mathematics but not Science, SE
(c) exactly one subject,
(d) neither of the subjects.
U
16. In a certain high school, 100 students were asked to mention the foreign
languages they learn. Their responses showed that 45 students learn Spanish,
28 learn French, 22 learn Chinese, 12 students learn Spanish and French, 8
E
learn Spanish and Chinese, 10 learn French and Chinese, and 30 students
N
do not learn any language. Find the number of students who learn;
LI
(a) all the three languages,

(b) exactly one of the three languages,
N
(c) at most two of the three languages.

O
17. In an examination, 40% of the students passed in Mathematics, 45%

in Chemistry, and 55% in Physics. If 10 % passed in Mathematics and
R
Chemistry, 20% in Chemistry and Physics, and 15% in Physics and

Mathematics, determine the pass percentages in;
FO
(a) all the three subjects

(b) at least two subjects,
(c) Chemistry or Physics but not Mathematics.
89
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18. Spare parts manufactured by a certain factory were subjected to three types
of defects A, B, and C. A sample of 4,000 items were inspected and it was
found that 6.2% had defect A, 7.4% had defect B, 8.2% had defect C, 2.2%
had defect A and B, 2.6% had defect B and C, 2.0% had defect A and C,
1.2% had all the three defects. Find the percentage of items which had,
(a) none of the defects
(b) at least one of the defects
(c) not more than one defect.
19. Out of 35 students in a certain school, 2 students study Physics, Chemistry
LY
and Mathematics. It is given that 6 of them study only Physics and Chemistry,
5 students study only Physics and Mathematics, and 4 students study only
N
Chemistry and Mathematics. The number of students who study only one
O
subject is the same for all the three subjects. Find the number of students
who study:
(a) Mathematics only.
SE
(b) Physics or Chemistry but not Mathematics.
(c) At most two subjects.
U
20. Given two sets A and B, such that n(A) = 10 and n(B) = 15, find the
(a) maximum and minimum values of n ( A ∪ B) .can have,
(b) maximum and minimum values of n ( A ∩ B) .can have.
E
21. In a group of 72 students who were surveyed, 29 students liked mangoes,

N
41 liked bananas, 48 liked oranges, 22 liked oranges and bananas, 16 liked

LI
bananas and mangoes, and 20 liked oranges and mangoes. Find how many
students liked,
N
(a) mangoes but not bananas or oranges,

O
(b) all the three fruits,

(c) oranges or bananas but not mangoes.
R
(d) exactly two fruits.

FO
22. Simplify each of the following expressions by using the laws of algebra
of sets:
(a) ( A ∪ B) − ( A − B) (c) A ∩ ( A ∪ B ) − ( A − B )
(b) ( A ′ ∩ B′ ) ∩ ( A ∩ B)′ (d) (A ∩ (A′ ∪ B)) ∪ (B ∩ (A′ ∪ B′))

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23. (a) Prove that if A is a subset of B and B is a subset of C, then A is a

subset of C.
(b)Given
(b) that AA= = {{xx∈∈:1:1≤≤xx≤≤33}}, , BB= = {{xx::22≤≤xx≤≤4,4,xx∈∈}}, ,and
Giventhat and
CC=={{xx∈∈::xx>>33}},,use set builder notation to find the expression for each

of the following sets:
(i) ( A′ ∪ B′) ∩ C
(ii) A′ ∩ B ∩ C
24. (a) Use a Venn diagram to express each of the following sets:
LY
(i) ( B − A )′
(ii) ( A ∩ B) ∪ ( B′ ∩ C)
N
(iii) ( A ∩ B′ ∩ C) ∪ ( A′ ∩ B ∩ C′ )
(b) By using the laws of algebra of sets simplify ( Α − Β )′ ∩ ( A ∪ B).
O
25. In a certain teachers’ college, there are 110 trainees taking Economics (E),
SE
History (H), and Geography (G), where, nn((EE∪ ∪=H)) 70,
H
= 70, nn((H
H∪ G)) 80,
G
∪=
= 80, nn((H
H)) only
only
= 11
=
70, n ( H ∪=
G ) 80, n (∩HE) ′only
n(H ∩= 10,, n ( G ∪=
G′)=10 E ) 85, n (=
H ) 40, and n(G)
= 55, n(H ∩ E ∩= G) 5, n(E)=
n(G)
= 55, n(H ∩ E ∩= G) 5, n(E)
= 50 . Find the number of trainees who take;
U
(a) History and Geography
(b) History and Geography but not Economics
(c) History or Geography but not Economics
E
(d) exactly two subjects

N
LI
N
O
R
FO
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Chapter
Three Logic
Introduction
The term “logic” originates from the Greek word “Logos” meaning idea,
LY
word, thought, argument, account, reason, or principle. Logic can be defined
as a science or an art which deals with the study of truth, principles of correct
N
reasoning, and making good decisions. In this chapter, you will learn about
statements, logical connectives, laws of algebra of propositions, validity of the
O
arguments, and electrical networks of statements. The competencies developed
have a number of applications in real life situations such as to distinguish
SE
between valid and invalid arguments, correct reasoning and making proper
decisions in daily life activities, constructions of circuit diagrams in the field of
U
electronics, making judgements in fields of law, among many other applications.
E
Concept of logic Statements

N
Logic in everyday life refers to a In mathematics, a statement or proposition

correct reasoning. In mathematics, can be defined as a declarative sentence
LI
it is the study of truth and how the which can be either “true” or “false”
truth of a statement or proposition but not both. For example, “The sum of
N
can be obtained from mathematical interior angles of a rectangle is 180° ”.

O
deduction. In logic, the interest is not The truth value of this statement is false.
on the statements themselves, but
how the true and false statements are The following sentences are statements:
R
related to each other. In most cases, the (i) 6 + 2 = 9

FO
propositions are represented by letters (ii) 3 + 2 = 5

like p, q, r, and s. These propositions (iii) Tanga is the capital city of Tanzania.
have to be either true (T) or false (F). (iv) Lusaka is the largest city in Tanzania.
92
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The truth value of the statement in Sentences which involve exclamative

(ii) is true, whereas the truth value of words, questioning sentences, and
statements in (i), (iii), and (iv) is false. instructional sentences are not
mathematical sentences. If a sentence
Note that, not all sentences are statements. mentions a particular place or a particular
For example; person it becomes a statement. For
(i) What is your name? instance, “Is Juma a lazy boy?” is not
(ii) Good night daughter. a statement, but “Juma is a lazy boy”
(iii) x − 7 = 12 is a statement. In writing mathematical
(iv) 2 x + y = 5 z statements, the letters p, q, r , s, ….
LY
are usually used to denote propositions
The sentences in (i) and (ii) are not in order to reduce the requirement of
N
statements because they are not writing long sentences. The truth value
declarative sentences, and the sentences of a true proposition is denoted by T and
O
in (iii) and (iv) are not statements because the truth value of a false proposition is
they are neither true nor false. denoted by F.
SE
Activity 3.1: Identifying a Note that, the truth value of a statement
statement is either true or false.
U
Individually or in a group, perform Types of mathematical statements

the following tasks: There are two types of mathematical
E
1. Construct any six sentences of statements, namely; simple mathematical

N
your choice. statements and compound mathematical

2. From the sentences constructed in statements. A simple mathematical
LI
task 1, identify mathematical and statement is formed by one declarative

sentence, that is either true or false.
N
non-mathematical statements.
3. Share the results you obtained in For instance, the statement “Asha is
O
task 2 with other students. swimming” is a simple statement,

4. Discuss with your fellow while a compound statement is formed
by more than one declarative sentence.
R
students how to differentiate

between a mathematical and a The statement “If Elia studies hard, then
FO
non-mathematical statements. he will pass the test” is a compound

5. Discuss the challenges you faced statement, since it is formed by two
in task 2. simple statements which are “Elia
studies hard” and “he will pass the test”.
93
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Truth table Table 3.1(c): Number of cases for three

A truth table is a table that used to show propositions p, q, and r
the validity of a compound statement p q r
depending on the truth values of the
simple statements. The number of Case 1 T T T
cases that describe the given compound Case 2 T T F
statement depends on the number n
of propositions. For instance, if the Case 3 T F T
compound statement has 1 proposition Case 4 T F F
Case 5 F T T
(n = 1) , then the number of cases is 2.
LY
If it has 2 propositions (n = 2) , then the Case 6 F T F
2 Case 7 F F T
number of cases is 2 = 4, and if it has
Case 8 F F F
N
3 propositions (n = 3), then the number
of cases is 23 = 8 . Negation of a statement
O
Generally, if there are n propositions, Negation refers to a way of forming
then the number of cases is 2n .
a mathematical statement that has the
SE
Tables 3.1 show the truth tables of
opposite truth value. For example,
the statement formed by 1, 2, and 3
the statement “It is not p” is called
propositions.
the negation of p, mathematically it is
U
written as “ ~ p ” and reads “negation
Table 3.1(a): Number of cases for one
of p”. One way of writing a negation
proposition p
E
statement is to put the word “not” with

the verb. Another way is to precede it
N
(a) One proposition p

with the phrase “it is not true that” or “it
LI
p is false that”. For instance, the negation

Case 1 T of the proposition “Today is Friday” is
N
Case 2 F “Today is not Friday” or “It is not true

that Today is Friday” or “It is false that
O
Table 3.1(b): Number of cases for two Today is Friday”. Similarly, the negation
propositions p and q of the proposition “Issa does not love
R
Rita” is “Issa loves Rita”.

p q
FO
Case 1 T T
Example 3.1
Case 2 T F
Case 3 F T
Draw a truth table of a mathematical
Case 4 F F
statement ~ p.
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Solution 3. Draw the truth table whose

Truth table for ~ p number of propositions is:
p ~p (a) n = 3
T F (b) n = 4
F T 4. Write the negation of each of the
following propositions.
(a) Pili is not a woman.
Exercise 3.1
(b) It is raining now.
LY
1. Which of the following sentences (c) Maasai maintain their
are statements? culture.
(a) 26 − 5 = 21. (d) Summer comes after spring.
N
(b) 7(8 ÷ 2) + 8 = 36. (e) Industries are friendly to the
environment.
O
(c) There exist integers x and y
such that 3x + 7 y = 2. (f) Tomorrow is Saturday.
(d) Will you come tommorow? SE
(e) Given that PQR is a right- Logical connectives
angled triangle with a right Logical connectives are symbols used
angle at vertex Q, and if
U
to connect two or more propositions
M is the midpoint of the
of a compound statement. Logical
hypotenuse, then the line
connectives include conjunction,
E
segment connecting vertex

disjunction, conditional (implication),
Q to M is half the length of
N
and biconditional (double implications).

the hypotenuse.
LI
2. State which of the following Conjunction

sentences is a simple or
In mathematics, a conjunction is
N
compound statement:
described as a statement formed by
(a) Five is less than eight.
O
(b) John eats rice or meat. adding two logical statements p and q
(c) Dodoma is the capital city of with a connector “and”, symbolically
R
Tanzania. denoted by “ ∧ ” and reads as “and”.

(d) Juma is singing and Thomas When the values of two propositions
FO
is reading a novel. p and q are combined together by the

(e) Ester will pass the connector, it is expressed symbolically
examination if and only if as p ∧ q and is read “p and q”. A
she studies hard. conjunction has truth value true if and
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only if both of its statements are true,

Example 3.3
otherwise it is false. In other words,
conjunction of two statements is true
Write the conjunction of the
only in case when each sub-statement is
propositions p and q, where p is
true. The truth table for p ∧ q is shown
the proposition “Mwanaidi likes
in Table 3.2.
singing” and q is “Tumaini likes
Table 3.2: Truth table for p ∧ q swimming”. Hence, comment on its
truth value.
p q p∧q
T T T Solution
LY
T F F Given the following propositions:
p: Mwanaidi likes singing.
F T F
N
q: Tumaini likes swimming.
F F F
The conjunction is given as p ∧ q .
O
Example 3.2 The conjunction p ∧ q is a compound
statement, “Mwanaidi likes singing
SE
Write the conjunction of the and Tumaini likes swimming”. The
propositions p and q, where p and compound statement p ∧ q is true
q are the propositions “Halima if and only if p and q are both true,
U
likes cold coffee” and “Alex likes otherwise it is false.
milkshake”, respectively. Hence,
Example 3.4
E
comment on its truth value.

N
Solution Determine the truth value in each of

LI
Given the following propositions: the following statements:

p: Halima likes cold coffee. (a) 8 + 25 = 43 and 72 ÷ 8 ≤ 9
N
q: Alex likes milkshake. (b) 2 is a prime number but 4 is not

a prime number
O
The conjunction is written as p ∧ q .

(c) Dodoma is the capital city of
The proposition p ∧ q is a compound Tanzania and it is false that
R
statement “Halima likes cold coffee Mwanza is a city in Tanzania.

and Alex likes milkshake”. The
FO
formed compound statement p ∧ q Solution

is true when only p and q are both (a) Let p: 8 + 25 = 43
true, otherwise it is false. q: 72 ÷ 8 ≤ 9 .
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Solution
The truth value of 8 + 25 = 43 is
Given the following:
false (F) and the truth value of
p : Subira likes novels.
72 ÷ 8 ≤ 9 is true (T), then the truth q : Jack likes movies.
value of p ∧ q is F ∧ T = F .
The conjunction is written as p ∧ q .
Therefore, the truth value of p ∧ q
is False. The proposition p ∧ q is the compound
(b) Let p: 2 is a prime number. statement “Subira likes novels but
q: 4 is not a prime number. Jack likes movies”. This compound
statement is true only when p and q
LY
The truth value of “2 is a prime
are true, otherwise it is false.
number” is true (T) and the truth
N
value of “4 is not a prime number”
is true (T), then the truth value of Disjunction
O
p ∧ q is T ∧ T = T. Disjunction is a compound statement
Therefore, the truth value of p ∧ q which is formulated by using a connector
SE
is true. “or” and its symbol is “ ∨ ”. When the two
(c) Let p: Dodoma is a capital city statements p or q are joined together, the
of Tanzania. combination is symbolically expressed as
U
q: Mwanza is a city in “ p ∨ q ”. The truth value of a disjunction
Tanzania. is false if and only if both statements are
E
false, otherwise it is true. The truth table

The truth value of p is true (T) and the
for p ∨ q is as shown in Table 3.3.
N
truth value of q is true (T), then the

truth value of T ∧ ~ T = T ∧ F = F. Table 3.3: Truth table for p ∨ q
LI
Therefore, the truth value of p ∧ q

p q p∨q
N
is False.
T T T
O
Example 3.5 T F T
F T T
R
Write the conjunction of the F F F

FO
propositions p and q, when p is the

proposition “Subira likes novels” Example 3.6
and q is a proposition “Jack likes
movies”. Hence, comment on its If p is the proposition “John eats
truth value. beans” and q is the proposition “John
97
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eats meat”, write the statement for
(d) The truth value of ~ ( p ∨ q) is
(a) p ∨ q (b) ~ ( p ∨ q) ~ ( T ) = F.
Therefore, the truth value is false.

Solution
(a) “John eats beans or meat”. Conditional statements (implications)
(b) “It is false that John eats beans A relationship between two statements in
or meat”. which the second statement is a logical
consequence of the first statement is
Example 3.7 referred to as a conditional or implication
LY
statement. If p and q are propositions,
If p is the proposition “A giraffe eats then the implication is written as
meat” and q is the proposition “A “p → q”, and its truth value is false when
N
lion eats meat”, write the truth value p is true and q is false, otherwise it is
in each of the following statements.
O
true. The proposition “p → q” reads as p
(a) p ∨ q (c) ~ ( p ∧ q)
implies q, if p then q, or sometimes q if
(b) p ∧ q (d) ~ ( p ∨ q) SE
p. The truth table of p → q is as shown
Solution in Table 3.4.
Given p the proposition that “A
U
giraffe eats meat”, its truth value is Table 3.4: Truth table for p → q
false (F), and q the proposition that
p q p→q
“A lion eats meat” and its truth value
E
is true, then T T T
N
(a) The truth value of p∨q is T F F

F ∨ T = T. F T T
LI
Therefore, the truth value of p ∨ q F F T

N
is true.
The following phrases are used to represent
(b) The truth value of p ∧ q is
O
the condition statement, “ p → q ”.

F ∧ T = F.
Therefore, the truth value of p ∧ q (i) “If p, then q”
R
is false. (ii) “p is sufficient for q”

(iii) “If p, q”
FO
(c) The truth value of ~ ( p ∧ q) is

(iv) “a necessary condition for p is q”
~ ( F) = T. (v) “q if p”
Therefore, the truth value of ~ ( p ∧ q) (vi) “q when p”
is true.
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(vii) “p implies q” Solution

(viii) “p only if q” (a) If Angel goes abroad, then she
(ix) “q is necessary for p” does not have a passport.
(x) “q whenever p” (b) If Angel does not go abroad, then
she does not have a passport.
(xi) “q follows from p”
(c) If Angel does not go abroad, then
she has a passport.
Example 3.8
Biconditional statements
Write each of the following statements
LY
in symbolic form: A biconditional statement is a statement
which is written in the form “ p if and
(a) If the car is gone, then Leah has
only if q ”. It is denoted by a double-
N
left.
headed arrow “ ↔ ”. If p and q are
(b) If you get a degree, then you can
propositions, then the biconditional
O
get a job. proposition is written as “ p ↔ q ”
which is read as “p if and only if q”.
SE
Solution
A biconditional statement is said to be
(a) Let p : The car is gone
true if and only if both parts have the
q : Leah has left
same truth value, otherwise it is false.
U
Therefore, p → q .
The truth table of p ↔ q is shown in
(b) Let p : You get a degree
Table 3.5.
q : You can get a job
E
Table 3.5: Truth table for p ↔ q

N
Therefore, p → q .
p q p↔q
LI
Example 3.9 T T T
N
T F F
Let p: Angel goes abroad
F T F
O
q: Angel has a passport

F F T
Write down a verbal sentence in each
of the following:
R
Also, the truth value of p ↔ q is true

(a) p → ~ q
if the implication (p → q) is true and
FO
(b) ~ p → ~ q (q → p) is also true. The truth value of

(c) ~ p → q the statement (p → q) ∧ (q → p) in Table
3.6 is the same as that of p ↔ q shown
in Table 3.5.
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Table 3.6: Truth table for (b) Let p : I will give you my car.
( p → q) ∧ (q → p) q : You know how to drive.
p q p → q q → p (p → q) ∧ (q → p) Therefore, p ↔ q.
T T T T T
T F F T F Example 3.11
F T T F F
F F T T T Determine the truth value in each of
Note that; if p and q have the same truth the following statements:
(a) 2 + 9 = 12 if and only if 2 is a
LY
value, then p ↔ q is true, if p and q have
opposite truth values, then p ↔ q is false. factor of 12.
The following phrases are used to represent (b) It is not true that 6 + 14 =
20 if
N
the biconditional statement, “p and only if 18 × 5 = 90 .
p ↔ q”:
q
O
(i) “ q if and only if p ” Solution
(ii) “ p if and only if q ” (a) Let p : 2 + 9 = 12
SE
(iii) “p is a necessary and sufficient q : 2 is a factor of 12.
condition for q” The truth value of 2 + 9 = 12 is false
(iv) “If p, then q and conversely” (F) and the truth value of 2 is a factor
U
(v) “p double implication q” of 12 is true (T).
(vi) “p implies q and q implies p” Thus, the truth value of p ↔ q is
F ↔ T = F.
E
Example 3.10 Therefore, the truth value of p ↔ q

N
is false.
Write each of the following statements
LI
(b) Let p : 6 + 14 =
20
in symbolic form:
q : 18 × 5 = 90
N
(a) You will pass the examination if

The truth value of 6 + 14 = 20 is true
and only if you work hard.
O
(T) and the truth value of 18 × 5 = 90

(b) I will give you my car if and only
is true (T).
if you know how to drive.
R
The truth value of p ↔ q is

T ↔ T =T.
Solution
FO
Thus the truth value of

(a) Let p : You will pass the
 ( p ↔ q ) is  (T) =
F
examination.
q : You will work hard. Therefore, the truth value of
Therefore, p ↔ q.  ( p ↔ q ) is false.
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Exercise 3.2 5. Given that p: You like Physics,

q: You like Chemistry, and r:
1. Determine the truth value in each You like Biology. Give a verbal
of the following statements: sentence which describes each
(a) Paris is in France and of the following:
Mombasa is in Uganda. (a) ( p ∨ q)∧ ~ r
(b) 6 < 9 if and only if (b) ( p ∧ q) ∨ (~ p ∧ ~ r )
−6 ÷ 2 > −2 (c) ~ ( p ∧ ~ r )
(c) If 2 + 4 =6 and 6 − 5 < 1 , 6. Construct a truth table for the
LY
then 71 < 8.5 proposition ( p ∧ q) → ( p ∨ q) .
2. Let p: She is tall and q: She 7. Express each of the following
statements into symbolic form:
N
is beautiful. Write each of the
following statements in symbolic (a) It is false that “Grace speaks
O
form: French but not Germany”.
(a) She is tall and beautiful. (b) Grace does not speak
French or she does not
(b) She is tall but not beautiful.
SE speak Germany.
(c) It is false that she is short or
beautiful. 8. Construct a truth table for the
U
(d) She is neither tall nor proposition ~ p ↔ (q → r ) .
beautiful. 9. Determine the truth value
(e) She is tall or she is short and in each of the following
E
beautiful. statements:
N
3. Construct a truth table (a) Either 69 × 12 = 13 × 36 or

for the proposition 12 – 18 ≠ – 6.
LI
(~ p ↔ ~ q) ↔ ~ ( p → q) . (b) If 3 is an odd number, then

N
4. Let p: It is cold and q: It rains. neither 3 is a prime number

Write each of the following nor an even number.
O
statements in symbolic form: (c) 3 64 = 4 256 if and only if

(a) A necessary condition for it =2 + 4 6 and 16 − 10 − 56 − 50.
R
to be cold is that it rains. 10. Express each of the following

FO
(b) A sufficient condition for it to compound statements in

be cold is that it rains. symbolic notation using letters
(c) It is not true that it is not cold P, Q, and R to stand for the
if and only if it does not rain.
statements:
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(a) Either the manufactured drug 13. Construct a truth table for each
is not faulty and accepted of the following compound
by the Tanzania Food and statements:
Drug Authority (TFDA) or (a) ( p ∧ q)∧ ~ ( p ∧ q)
the drug is faulty and is not (b) (q → p) ↔ ( p → q)
accepted by TFDA.
(c) ( p ∨ q) ∧ r
(b) If Jonathan is a member of (d) ( p ∨ q) → ~ r
a social committee, then (e) [(~ p ↔ q) ∧ r ] → t
the committee is strong.
LY
The committee is strong Converse, inverse, and contrapositive
if and only if Jonathan’s A conditional statement can be written in
argument is accepted by its converse, inverse or contrapositive.
N
other members. Therefore,
Converse of a conditional statement
O
Jonathan’s argument is not
accepted and the committee The converse of a conditional statement
is not strong. SE
“ p → q ” is written by interchanging the
11. If p stands for “Halima is poor” roles of the statements. Therefore, the
and q stands for “Halima works converse of p → q is the statement
U
hard”, write statements to “ q → p ”, as shown in Table 3.7.
represent each of the following
Table 3.7: Truth table for q → p
propositions:
E
(a) q ∨ p (e) ~ p → ~ q p q q→ p
N
(b) ~ ( p ∧ q ) (f) ~ p ∨ ~ q T T T
(c) p → q (g) q ↔ p
LI
T F T
(d) p ∧ q (h) ~ q ∨ ( p ∧ q )
F T F
N
12. If p stands for “Swimming in F F T

O
the pool is not dangerous” and

q stands for “Few people have Inverse of a conditional statement
R
been drowned in the swimming

The inverse conditional statement “ p → q ”
pool”. Write a sentence for
FO
each of the following logical is written by negating the original conditional

expressions: statement. Thus, the inverse of p → q is
(a) ~ p (c) ~ p → q the implication “ ~ p → ~ q ”, as shown in
(b) ~ q ↔ p Table 3.8.
102
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Table 3.8: Truth table for ~ p → ~ q Solution

Let p : A child cries.
p q ~p ~q ~ p→ ~q q : It is raining.
T T F F T Symbolically the given statement is
T F F T T p → q and its converse is q → p, that
F T T F F is “If it is raining, then the child cries”.
F F T T T Its contrapositive is ~ q → ~ p , that
is “If it is not raining, then the child
does not cry.”
LY
Contrapositive of a conditional
statement Its inverse is ~ p → ~ q that is “If
The contrapositive of the the child does not cry, then it is not
N
conditional statement “ p → q ” raining”.
can be written by exchanging the roles
O
of the inverses of the given conditional Example 3.13
statement. Hence, the contrapositive SE
of p → q is ~ q →~ p , and it has the Write the converse, the contrapositive,
same truth table as p → q, as shown in and the inverse of the statement “If
Table 3.9. Flora is happy, then she eats food and
U
drinks milk”.
Table 3.9: Truth table for  q →  p
Solution
E
p q ~p ~q p→q  q → p
Let p: Flora is happy.
N
T T F F T T q : Flora eats food and drinks milk.

T F F T F F
LI
Its converse is q → p. That is,

F T T F T T “If Flora eats food and drinks milk,
N
F F T T T T then she is happy”.

O
Its contrapositive is  q →  p :
Example 3.12 “If Flora does not eat food and drink
milk, then she is not happy ”.
R
Write the converse, the contrapositive, Its inverse is ~ p → ~ q . That is,

FO
and the inverse of the statement “A “If Flora is not happy, then she does
child cries whenever it is raining”. not eat food and drink milk”.
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Example 3.14
2. Given the statement
Given the proposition p → (q →  p) .
[( p → q) ∧ (q → r )] → ( p → r ), (a) Construct the truth table for the
write down the: converse.
(a) converse (b) Construct the truth table for the
(b) inverse contrapositive.
(c) contrapositive 3. Given the statement “If two vectors
are orthogonal, then their dot product
Solution
LY
is zero”. Write the verbal sentence
(a) Its converse is
for its:
( p → r ) → ( p → q ) ∧ (q → r ) (a) inverse
N
(b) Its inverse is (b) converse
 ( p → q ) ∧ ( q → r ) → ( p → r )
O
(c) contrapositive.
(c) Its contrapositive is 4. For each of the following
SE
 ( p → r ) → ( p → q ) ∧ ( q → r ) statements, write down the
corresponding contrapositive
Exercise 3.3 statement:
U
(a) If Halima has courage, then she
1. Write the inverse, converse, and will win.
contrapositive in each of the (b) It is necessary to be strong in
E
following propositions: order to be a sailor.

N
(a) If tomorrow is Saturday, then (c) To be a square is a sufficient

LI
Paul will go to the beach. condition for a geometrical figure

(b) If it is raining, then the shop to be a rectangle.
N
is closed. 5. Let p: Kiswahili is interesting,

q: Physics has applications, and
O
(c) Industries are environmentally

friendly if they are in harmony r: Physics depends on
with the surroundings. Mathematics.
R
(d) If ABC is an equilateral Write in symbolic form the converse,

FO
triangle, then it is a right- inverse, and contrapositive of the

angled triangle. statement “If Kiswahili is interesting,
(e) If f ( x) is a rational function, then Physics has applications and
then it has asymptotes. depends on Mathematics”.
104
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Activity 3.2
6. For each of the following write:
(a) The contrapositive of the Individually or in a group, perform
inverse of p → q . the following tasks:
(b) The inverse of the converse 1. Using the logical connectives ∼,
of ~ p → (q →~ r ) ∧, ∨, → , and ↔ , construct five
(c) The converse of the propositions of your choice.
contrapositive of 2. From the propositions constructed
( p ↔ q) → (~ p ↔~ r ) in task 1, suggest the order of
evaluation using the order of
LY
dominance as shown in Table 3.10.
Logic symbols dominance
3. Share the results you obtained
In algebra, whenever arithmetic operations
N
in task 2 with other students for
+, −, ×, and ÷ are used in the expression, more inputs.
O
then the expression is evaluated by applying 4. With your fellow students discuss
the BODMAS rule. That is, Bracket of,
SE the challenges you met in task 2,
if any.
Division, Multiplication, Addition, and
Subtraction. In logical expressions, Logical equivalences
U
brackets are also used. However, if Two or more logical expressions are
brackets in logical expressions are logically equivalent if and only if they
E
have the same truth table. This means,

many, then the order shown in Table 3.10
if p and q are propositions that are
N
should be followed. For instance, when equivalent, then p ↔ q will have the
LI
evaluating p ∧ q ∨ r , workout “∧” first, truth value T in all cases. A logical

that is ( p ∧ q) ∨ r, and not p ∧ (q ∨ r ) . expression or statement having only truth
N
values true (T) in the last column of its

O
truth table is called a tautology.

Table 3.10: Order of dominance in logic
expression Example 3.15
R
Connective ∼ ∧ ∨ → ↔
FO
Priority 1st 2nd 3rd 4th 5th Show that p → q and ~ p ∨ q are
logically equivalent.
105
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Solution
The expressions p → q and ~ p ∨ q are logically equivalent if
( p → q) ↔ (~ p ∨ q) is a tautology as shown in the following table.
p q p →q ~ p ~ p∨q ( p → q) ↔ (~ p ∨ q)
T T T F T T
T F F F F T
F T T T T T
F F T T T T
LY
Since the truth values in the column of ( p → q) ↔ (~ p ∨ q) in the truth table
contain only the truth values T, then it is a tautology.
N
Therefore, p → q and  p ∨ q are logically equivalent.
O
Note that, if a compound proposition or a logical expression has truth value “F” for
SE
all combinations of the truth values of the proposition variables which it contains,
it is said to be a contradiction. In other words, the contradiction is the negation of
a tautology. For example, in Example 3.15, it was shown that ( p → q) ↔ (~ p ∨ q)
U
is a tautology.
Therefore, ~ [( p → q) ↔ (~ p ∨ q)] is the contradiction.
E
Example 3.16
N
Use the truth table to verify that the statement ( p ∨ q) ∧ (~ p ∧ ~ q) is a

LI
contradiction.
N
Solution
Given ( p ∨ q) ∧ (~ p ∧ ~ q) , then its truth table is as follows.
O
R
p q ~p ~q p∨q ~ p∧ ~ q ( p ∨ q) ∧ (~ p ∧ ~ q)
FO
T T F F T F F
T F F T T F F
F T T F T F F
F F T T F T F
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Table 3.11: Laws of algebra of propositions

From the table, all truth values in the Equivalent statements Laws
last column are false, the statement is a
contradiction. p∨ p ≡ p
Idempotent
p∧ p ≡ p
p ∧T ≡ p
Exercise 3.4 p∨ F ≡ p
Identity
p ∨T ≡ T
Determine whether or not the logical
p∧F ≡ F
statements in each of the following pairs
LY
are logically equivalent: Double
~ (~ p) ≡ p
negation
1. ( p → q ) and ( ~ q → ~ p)
N
p∨q ≡ q∨ p
Commutative
2. (~ p ∨ ~ q) and p ∨ q p∧q ≡ q∧ p
O
3. ( p ∧ q) and ~ ( p → ~ q)
( p ∨ q) ∨ r ≡ p ∨ (q ∨ r ) Associative
4. ( p → q) ∧ ( p → r ) a n d p → (q ∧ r ) SE
( p ∧ q) ∧ r ≡ p ∧ (q ∧ r )
5. ( q → r ) ∨ ( p → r ) a n d ( p ∧ q) → r
6. ( p ↔ q) and ( p → q) ∧ (q → p) ∼ ( p ∨ q) ≡ ~ p ∧ ~ q De Morgan’s
U
~ ( p ∧ q) ≡ ~ p∨ ~ q
7. p ↔ q and ( ~ p ↔ ~ q)
8. p ↔ r and ( p ∧ r ) ∨ ( ~ p ∧ ~ r ) p ∨ ( p ∧ q) ≡ p
E
Absorption
9. ~ ( p ↔ r ) and p ↔ ~ r p ∧ ( p ∨ q) ≡ p
N
10. ~ p ∨ (~ p ∧ q) and ~ p ∧ ~ q
p ∨ (q ∧ r ) ≡ ( p ∨ q) ∧ ( p ∨ r )
LI
Distributive
p ∧ (q ∨ r ) ≡ ( p ∧ q) ∨ ( p ∧ r )
N
Laws of algebra of propositions

p∨ ~ p ≡ T Complement
The laws of algebra of propositions are sets
O
p∧ ~ p ≡ F (Negation)
of pairs of equivalent logical propositions.
The laws are used to simplify complicated p →q ≡ ~ p∨q
R
logical statements. Table 3.11 presents the Condition and

p ↔ p ≡ ( p → q ) ∧ (q → p )
FO
laws of algebra of propositions with their Bi-conditional

≡ (~ p ∨ q) ∧ (~ q ∨ p)
names.
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Example 3.17
Use the laws of algebra of propositions to simplify ~ ( p ∨ q) ∨ (~ p ∧ q).
Solution
~ ( p ∨ q) ∨ (~ p ∧ q) ≡ (~ p ∧ ~ q) ∨ (~ p ∧ q) De Morgan’s law
≡ ~ p ∧ (~ q ∨ q) Distributive law
≡ ~ p∧T Complement law
LY
≡ ~p Identity law
Therefore, ~ ( p ∨ q) ∨ (~ p ∧ q) ≡ ~ p.
N
Example 3.18
O
Use the laws of algebra of propositions to show that ~ ( p ∨ (~ p ∧ q)) and
~ p ∧ ~ q are logically equivalent. SE
Solution
The two expressions, ~ ( p ∨ (~ p ∧ q)) and ~ p ∧ ~ q are logically equivalent
U
if and only if ~ ( p ∨ (~ p ∧ q)) can be simplified to ~ p ∧ ~ q.
 ( p ∨ (  p ∧ q )) ≡  p ∧  (  p ∧ q ) De Morgan's law
E
≡ ~ p ∧ [~ (~ p )∨ ~ q ] De Morgan's law
N
≡ ~ p ∧ ( p∨ ~ q) Double negation law

≡ (~ p ∧ p ) ∨ (~ p ∧ ~ q ) Distributive law
LI
≡ F ∨ (~ p ∧ ~ q ) Complement law
N
≡ ~ p∧ ~ q Identity law
O
Since ~ ( p ∨ (~ p ∧ q)) has been simplified to ~ p ∧ ~ q , then ~ ( p ∨ (~ p ∧ q))

and ~ p ∧ ~ q are logically equivalent.
R
Example 3.19
FO
Using the laws of algebra of proposition, show that ( p ∧ q) → ( p ∨ q) is a

tautology.
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Solution
If the statement is a tautology, it can be simplified to one equivalent statement
‘T’ using the laws of algebra of propositions. Otherwise, it is not a tautology.
( p ∧ q) → ( p ∨ q) ≡~ ( p ∧ q) ∨ ( p ∨ q) Conditional law
≡ (~ p∨ ~ q) ∨ ( p ∨ q) De Morgan's law
≡ ~ p ∨ p∨ ~ q ∨ q Commutative law
≡ (~ p ∨ p ) ∨ (~ q ∨ q ) Associative law
≡ T∨T Complement law
LY
≡T Idempotent law
Since, the last result is T, then ( p ∧ q) → ( p ∨ q) is a tautology.
N
Exercise 3.5
O
1. Use the laws of algebra of propositions to establish whether or not each of
the following propositions is a tautology:
SE
(a) ( p ∧ ~ q) →~ q (d) [( p →~ q) ∧ (r → q) ∧ q] → r
(b) p ∨ ( p ∧ q) ↔ p (e) [( p → q) ∧ (q → r )] → ( p → r )
U
(c) [( p → ~ q ) ∧ (~ p ∧ q )] → q
2. Using the laws of algebra of propositions simplify the proposition
~ [ ( p ∨ q ) ∨ (~ p ∧ q ) ] .
E
N
3. Use the laws of algebra of propositions to show that

( P ∧ Q) ∨ [~ R ∧ (Q ∧ P)] ≡ P ∧ Q .
LI
4. Simplify each of the following by using the laws of algebra of propositions:

N
(a) q → (~ p →~ q) (c) p ∨ ( p ∧ q)
(b) ~ ( p ∨ q) ∨ (~ p ∧ q) (d) [( p → q)∧ ~ q] →~ p
O
5. Use the laws of algebra of propositions to simplify the proposition

R
[( p → (q∨ ~ r )) ∧ (q → ( p ∧ r ))] → [((q∨ ~ r ) ∧ ( p ∧ r)) → r ]

FO
Arguments
An argument is a series of connected propositions that form a definite statement.
Arguments are normally made up of two parts, the initial statements, called
“premises”, followed by a last statement called “conclusion”. For instance, the
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following is an example of the argument: Testing the validity of an argument

“If I go to the cinema, I will not do If P1, P2, and P3 are premises and q is
my homework. I did my homework. the conclusion of an argument, then the
Therefore, I did not go to the cinema”. full argument is written as P1 ; P2 ; P3 ∴ q.
In testing the validity of the argument,
The first two statements “If I go to the
connect the premises P1, P2, and P3 with a
cinema, I will not do my homework”
conjunction ∧ and connect the premises
and “I did my homework” are premises, with the conclusion by an implication
and the last statement “Therefore, I did sign (→). If the compound statement
not go to the cinema” is the conclusion. formed is a tautology, then the argument
LY
Remember, an argument is valid if and is valid, otherwise it is not valid, that is,
only if whenever all the premises are [ P1 ∧ P2 ∧ P3 ] → q must be a tautology
N
true, the conclusion is also true. for the argument in question to be valid.
The argument can be valid for false
O
Activity 3.3: Identifying premises premises and/or conclusion.
and conclusion of the argument SE
Example 3.20
Individually or in a group perform
the following tasks: Use the laws of algebra of proposition
U
1. Construct at least four mathematical to verify the validity of the following
sentences of your choice. argument:
If I study, then I will not fail the
E
2. Using mathematical sentences

examination. If I do not play football,
constructed in task 1, identify
N
then I will study. But I failed the

statements that form some
examination. Therefore, I played
LI
arguments and hence state the

football.
premises and conclusion for each
N
of the argument constructed.

Solution
O
3. Formulate the mathematical Let p: I study

argument and state the premises q: I will not fail the examination
and conclusion drawn from the
R
r: I play football
argument. The premises and conclusion
FO
4. Share your results with other of the argument are written as:
students for more inputs. p → q;  r → p;  q ∴ r
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Connecting the premises and conclusion gives p → q; ~ r → p; ~ q ∴ ~ r ,
≡ [ (~ p ∨ q ) ∧ (~ r ∨ p )∧ ~ q ] → r Implication law
≡ [ ~ q ∧ (~ p ∨ q ) ∧ (r ∨ p ) ] → r Commutative law
≡ [ ((~ q ∧ ~ p ) ∨ (~ q ∧ q ) ∧ (r ∨ p ) ] → r Distributive law
≡ [ ((~ q ∧ ~ p ) ∨ F ∧ (r ∨ p ) ] → r Complement law
≡ [ (~ q ∧ ~ p ) ∧ (r ∨ p ) ] → r Identity law
≡ [ ~ q ∧ (~ p ∧ r ) ∨ (~ p ∧ p ) ] → r Distributive law
LY
≡ [ ~ q ∧ (~ p ∧ r ) ∨ F ] → r Complement law
≡ [~ q∧ ~ p ∧ r ] → r
N
Identity law
O
≡~ (~ q ∧ ~ p ∧ r ) ∨ r Implication law
≡ q ∨ p∨ ~ r ∨ r De Morgans law
≡ q ∨ p ∨T
SE
Complement law
≡T Identity law
U
Since the truth value is a tautology, then the argument is valid.
E
Example 3.21
N
Test the validity of the argument:

LI
If I read my textbook, I will understand how to do my homework. I did not

understand how to do my homework. Therefore, I did not read my textbook.
N
Solution
O
Let p : I read my textbook.

q : I will understand how to do my homework.
R
The premises and conclusion of the argument are written as: p → q;  q ∴  p .

FO
Connection of the premises and conclusion is [( p → q )∧  q ] → ~ p . Its truth

table is as shown in the following table.
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p q p q p→q ( p → q )∧  q [( p → q )∧  q ] → ~ p
T T F F T F T
T F F T F F T
F T T F T F T
F F T T T T T
Since the truth values in the last column are all true, then it is a tautology.
Therefore, the argument is valid.
LY
Example 3.22
N
Test whether or not the following argument is valid.
O
Either Halima reaches home early or the traffic jam is not there. The traffic jam
is not there. Therefore, Halima does not reach home early.
SE
Solution
Let p: Halima reaches home early.
U
q : The traffic jam is there.
The premises and conclusion of the argument can be written as p∨ ~ q; ~ q ∴ ~ p

E
Connecting the premises and conclusion gives [( p ∨ ~ q )∧ ~ q ] → ~ p . Its truth

table is as shown in the following table.
N
~p ~q
LI
p q p∨ ~ q ( p∨ ~ q)∧ ~ q [( p∨ ~ q)∧ ~ q] → ~ p
T T F F T F T
N
T F F T T T F
O
F T T F F F T
F F T T T T T
R
FO
The truth values in the last column are not all true. Therefore, the argument is
not valid.
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Exercise 3.6 9. My finger nails will become dirty

if I plant flowers. My finger nails
Test whether or not each of the did not become dirty. Therefore,
following argument is valid: I did not plant flowers.
1. If a girl is cute, then she is not 10. People will not fail to understand
humble. The girl is not humble. me if I speak to them. They did
Therefore, she is cute. not understand me. Therefore, I
2. If it rains or snows, then my did not speak to them.
rooftop leaks. My rooftop is
LY
leaking. Therefore, it is raining Electrical networks
and snowing. An electrical network is an arrangement
3. I wash the glasses or I do not drink of a battery, lamp, and switches in series
N
juice. I drink juice. Therefore, I or in parallel connection using wires.
O
wash the glasses. Electrical switches are used in electrical
4. My car tyres will get a puncture networks to allow or stop the flow of
if I do not change the tyres
SE
electric current.
regularly. My car tyres got a
puncture. Therefore, I did not Electrical switches and statements
When a switch is “ON”, the electric
U
change my car tyres regularly.
5. You will not be treated with current can flow between terminals
respect if you are not humble. and the lamp will be switched “ON”.
E
You are not treated with respect. Otherwise, the switch is “OFF”
and current cannot flow. The terms
N
Therefore, you are not humble.

6. If you are kind to a cat, then it “CLOSED” and “OPEN” are also used
LI
will be your friend. You were to mean “ON” and “OFF”, respectively.
not kind to a cat. Hence, it is not Series and parallel switches
N
your friend. Connections of electrical switches can

O
7. If Nairobi is the capital city of be done in series or in parallel.

Tanzania, then it is in Tanzania. Series switches
Nairobi is not in Tanzania.
R
If p and q are two switches connected

Therefore, Nairobi is not the in series, then the logical expression to
FO
capital city of Tanzania. represent the switches is the conjunction

8. If I am illiterate, then I can’t read “ p ∧ q ”. This means that both p and q
and write. I cannot read but I can must be closed for electricity to flow in
write. Thus, I am not illiterate. the electrical network. If both switches
are open or one is open and other is
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closed, the electric current will not flow. In some applications, the switches can
Figure 3.1(a) and Figure 3.1 (b) shows the be connected in opposite positions. This
series connection of the open and closed means that, if one switch is open, the
switches. T1 and T2 are terminals bounding other must be closed, and vice versa. Two
the switches.
switches that have opposite positions
(a) are called complementary switches.
Open switches If these switches are connected in
series, electricity will not flow between
(b) two terminals. If they are in parallel,
LY
Closed switches electricity will flow between the two
Figure 3.1 Open and closed switches in series terminals. Figure 3.3(a) and Figure
N
connection
3.3(b) show the two cases.
Parallel switches
O
If two switches, p and q are connected (a)
in parallel, the logical expression SE
that represents the two switches is the
disjunction, that is “ p ∨ q ”. This means
(b)
that either p or q or both p and q must be
U
closed for electricity to flow in the electrical
Figure 3.3: Switches connected in opposite
network, otherwise the electric current will
positions
E
not flow. Figure 3.2 (a) and Figure 3.2

(b) shows the parallel connection of open
N
Logic can be used in constructing and

switches and closed switches. T1 and T2 are
simplifying networks. It can also be
LI
terminals bounding the switches.

used in reducing the switches in the
circuit, and hence perform the same
N
(a) function as a complex circuit. This may

O
be done using the idea of equivalence

Open switches of propositions. In simplifying the
complex electrical network, two steps
R
(b) are important to follow:

FO
(1) Construct a compound proposition

of the network, and (2) simplify the
Closed switches
compound proposition using the laws
Figure 3.2: Open and closed switches in parallel of algebra of propositions.
connection
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Example 3.23
Draw an electrical network for p ∧ (q ∨ r ).
Solution
The following is the electric network for p ∧ (q ∨ r ).
LY
N
Example 3.24
O
Draw a simplified electric network using the following circuit:
SE
U
E
Solution
N
The compound statement for the electrical network is

LI
( ~p∧~q ) ∨ ( ~p ∧ q ) ∨ ( p∧~q ).
Thus, ( ~p∧~q ) ∨ ( ~p ∧ q ) ∨ ( p∧~q ) ≡ ~p ∧ ( ~q ∨ q ) ∨ ( p∧~q )Distributive law
N
≡ ( ~p ∧ T ) ∨ ( p∧~q )
O
Complement law
≡ ~p ∨ ( p∧~q )
Identity law
R
≡ ( ~p ∨ p ) ∧ ( ~p∨~q )
Distributive law
FO
≡ T ∧ ( ~p∨~q )
Complement law
≡ ~p ∨ ~q Identity law
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Therefore, the following is a is not placed in such drawings as

simplified electric network: shown in the following electric
network for p ∧ ( ~ q∨  r ) .
Example 3.25 Exercise 3.7
LY
Draw an electrical network that is 1. Draw an electrical network for
simpler than the following. each of the following compound
N
statements:
(a) p ∧ q
O
(b) p ∧ ~ q
p ∧ (q ∨ r ) ∨ s
SE (c)
(d) ( p ∧ q) ∨ ( p ∧ r )
Solution (e) ( p ∨ q) ∧ (r ∨ s ) ∨ y
U
The compound statement for the
(f) (~ p ∨ r ) ∧ (~ p ∧ ~ r )
electrical network is (p ∧ q) ∨ p.
(g) p ∨ q ∧ ~ p
This statement is equivalent to p (by
E
absorption law). (h) ~ ( p ∨ q) ∨ (q ∨ p)

N
(i) [ ~ ( p ∨ q) ∨ (q ∨ p)] ∧ r
This implies that, electric current
LI
can flow between T1 and T2 when p 2. Draw a simplified diagram for

is closed regardless of whether q is the following electrical network.
N
closed or not. This is to say that q p q r

O
can be ignored and still achieve the

desired goal. The following is the p q r T2
T1
resulting electrical network:
R
p q r
FO
Note that, sometimes the switch 3. Write down the compound

is drawn opening downwards to statement in each of the following
indicate negation. Negation symbol electrical network:
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Finally, connect the conjunctions by

disjunction(s).
(a)
Example 3.26
Construct a compound proposition

(b) equivalent to the following truth
table:
p q r B
LY
T T T F
(c)
T T F F
N
T F T F
4. Draw the simplified networks for T F F T
O
the electrical networks in question 3. F T T F
F T F T
5. Draw a simplified electrical network SE F F T T
for the following:
F F F F
U
Solution
Locate the true values in the last
column (column B). The basic
E
conjunctions are written for each

N
true value T as follows:

LI
p q r B Basic conjunction
N
T T T F
Construction of a compound T T F F
O
proposition from a truth table T F T F

It is possible to determine an equivalent T F F T p∧~q∧~r
R
compound proposition corresponding to F T T F

the given truth table. The steps are as
FO
F T F T ~p∧q∧~r
follows: First, identify the true values
in the last column of the truth table. F F T T ∼ p∧ ∼ q ∧ r
Next, construct basic conjunction F F F F
for all true values in the last column.
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The required equivalent proposition is obtained by joining the three “basic

conjunctions by the symbol “∨”, that is, ( p ∧ ~ q ∧ ~ r ) ∨ (~ p ∧ q ∧ ~ r ) ∨ (~ p ∧ ~ q ∧ r )
Exercise 3.8
Write down the compound proposition corresponding to columns S, G, L, M, and

D in the following truth tables:
1. p q S 2. p q G 3. p q L
T T F T T T T T F
LY
T F T T F F T F F
F T F F T F F T F
N
F F F F F T F F T
O
4.
p q M 5.
p q D
T T T T T
SE
T
T F T T F F
F T F F T F
U
F F T F F F
6. Construct the compound sentence for s1 and s2 having the following truth table
E
and simplify s1 using the laws of propositions.

N
p q r s1 s2
LI
T T T F T
N
T T F F F
O
T F T T F
T F F F F
R
F T T F T
F T F F F
FO
F F T T F
F F F F F
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Chapter summary
1. Logic is a science or an art which deals with the study of truth, principles
of correct reasoning, and making good decisions.
2. A mathematical statement is a declarative sentence which can be either
true or false, but not both.
3. The truth value of a true proposition is denoted by a letter “T” and the truth
value of a false proposition is denoted by a letter “F”.
LY
4. There are two types of statements, namely; simple statements and compound
statements.
5. The number of cases that describe a given compound statement depends
N
on the number of propositions contained in the compound statement.
O
6. Negation of a statement is written by putting the word “NOT” with the
verb, or to begin the sentence with the phrase “it is not true that” or “it is
false that”.
SE
7. A conjunction is a type of compound statement that is comprised of two
propositions joined by the “AND”.
U
8. A disjunction is a compound statement which comprises of two simple
statements formed by joining the statements with the “OR”.
9. An implication statement is a type of compound statement that is formed
E
by joining two simple statements with the logical implication connective.

N
10. A double implication statement denoted by a double-headed arrow “↔” is

a type of compound statement formed by a combination of a conditional
LI
statement and its converse. This type of statement is also known as a

N
biconditional statement. The truth value of the biconditional statement

p ↔ q is true when simple statements p and q are both true or both false.
O
Otherwise, p ↔ q is false.
R
FO
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Revision exercise 3
1. “Is it true that science subject are poorly performed by most of the students?”
Is this a mathematical statement or not? Give a reason.
2. Write the converse, contrapositive, and inverse each in the following
statements:
(a) If a person is 20 years old, then is an adult.
(b) If today is Friday, then I have a test.
(c) If you buy our clothes, then you are attractive.
LY
(d) If today is Saturday, then it is a holiday.
(e) If Nuru is intelligent, then she will pass the examination.
N
3. Construct the truth table in each of the following statements:
(a) ( p ∨ q ) → q (f ) p ∧ ( q ∨ r )
O

(b) q → (q ∨ r ) (g) ⎡⎣~ ( p ∧ q ) ∨ ( p ∨ q )⎤⎦
SE
(c) [~ (q ∨ r )] ↔ [~ q ∧ r ] (h) p∨ ~ q → q
(d) ⎡⎣( p → q ) ∧ ( q ∨ r ) ∧ p ⎤⎦ → r (i) ~ r → ( p → q)
U
(e) ⎡⎣ p → ⎡⎣( q∨ ~r )⎤⎦ ⎤⎦ → ( p ∧ q )
4. Without using a truth table, determine whether or not each of the following
E
propositions is a tautology:
N
(a) ~ (r → t ) →~ r (c) (r ∧ t ) → (r → t )
(b) p → ( p ∨ q) (d) ~ (r → t ) → r
LI
5. Suppose that S1 ↔ S2 is a tautology. What can you say about the sentences
N
S1 and S 2 ?
O
6. Use the truth tables to show whether or not each of the following statements
is a tautology:
(a) ~ (~ p ∨ p) → ~ (~ q ∨ q)
R
(g) p ∨ ( p ∧ q) ↔ p
(b) ( p → q ) ∨ ( p → r ) ↔ ( p → (q ∨ r )) (h) [( p ∧ q ) → (~ r ∧ p ) ∨ r ]
FO
(c) ( p → q ) → ~ ( p∨ ~ q ) (i) ( p ∧ q ) → (q ∧ r ) → (r ∧ s )
(d) ~ (~ p ∨ ~ q ) → ~ ( p → ~ q ) (j) p → q → ~ q → ~ p
(e) (~ p ∧ ( p → q )) ↔ ~ q
(f) ( p ↔ q ) ∧ ( p → r ) ↔ ( p → (q ∧ r ))
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7. If p and q represent any two sentences, and s represents a tautology, which of the
following pairs of sentences are equivalent to each other?
(a) p ∧ s; p (c) s → p; p (e) p ∨ (q∨ ~ s); q ∨ p
(b) ~ s ∨ p; p (d) p ∨ s; p
8. If H1 and H 2 are equivalent sentences, determine whether or not the sentences,

H1 → H 2 and H 2 → H1 are equivalent to each other? Explain your answer.
9. Using truth tables, determine whether or not the following pairs of statements are
logically equivalent:
LY
(a) p ∧ (q ∨ r ) and [ p → (q∨ ~ r )] → ( p ∧ q)
(b) ~ ( p ∧ ~ q) ∧ (~ q) and ~ ( p ∨ q)
N
(c) ( p → q) ∨ ( p → r ) and p → (q ∨ r )
(d) ( p ∧ q) ∨ (~ p ∧ ~ q) and p ↔ q
O
10. Which of the following pairs of sentences are equivalent?
(a) ~ p ; p (d) p → q; ~ p ∨ q SE
(b) p ∧ q; ~ ( p∨ ~ q) (e) p → (q → r ); p
(c) ( p ∧ q) ∧ r; r (f) ~ ( p → q); p ∧ ~ q
U
11. Using the laws of algebra of propositions, simplify each of the following expressions:
(a) [( p → ~ q ) ∧ q ] →~ p (c) [( p → ~ q ) ∧ (r → q ) ∧ q ] → r
E
(b) ( p ∧ q) → ( p ∨ q) (d) [( p → q) ∧ (~ q)] →~ p

N
12. State whether or not each of the following compound statements is a tautology:
(a) ( p → q) ∧ (q → r ) ↔ ( p → r )
LI
(b) ~ [( p ∧ ~ r ∧ ~ q)] ∧ (~ p ∨ q∨ ~ r )
N
13. Let p be “Lightness is clever”, q be “Lightness is polite”, and r be “Lightness is

O
humble”:
(a) Write the verbal sentence representation in each of the following:
R
(i) ~ ( p →~ q) ∨ r (ii) ~ p ∨ ( p ∧ q)
(b) Write each of the following compound statements in symbolic form:
FO
(i) Lightness is either clever or polite, but she is not polite if she is clever.
(ii) Lightness is either polite or humble, but she is not clever.
(iii) Lightness is neither polite nor humble as long as she is not clever.
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14. Test the validity of each of the following arguments:

(a) If I am clever, then I know how to reason. I do not know how to reason.
Therefore, I am not clever.
(b) Maize grows well whenever there is rain. If the maize grows well, there
is no famine. But there is famine. Therefore, there is no rain.
(c) If Amos goes to school, then he must have a good life. But he will not have
good life if he fails examinations. Therefore, Amos must go to school.
(d) The game will be off if it rains or if there are no players. The game was
on. Therefore, it did not rain.
LY
(e) If my smart phone crashes, I will loose all my contacts. I have not lost
all my contacts. Therefore, my smart phone has not crashed.
(f) q; r ; ~ q → p ∴ ~ r
N
(g) p → ~ q, ~ r ∨ q, r ,  ~ p
(h) p → q, q ∨ r ∴ ~ r → ~ p
O
(i) r → q; r → p, q ∴ ~ p
(j) p → q, q ∨ r ∴ r SE
15. Construct an electrical network corresponding to each of the following
propositions:
U
(a) [( p ∧ q ∧ r ) ∨ s] ∧ t
(b) [ p ∨ ( p ∧ r ) ∨ s] ∧ t
E
(c) p ∨ (~ q ∧ r ) ∨ p
(d) ( p ∨ (q ∧ r )) ∨ s
N
(e) p ∨ (q ∧ (r ∧ s))
LI
16. Write down the compound statement corresponding to each of the following
electrical networks:
N
(a) (b)
O
R
(c)
FO
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17. Find the compound statement having the truth values shown in columns
“M and S” in the following truth tables:
(a) p q M (b) p q r S
T T F T T T T
T F T T T F F
F T T T F T F
F F F T F F F
F T T T
LY
F T F F
F F T F
F F F T
N
O
SE
U
E
N
LI
N
O
R
FO
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Chapter
Four Coordinate geometry 1
Introduction
Coordinate geometry is a branch of geometry in which the positions of the
LY
points of geometric figures in two-dimensional plane are defined with the help
of ordered pairs of numbers called coordinates. In this chapter, you will learn
N
about the rectangular Cartesian coordinate system, ratio theorem, and circle.
The competencies developed will help you to solve problems in the fields of
O
trigonometry, calculus, and dimensional geometry. Also, in real life, coordinate
geometry is used in space activities such as location of air transport, map
SE
projection, describing the position of objects, and in many other applications.
U
Rectangular Cartesian
coordinate system
The rectangular Cartesian coordinate
E
system in a plane specifies every point

N
uniquely by a pair of two coordinates,

x-coordinate which is also referred
LI
as abscissa and y-coordinate which

is also referred to as ordinate. The
N
x-coordinate is the perpendicular

O
distance of a point from the y-axis

which is parallel to the x-axis and
R
y-coordinate is the perpendicular

distance of the point from the x-axis,
FO
which is parallel to the y-axis. The Figure 4.1: The xy - coordinate system
axes meet at a point called the origin.
At the origin, the values of x and The coordinate system having the same units
y-coordinates are always (0,0) as on both axes is referred to as rectangular
shown in Figure 4.1. Cartesian coordinate system. Usually, the
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coordinates x and y at any point P in Solution

the coordinate system are represented The positions of points P(4, 6) and R(− 6, − 2)
as P(x, y). on the rectangular Cartesian coordinate
system are shown in the following figure.
Plotting points on the Cartesian
coordinate system y
A point in a plane is represented by a
pair of numbers (x, y) and can be plotted 6 P(4, 6)
as follows:
(i) Draw a perpendicular line from the 4
LY
x-axis at the point corresponding to 2
the x value.
x
(ii) Draw a perpendicular line to the
N
-6 -4 -2 2 4 6
y-axis at the point corresponding to -2
R(-6, -2)
O
the y value as shown in Figure 4.2. -4
SE -6
y
y P(x, y)
U
Exercise 4.1
Locate each of the following points on the

E
O x x Cartesian coordinate system and join them

N
with a straight edge. What kind of a polygon

is formed in each case?
LI
1. A ( 9, −5 ) , B ( 9, −1) , and C ( 2, 3) .
2. P ( −6, 3) , Q ( 3, −3) , and R ( 9, 6 ) .
N
3. K ( −4, 6 ) , L ( −1, 3) , and M ( −5, 2 ) .

Figure 4.2: Position of the point P (x, y)
O
4. D ( −2, 2 ) , E ( −6, 2 ) , F ( −2, −8 ) , and G ( −6, −8 ) .

5. W ( 0, 0 ) , X ( 5, 0 ) , Y ( 0, 5 ) , and Z ( 5, 5 ) .
Example 4.1
R
6. L ( 4, 4 ) , M ( 4, 8 ) , N (10, 4 ) , and P (10, 8) .

FO
Plot the points P(4, 6) and R(− 6, − 2)

Area of a rectangle by coordinates of vertices
on the same rectangular Cartesian
Given four vertices of a rectangle in the Cartesian
coordinate system.
coordinate system, the vertices can be used to
evaluate the area of the rectangle.
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Form Five
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Let the four vertices of a rectangle be P ( x1 , y1 ) , Q ( x2 , y1 ) , R ( x2 , y2 ) , and S ( x1 , y2 )

as shown in Figure 4.3.
y
S(x1, y2) R(x2, y2)
P(x1, y1) Q(x2, y1)
O x
LY
Figure 4.3: Rectangle PQRS
N
Use the vertices P and Q to compute the length of the rectangle, and Q and R to
compute the width. Recall that the area of a rectangle is given by:
O
Area of rectangle PQRS = Length × Width
= PQ × QR SE
Using the distance formula,
Area of rectangle PQRS = ( x2 − x1 ) + ( y1 − y1 ) ( x2 − x2 ) + ( y2 − y1 )
2 2 2 2
×
U
( x2 − x1 ) ( y2 − y1 )
2 2
= ×
= ( x2 − x1 )( y2 − y1 )
E
= ( x2 y2 − x1 y2 − x2 y1 + x1 y1 ) square units.
N
Therefore, the area of a rectangle PQRS = ( x2 y2 − x1 y2 − x2 y1 + x1 y1 ) square units.

LI
Similarly, the vertices S and R for the length and S and P for the width can be used
N
fo find the area of rectangle PQRS as follows:

O
Area of rectangle PQRS = SR × PS

( x2 − x1 ) + ( y2 − y2 ) ( x1 − x1 ) + ( y2 − y1 )
2 2 2 2
×
=
R
( x2 − x1 ) ( y2 − y1 )
2 2
= ×
FO
= ( x2 − x1 )( y2 − y1 )
= ( x2 y2 − x1 y2 − x2 y1 + x1 y1 ) square units.
Therefore, the area of rectangle PQRS= ( x 2 y2 − x1 y2 − x2 y1 + x1 y1 ) square units.
126
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Example 4.2 Proof of parallelogram properties by

using rectangular Cartesian coordinates
Locate the points A(4, 2), B(8, 2), The points in a rectangular Cartesian
C(8, 6), and D(4, 6) on a rectangular coordinate system can be used to verify
Cartesian coordinate system and find the properties of various shapes, such as
the area of the resulting figure. the shape of a parallelogram. The first
property of a parallelogram is that, the
Solution opposite sides are equal as shown in
Figure 4.4.
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y
N
S(x2, y2) R(x4, y2)
y2
O
y1
P(x1, y1) Q(x3, y1)
SE O x1 x2 x3 x4
x
U
Figure 4.4: Parallelogram PQRS
The area of figure ABCD can be
E
computed by using the formula of area Figure 4.4 shows the vertices of the
of rectangle as follows: parallelogram PQRS which are P( x1 , y1 ),
N
Let ( x1 , y1 ) = ( 4, 2 ) and Q( x3 , y1 ), R( x4 , y2 ), and S( x2 , y2 ).

LI
( x2 , y2 ) = (8,6). PS is opposite to QR and SR is

Area of the figure ABCD opposite to PQ .
N
= x2 y2 − x1 y2 − x2 y1 + x1 y1 Using distance formula,

O
2 2
= (8)(6) − (4)(6) − (8)(2) + (4)(2) PS = (x2 − x1 ) + (y2 − y1 ) (4.1)
= 48 − 24 − 16 + 8
QR = (x4 − x3 )2 + (y2 − y1 ) 2 (4.2)
R
= 16 square units.
But x2 − x1 = x4 − x3 . Substituting this in
FO
equation (4.2) gives;

Therefore, the area of the figure ABCD
is 16 square units.
⇒ QR = (x2 − x1 )2 + (y2 − y1 )2
127
Form Five
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Therefore, The second property of a parallelogram

is that, the opposite sides are parallel.
QR = PS = (x2 − x1 )2 + (y2 − y1 ) 2 (4.3)
Figure 4.4 shows that PS is parallel to

QR and PQ is parallel to SR . If the line
Similarly, SR = x4 − x2 and PQ = x3 − x1 segments are parallel to each other, it
means that the segments have the same
But x4 − x2 = x3 − x1 . gradient. Using the gradient of a line
segment,
Therefore, SR = PQ. (4.4) The gradient of

change in y -coordinates
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PS =
Equations (4.1) to (4.4) can be used to prove change in x-coordinates
that, the opposite sides of a parallelogram
y2 − y1
N
are equal. = (4.5)
x2 − x1
O
Activity 4.1: Recognizing that the The gradient of
opposite sides of a parallelogram are SE change in y -coordinates
parallel to each other QR =
change in x-coordinates
Individually or in a group, perform each
of the following tasks: y2 − y1
U
= (4.6)
x4 − x3
1. Sketch a parallelogram EFGH with
vertices of your choice.
E
But x4 − x3 = x2 − x1 , substituting in
2. Compute the gradients of the line
equation (4.6) gives
N
segments EF, EH, HG, and FG .

y2 − y1
The gradient of QR = (4.7)
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3. Give a your opinion regarding the

x2 − x1
gradients of each of the following
N
pairs: Therefore, the gradient of

O
(a) EF and HG PS = the gradient of QR .

(b) EH and FG Equations (4.5) and (4.7) can be used
R
4. Share your findings with your fellow to prove that, the opposite sides of a
students for further discussion and parallelogram are parallel.
FO
improvements.
The third property of a parallelogram
is that, the opposite interior angles are
From Activity 4.1 it can be observed that, equal as shown in Figure 4.5
the opposite sides of a parallelogram are
parallel.
128
Form Five
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y
J K
x1
y2
y1
x2
M L
O x
Figure 4.5. Parallelogram JKLM

Consider triangles JKL and JLM in Figure 4.5:
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Argument Reason
1. xˆ1 = xˆ2 Alternate interior angles, JK // ML .
N
2. yˆ1 = yˆ 2 Alternate interior angles, JM // KL .
O
3. JL = JL The common line to both tringles.
4. ∆JKL =
∆JLM
SE
By Angle, Angle, Side theorem (AAS)
5. Jˆ = xˆ1 + yˆ 2 = xˆ2 + yˆ 2 From step 1
Lˆ = xˆ2 + yˆ1 = xˆ2 + yˆ 2

U
6. From step 2
7. Jˆ = Lˆ From steps 5 and 6
E
Therefore, the opposite interior angles Midpoint of the diagonal OQ is

of a parallelogram are equal. Similarly,
N
the same steps can be used to prove  p + x + 0 y + 0   p + x y 

OQ = ,  = , 
that Mˆ = Kˆ . The fourth property of a 
LI
2 2   2 2
parallelogram is that, the diagonals
Midpoint of the diagonal PR is
bisect each other as shown in Figure 4.6.
N
 p+ x y+0
y
PR =  , 
O
 2 2 
R(x, y) Q(P+x, y)  p+x y
= , 
R
 2 2
FO
Since the midpoint of the diagonals
O(0, 0) x
OQ and PR is a unique point, both
line segments intersect at the midpoint.
P(P, 0)
Hence, OQ and PR bisect each other.

Figure 4.6: Parallelogram OPQR
129
Form Five
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Activity 4.2 Recognizing that the y

diagonals of a parallelogram bisect 4
S(4, 3) R(8, 3)
each other 3
2
Individually or in a group, perform P(2, 2) Q(6, 2)
each of the following tasks: 1
1. Draw any parallelogram of your 0 x

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
choice and label all its vertices. -1
2. Construct two diagonals and label
their intersection point.
3. Verify that the first triangle is the
(6 − 2)
2
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rotation of the second triangle about (a) PQ = = 16 = 4 units
the intersection of the diagonals
( 4 − 8)
2
(b) RS = = 16 = 4 units
through 180° .
N
4. Measure all the lengths from each
( 4 − 2 ) + (3 − 2 )
2 2
(c) PS =
= 4 +1 = 5
of the vertex to the intersection of
O
the diagonals. = 4 + 1= 5 units
5. Identify the pair of lengths which are
(8 − 6 ) + (3 − 2) =
2 2
equal to each other in task 4. (d) QR =
SE 4 + 1= 5
6. What did you observe in task 5? Give
comments = 4 + 1= 5 units
7. Share your findings with your fellow
U
(e) PQ is opposite to RS and PS is
students for more inputs.
opposite to QR . Since, PQ = RS and
Example 4.3 PS = QR.
E
Given the points P(2, 2), Q(6, 2), Therefore, figure PQRS is a
N
R(8, 3), and S(4, 3). Locate the parallelogram.

LI
points on a rectangular Cartesian

coordinate system and find the
Example 4.4
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following:
(a) The distance PQ
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The points H, I, J, and K have coordinates

(b) The distance RS
(6, 6), (16, 0), (−2, 2), (−12, 8),
(c) The distance PS
R
respectively.
(d) The distance QR
(e) What is the name of the resulting (a) Find the gradients of the lines
FO
geometrical shape? HI, IJ, JK, and KH , then verify that

HIJK is a parallelogram.
Solution
(b) Show that the diagonals HJ and KI
The points are plotted as shown in bisect each other.
the following figure
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Solution
(a) The points are plotted as shown in the following figure:
LY
N
O
6−0 3
The gradient of HI = = − Since, the opposite sides are parallel to
6 − 16 5
2−0
SE
each other, then HIJK is a parallelogram.
The gradient of IJ =
−2 − 16 (b) The midpoint of the diagonal
U
1
= −  6 + (−2) 6 + 2 
9 HJ =  , 
 2 2 
8−2
The gradient of JK = = (2, 4)
E
−12 + 2
and the midpoint of the diagonal
N
3
= −  −12 + 16 8 + 0 
5 KI =  ,
LI

6−8  2 2 
The gradient of KH =
6 + 12 = (2, 4)
N
1
= − Since, the midpoint of the diagonals
O
9
HJ and KI is a unique point, both line
Since, the gradient of
segments intersect at the midpoint.
R
HI = the gradient of JK, then Therefore, the diagonal HJ and KI

FO
HI // JK bisect each other.
Also, the gradient of

IJ = the gradient of KH, then IJ // KH .
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Exercise 4.2 5. A quadrilateral EFGH has vertices

E(–2, –3), F(1, –1), G(7, –10), and
1. Use the distance formula to show H(2, –9)
that each of the following points (a) Prove that EH is parallel to
form the vertices of an isosceles FG
triangle. ˆ = FGH
(b) Prove that FEH ˆ
(a) A(4, -4,), B(10, 0), and C(3, 4) (c) Find the area of the
(b) P(-6, 3), Q(3, -3), and R(9, 6) quadrilateral EFGH
(c) T(-5, 5), U(-2, 2), and V(-6, 1) 6. Prove that the quadrilateral with
LY
(d) W(-1, 0), X (0, -1), and Y(2, 2) vertices H(4, 0), I(7, –3), J(–2, –2),
(e) L(0, 0), M(6, 2), and N(5, -5) and K(–5, 1) is a parallelogram.
Hence, calculate the point at which
N
(f) E(2, -3), F(8, 6), and G(-7, -9)
the diagonals bisect each other.
O
2. Show that each of the following
points are vertices of a parallelogram: Angle between two lines
(a) A(–1, 3), B(–3, 7), C(–5, 3),
SE
Given two lines L1 and L2 whose slopes
are m1 and m2 , respectively. The angle of
and D(– 3, –1)
(b) E(– 6, 3), F(– 6, 1), G(– 2, 3), intersection between the two lines, L1 and
U
and H(– 2, 5) L2 can be obtained in terms of their slopes.
Consider two intersecting lines L1 and L2
(c) J(– 5, 1), K(– 2, – 2), L(1, 7), as shown in Figure 4.7.
E
and M(4, 4)
(d) N(–1, –1), P(2, –4), Q(6, 0), and
N
y L2 L1
R(3, 3)
LI
(e) S(3, 3), T(3, 0), U(– 3, – 3), and

V(– 3, 0)
N
θ
3. The coordinates of a parallelogram
O
α β
are A(1, 1), B(x, y), C(4, – 1), and
O x
D(– 1, – 1). Find the values of x and y.
R
4. Show that the figure formed by Figure 4.7: Angle of intersection between two
FO
the lines y − 2 x = 4, x + y = −1, lines L1 and L2

y = 2 x − 4 , and x + y − 1 = 0 is
a parallelogram. Hence, find the Let: α be the angle between L1 and the
equations of its diagonals. x-axis.
132
Form Five
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β be the angle between L2 and the x-axis. m2 − m1

θ be the angle between the two lines, tan θ =
1 + m1m2
L1 and L2. In Figure 4.7,
since, α + θ + 180° – β = 180° , then m2 − m1
Þ θ = tan −1
θ = β − α. 1 + m1m2
Introducing tangent on both sides of the
2 ⎛ 1⎞
equation θ = β − α , to obtain, −⎜− ⎟
3 ⎝ 2⎠
tan θ = tan( β − α ) ⇒ θ = tan −1
2⎛ 1⎞
1+ ⎜ − ⎟
tan β − tan α 3⎝ 2⎠
Þ tan θ =
LY
1 + tan β tan α
Þ
= θ tan −1 (1.75
= ) 60.26°.
But tanα = slope of L1 and tan β = slope
Therefore, the angle between the
N
of L2.
lines L1 and L2 is 60.26º.
m2 − m1
Thus, tanθ = .
O
1 + m1m2
Example 4.6
⎛ m2 − m1 ⎞
Therefore, θ = tan–1 ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ . SE
⎝ 1 + m1 m2 ⎠ Two straight lines have the
equations 3x – 2y = 5 and
Note that; for an acute angle between 4x + 5y = 1, respectively. Find the
U
m2 − m1 tangent of the angle between the
two lines, tanθ = .
1 + m1m2 lines.
E
Example 4.5 Solution

N
Let L1 be the line 3x – 2y = 5, and

LI
Find the acute angle between the L2 be the line 4x + 5y = 1, then

lines 2x + 4y = 15 and 3y – 2x + 6 = 0. 3 4
m1 = and m2 = − , respectively.
N
2 5
Solution
O
The angle between the two lines

Let L1 be the line 2x + 4y = 15, and given by:
m2 − m1
R
L2 be the line 3y – 2x + 6 = 0, then

tan θ =
1 2 1 + m1m2
FO
m1 = − and m2 = , respectively.
2 3  4 3 
 − 5 − 2  
The acute angle between the lines L1 
⇒ tan θ =   
and L2 is obtained from the formula;  1+  × − 4  
3
 2 
5  
 
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 23 
 − 10  Þ y = 1 x + 14 ⇒ x − 3 y = −14
=  3 3
− 2  Therefore, the equation of the line is
 10 
x − 3 y = −14.
Thus, tan θ = 11.5
Exercise 4.3
Therefore, the tangent of the angle
between the two lines is 11.5. 1. Find the obtuse angle between the
lines L 1: 8x + 6y – 13 = 0 and
LY
Example 4.7 L 2: – 6x + 4y + 1 = 0.
2. Find the acute angle between the line
Find the equation of the line passing
N
L1 which passes through the points
through the point (4, 6) and inclined
A(2, 2) and B(8, 6) and the line L2
with a line 2x – y = 2 at 45°.
O
which passes through the points
C(0, 3) and D(6, – 3).
Solution SE
Suppose L 2 represents the line 3. Find the interior angles of each of
2x – y = 2. Then, m2 = 2 . the triangles having the following
m2 − m1 vertices:
U
From tan θ = , (a) A(–4, –5), B(–1, 1), C(0, –3)
1 + m1m2
(b) P(– 2, – 1), Q(4, – 3), R(1, 2)
where θ = 45° , then
(c) L(– 4, 4), M(– 3, 1), N(6, 2).
E
2 − m1
tan 45° =
1 + 2m1
N
4. Find the equation of the line through

But tan 45° = 1 . Thus, the point (2, 3), which makes an angle
LI
2 − m1 45° with the line 2 x – y + 4 = 0.

1=
N
1 + 2m1 5. Let nx + my = 8 and 3nx – 2my = 6

Þ 1 + 2m1 = 2 − m1 be equations of two lines which
O
1 intersect at the point (3, 1). Find the

Þ m1 =
3 values of m and n, hence determine
1
R
Hence, the slope of the line is . the angle between the lines at the
3
point of intersection.
FO
The equation of the line is given by:

1 y−6 6. Determine the angles formed
=
3 x−4 between the lines with equation
Þ x − 4 = 3 y − 18 2 x 2 + 5 xy − 12 y 2 =
0
134
Form Five
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Perpendicular distance of a point from a line

The shortest distance of a point P( x1 , y1 ) from a given line is called the perpendicular
distance. In practical situation, it is common to have a line and any point from
the line.
Consider a point P( x1 , y1 ) and a line ax + by + c = 0. The perpendicular distance
(r) of the point P( x1 , y1 ) from the line can be derived as follows:
Suppose Q(x, y) is any point on the line, such that PQ is perpendicular to the line
ax + by + c = 0 as shown in Figure 4.8
LY
y
Q(x, y)
N
r
r sinα
O
α y ax+by+c=0
P(x1, y1)
x SE
y1
x1 r cosα
O x
U
Figure 4.8: Perpendicular distance of a point from a line
a
E
The slope of ax + by + c = 0 is − . For

b
N
perpendicular lines, the slope of one line

LI
is the negative reciprocal of the slope of

the other line, or the product of the slopes
N
of two perpendicular lines equals –1.

b
O
Therefore, the slope of the line PQ is .

a
Let α be the angle between line PQ and the Figure 4.9: Right-angled triangle
R
horizontal axis. The tangent of the angle

between the line PQ and the horizontal From Figure 4.9, using trigonometric
FO
axis equals the slope of the line PQ, that a b

ratios, cos α = and sin α = .
b c c
is, tan α = . Consider the righ-angled
a Using Pythagoras’ theorem,
triangle in Figure 4.9. c2 = a2 + b2
135
Form Five
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Þc = a2 + b2 Example 4.8
a b
⇒ cos α = and sin α =
a 2 + b2 a + b2
2 Find the perpendicular distance from the
point (1, 3) to the line 2 x + 4 y + 3 =0.
But x and y are the coordinates of Q. Then
x= x1 + r cos α and y = y1 + r sin α . Solution
Substituting the values of cos α and sin α Given the equation 2 x + 4 y + 3 = 0.
ar Comparing with ax + by + c = 0 , the
in x and y results to, x = x1 + constants are=a 2,=b 4 and c = 3.
br a + b2
2
and y= y1 + 2 . Consider the following graph:
LY
a + b2
The point Q(x, y) lies on the line
ax + by + c =0 . This means that x and
N
y satisfy the equation ax + by + c =0.
O
That is,
⎛
a ⎜ x1 +
⎜
ar ⎞ ⎛
⎟ + b⎜ y1 +
⎟ ⎜
br ⎞
⎟+c =0
⎟
SE
⎝ a 2 + b2 ⎠ ⎝ a 2 + b2 ⎠
⎛ a 2 + b2 ⎞
U
⇒ ax1 + by1 + c = −r ⎜ ⎟
2 2
⎝ a +b ⎠
⇒ ax1 + by1 + c = −r a2 + b2
E
Let ( x1 , y1=
) (1, 3) ⇒ x=1 1 and y=
1 3.
ax1 + by1 + c
N
⇒−r = Using the perpendicular distance formula;

a 2 + b2
ax + by1 + c
LI
ax1 + by1 + c r = 1
⇒ −r = a 2 + b2
a2 + b2
N
2 ×1 + 4 × 3 + 3
r= = 3.8 units
The absolute value sign is introduced
O
22 + 42
since distance always has positive
Therefore, the perpendicular distance is 3.8
magnitude.
R
units.
Therefore, the formula for finding the
perpendicular distance of a point P ( x1 , y1 )
FO
Example 4.9
from a line ax + by + c = 0 is given by,
ax + by1 + c Find the length of the line segment
r= 1 .
a 2 + b2 perpendicular to 3x + 4 y − 10 = 0 drawn
from the point (4, 6).
136
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Solution (b) From the point (0, − 3) to the line

x = −5 y − 2
Given the equation, 3x + 4 y − 10 = 0.
(c) From the point (0, a ) to the line
Comparing with ax + by + c =0 , the 4x = 3y
constants will be, = b 4 and
a 3,= (d) From the point (h, k ) to the line
3x + 4 y − h = 0
c = −10.
(e) From the point (0, 0) to the line
Consider the following diagram:
3 x = 4 y, and hence comments on
your results.
LY
2. The perpendicular distance of the point
( p, 2) from the line 3 x + 4 y + 1 =0 is
2
N
units. Find the values of p.
5
O
3. If the line Ax + By + C = 0 and
SE −Bx + Ay + Bs − At = 0 are
perpendicular at point Q, where A, B,
C, s and t are constants, show that the
coordinates of the point Q is given by,
U
⎛ B2s − ABt − AC −ABs + A 2 t − BC ⎞
(x1, y1) = (4, 6) ⇒ x1 = 4 and y1 = 6 ⎜ , ⎟.
⎝ A 2 + B2 A 2 + B2 ⎠
Using the perpendicular distance
E
4. Given the following figure, find the

formula,
distances PR, QS, and RS.
N
ax1 + by1 + c
r =
LI
a 2 + b2 Q(1, 1)
3 × 4 + 4 × 6 − 10
N
r = = 5.2 units
32 + 42 y=3x-5
O
S
Therefore, the length of the perpendicular
line segment is 5.2 units.
R
R
FO
Exercise 4.4
1. Find the perpendicular distance:

P(-3, 2)
(a) From the point (3, 2) to the line
3x − 4 y = −4
137
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5. If m and n are lengths of If P ( x, y ) is a point on the bisector of the

perpendiculars from the origin to the angle AEC, then p will be equidistant from
both lines and E is the point of intersection
lines xcosθ – ysinθ = kcos2θ, and
of the bisectors.
xsecθ + ycosecθ = k, respectively, (a) The perpendicular distance of
prove that m 2 + 4n 2 =k 2.
point P ( x, y ) from the line
Equations of angle bisectors 0 is given by

a1 x + b1 y + c1 =
If L1 and L2 are two intersecting lines, and θ a1 x + b1 y + c1
.
is one of the angles between the lines, then a12 + b12
the other angle between the lines is 180° − θ .
LY
(b) The perpendicular distance of point
There are two equations of angle bisectors
for these lines which are the bisector of P ( x, y ) from the line a2 x + b2 y + c2 =
0
N
the angle θ and the bisector of the angle a2 x + b2 y + c2
.
is given by −
180° − θ as shown in Figure 4.10. If the a2 2 + b2 2
O
lines are not perpendicular, θ will be an
The negative sign indicates that
acute angle, which implies that 180° − θ is SEthe point P ( x, y ) lies on opposite
an obtuse angle. Then the bisector of angle sides of the two lines. Hence,
θ is called the acute angle bisector while the coordinates of P will satisfy
the bisector of angle 180° − θ is called the
U
a1 x + b1 y + c1 a2 x + b2 y + c2
obtuse angle bisector. = − .
L2
L1 a12 + b12 a2 2 + b2 2
E
θ
If Q( x, y ) is the point on the bisector of the
angle AED, then Q will be equidistant from
N
Obtuse angle
both lines and will lie on the same side of

bisector
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180º- θ B Q(x, y) the lines as the origin.

E C
(c) The perpendicular distance
N
of point Q( x, y ) from the line

O
A P(x, y) 0 is given by
a1 x + b1 y + c1 =
a1 x + b1 y + c1
R
acute angle
.
bisector
a12 + b12
FO
Figure 4.10: Angle bisector with lines L1 and L2

(d) The perpendicular distance of point
Q( x, y ) from the line
Suppose L1 and L2 are two lines with equations
0 and a2 x + b2 y + c2 =
a1 x + b1 y + c1 = 0, a2 x + b2 y + c2
0 is
a2 x + b2 y + c2 = .
respectively. a2 2 + b22
138
Form Five
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The perpendicular distance of the point

Therefore, the equations of the angle
Q( x, y ) from the two lines are of the bisectors are,
same sign, indicating that this point
lies on the same side of the two lines. ( −3 + 2 ) x + (1 + 2 2 ) y − 5 2 =0 and
Hence, the coordinates ( x, y ) of Q will
a1 x + b1 y + c1 a2 x + b2 y + c2
( −3 + 2 ) x + ( −1 + 2 2 ) y − 5 2 =0 .
satisfy = .
a12 + b12 a2 2 + b22
Example 4.11
Therefore, the equations to the
Find the equations of the bisectors
LY
bisectors of the angles between the
of the angles between the lines
0 and
two lines a1 x + b1 y + c1 =
3x + 4 y – 7 =0 and y − 2 = 0.
0 are written as
a2 x + b2 y + c2 =
N
a1 + b1 y + c1 a +b y+c 
Solution
O
= ± 2 2 .
2
2 2 2
a 1  a2 + b2  The equations of the angle bisectors
SEare given by
Example 4.10 a1 x + b1 y + c1 ⎛ a x+b y +c ⎞
= ±⎜ 2 2 2
⎟.
a12 + b12 ⎜ a 2
+ b 2 ⎟
Find the equations of the angle ⎝ 2 2 ⎠
U
bisectors between the lines Thus,
x + 2y – 5 = 0 and y = 3 x.
3x + 4 y − 7 ⎛ y−2 ⎞
=+ ⎜ ⎟
E
Solution 32 + 42 2 2
⎝ 0 +1 ⎠
N
The equations of the angle bisectors 3x + 4 y − 7  y − 2

Þ = + 
25  1 
LI
are obtained from the formula;

3x + 4 y − 7  y − 2
⎛ a x+b y +c ⎞ Þ = + 
N
a1 x + b1 y + c1  1 
= ±⎜ 2 2 2
⎟. 5
2
a1 + b1 2 ⎜ a 2
+ b 2 ⎟
⎝ ⎠
O
2 2
3x + 4 y − 7
Þ + ( y − 2)
=
⎛⎛ 3x − y ⎞⎞ 5
x + 2y − 5
Þ x +2 2 y −2 5==++ ⎜⎜⎜ 23x − y 2 ⎟⎟
R
112++222 3 + ( −1) ⎟ The equations of the angle

⎝⎝ 3 + (−1) ⎠⎟⎠
⎜ 2 2
3x + 4 y − 7
FO
xx++22yy−−55 ⎛⎛33xx−−yy⎞⎞ bisectors are = ( y − 2)

Þ = +
= + ⎜⎝⎜ 10 ⎟⎠⎟ 5
55 3x + 4 y − 7
⎝ 10 ⎠ and = − ( y − 2)
5
Þ 2 ( x + 2 y − 5) =± ( 3 x − y ).
⇒ 3x − y + 3 = 0 and 3x + 9 y − 17 = 0
139
Form Five
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The relation between the coordinate ( x, y ) of

Therefore, the equations of the angle any point will only be true if the point lies on
bisectors are 3x − y + 3 = 0 and 3x + 9 y − 17 = 0.
the locus.
= 0 and 3x + 9 y − 17 = 0.
Example 4.12
Exercise 4.5 Find the equation of the locus of a point which
moves in such a way that it is equidistant from
1. Find the equations of the angles the point (2, 4) and the point (0, -3). What is
bisectors for each of the following pairs the name of the equation of the locus formed?
intersecting lines:
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(a) 3x + 4 y − 7 = 0 and y − 1 = 0 Solution
(b) x = − y and y = x Let P(x, y) be the point equidistant from the
point (2, 4) and the point (0, -3) as shown in
N
(c) 3 x + 4 y = 0 and 2 x − 1 = y
2. Find the equation of an obtuse angle the following figure.
O
bisector of lines 4 x − 3 y + 10 = 0 and P1(2, 4)
8 y − 6 x − 5 = 0. SE
3. Show that 7 x + 56 y =
67 is the equation
of the angle bisectors of the lines
with the equations 3 x + 4 y = 8 and
U
P(x, y)
5 x − 12 y + 6 = 0.
4. Find the equations of the bisectors
of the angles between the lines
E
7 y 3, 17 x − 7 y =
x += + 3 0, and x − y=
+1 0
N
− 7 y=
+ 3 0, and x − y=
+1 0
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P0(0, -3)
By the distance formula,
Locus
N
When a point moves in such a way that it ( x − 2)2 + ( y − 4) 2 = (x − 0) 2 + ( y − (−3) )

2
O
satisfies a given condition, the path it traces is

Squaring both sides gives,
called a locus. For example, if a point moves
in the plane in such a way that it is always ( x − 2)2 + ( y − 4)2 = (x − 0)2 + ( y + 3)2
R
equidistant from the origin, then its locus

Þ x2 − 4 x + 4 + y 2 − 8 y + 16 = x 2 + y 2 + 6 y + 9
FO
is a circle. Also, if a set of points in three-

dimensional are equidistant from a given point, Þ − 4 x − 14 y + 11 = 0
its locus is a sphere. If a point ( x, y ) moves Þ 4 x + 14 y − 11 = 0
so that it satisfies any given condition, it will Therefore, the locus is a straight line whose
describe a locus or curve. equation is 4 x + 14 y − 11 = 0.
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Example 4.13
A point moves in such a way that its distance from point (–1, 2) is two times
its distance from point (4, 3). Find the equation of the locus formed.
Solution
Consider the following figure:
(4, 3)
P(x,y)
(-1, 2)
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Let P(x, y) be the point from points (-1, 2) and (4, 3) that satisfies the relation.
The distance from point (–1, 2) = 2 × distance from the point (4, 3)
N
Using the distance formula, gives
( x − (−1))2 + ( y − 2)2 = 2 (x − 4)2 + ( y − 3)2
O
Squaring both sides gives
( x + 1)2 + ( y − 2)2 = 4[(x − 4) 2 + ( y − 3) 2 ].
SE
2 2 2 2
(xx2 + 1)
2 x2 + 1( y+both
Expanding −y2)
2
4=y4[(
−2sides 4x −=4)4[
+ gives, x 2(−y 8−x3)+216
+ ]. + y 2 − 6 y + 9]
2
( x2 + 1) + ( y − 2) = 4[(x − 4) +2( y − 3) ].
3xx2 2++23xy+21−+34 y 2x−−420y+y +4 95= =4[0x − 8 x + 16 + y 2 − 6 y + 9]
U
2 2
x 2+ 2 x +21 + y of− the
Simplification 4 y +equation
4 = 4[xgives, − 8 x + 16 + y 2 − 6 y + 9]
3x + 3 y − 34 x − 20 y + 95 = 0
3x 2 + 3 y 2 − 34 x − 20 y + 95 = 0
E
Therefore, the locus is 3x 2 + 3 y 2 − 34 x − 20 y + 95 = 0.

N
Exercise 4.6
LI
1. In each of the following, find the locus of a point which moves in such a
N
way that:
(a) It is 4 units to the right of the y-axis.
O
(b) It is 5 units above the x-axis.

(c) Its distance from the origin is 5.
R
(d) Its distance from the point (–2, –3) is 8.

(e) The sum of the squares of its distances from the points (2, 0) and
FO
(6, 0) is 16 units.
(f) Its distance from the point (0, 0) is twice its distance from the line y = 4.
(g) Its distance from the point (0, 0) is half its distance from the line x = 3.
(h) The difference between the squares of its distance from the points
(–2, 0) and (2, 0) is 3 units.
141
Form Five
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2. Given the coordinate points y

A(4, 0) and B(0, 3). Find the
equation of the locus of a point y2
B(x2, y2)
P(x, y ) which moves in such a
n
way that PA = PB.
3. A point P(x, y ) moves in such y C(x2, y)
P(x, y)
a way that its distance from a
m
line parallel to the y-axis through
y1
the point (−a, 0) is equal to its A(x1, y1) Q(x, y1) D(x2, y1)
distance from the point (a, 0) .
LY
Find the equation of the locus O x1 x x2 x
formed. Figure 4.11: Internally division of a line
N
4. A point P(x, y ) is twice as far
from the point A(3, 0) as it is In Figure 4.11, it can be observed that
O
from the line x = 5. Find the ΔAPQ and ΔPBC are similar.
equation of the locus of P.
Hence, AQ AP m
5. Find the locus of the point
SE = =.
PC PB n
which moves such that its
perpendicular distances from But AQ = x − x1 and PC = x2 − x .
U
the lines 4x – 3y = 0 and
x − x1 m
5x + 12y = 0 are equal. Thus, = .
x2 − x n
E
Making x the subject of the formula gives

Ratio theorem
N
mx + nx1
A line segment can be divided internally x= 2 (4.8)
m+n
LI
or externally by a point in any given ratio.

In each division, if the ratio is provided Similarly, QP = AP
N
then the coordinates of the point dividing CB PB

But QP = y – y1 and CB = y1– y
the line segment can be found.
O
y − y1 m
Thus, = .
Internal division y2 − y n
R
Consider a line segment AB with two Making y the subject of the formula gives
FO
fixed points A( x1 , y1 ) and B( x2 , y2 ) . Let my + ny1

y= 2 (4.9)
P( x, y ) be a point dividing the line AB m+n
in the ratio m : n on rectangular Cartesian The expressions of x and y in equations
coordinates as shown in Figure 4.11.
(4.8) and (4.9) give the coordinates of
142
Form Five
FOR ONLINE USE ONLY
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the point P( x, y ) which divides the line

Example 4.15
joining the points A( x1 , y1 ) and B( x2 , y2 )
internally in the ratio m : n, respectively. A point P divides internally the line
That is, segment joining the points A(4, 6) and
⎛ mx + nx1 my2 + ny1 ⎞ B( − 5, 2) in the ratio AP : PB = 2:3.
PP( x, y ) = ⎜ 2 , ⎟. Find the coordinates of P.
⎝ m+n m+n ⎠

Given the ratio 2:3 Þ m = 2 and n = 3.
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Find the coordinates of the point that Also, (x1, y1) = (4, 6), and (x2, y2) =
divides the line joining the points ( − 5, 2).
A(– 4, 10) and B(8, 4) in the ratio of From
N
1:3 internally.
⎛ mx + nx1 my2 + ny1 ⎞
O
PP( x, y ) = ⎜ 2 , ⎟,
⎝ m+n m+n ⎠
Solution
Given the ratio 1:3 ⇒ m = 1 and n = 3. SE ⎛ (2 × −5) + (3 × 4) (2 × 2) + (3 × 6) ⎞
Also, Þ P
P ( x, y ) = ⎜
2+3
,
2+3
⎟
⎝ ⎠
( x1 , y1 ) =
(− 4,10) , and ( x2 , y2 ) =
(8, 4) . ⎛ −10 + 12 4 + 18 ⎞
=⎜ , ⎟
U
⎝ 5 5 ⎠
From
⎛ 2 22 ⎞
=⎜ , ⎟
⎛ mx + nx1 my2 + ny1 ⎞ ⎝5 5 ⎠
PP( x, y ) = ⎜ 2 , ⎟,
E
⎝ m+n m+n ⎠
Therefore, the point of internal division
N
gives
⎛ 2 22 ⎞
⎛ 1(8) + 3(− 4) 1(4) + 3(10) ⎞ is P ( x, y ) = ⎜ , ⎟ .
LI
PP( x, y ) = ⎜ , ⎟ ⎝5 5 ⎠
⎝ 1+ 3 1+ 3 ⎠
N
⎛ 8 − 12 4 + 30 ⎞
=⎜ , ⎟ External division
⎝ 4 4 ⎠
O
Let P( x, y ) be a point which divides

⎛ 17 ⎞
= ⎜ −1, ⎟ the line segment joining the points
⎝ 2⎠
A( x1 , y1 ) and B( x2 , y2 ) externally in the
R
Therefore, the point of internal division ratio m : n . The formula for computing the
FO
⎛ 17 ⎞ coordinates of P can be derived by considering

is P ( x, y ) = ⎜ −1, ⎟ .
⎝ 2⎠ the sketch in Figure 4.12.
143
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y
P(x, y)
y
m n
y2 C(x, y2)
B(x2, y2)
y1 D(x, y1)
A(x1, y1) Q
LY
O0 x1 x2 x x
N
Figure 4.12: External division of a line
O
In Figure 4.12, ΔAPD is similar to has replaced m in equation (4.9). The
ΔBPC. expressions for x and y in equations
BC BP (4.10) and (4.11), respectively, are the
SE
Hence, = .
AD AP coordinates of the point P( x, y ) which
x − x2 n divides the line joining the points
Thus, = .
A( x1 , y1 ) and B( x2 , y2 ) externally in
U
x − x1 m
the ratio m : n .
Express x as subject of the formula to
⎛ nx − mx2 ny1 − my2 ⎞
nx1 − mx2 Thus, P( x, y ) = ⎜ 1 , ⎟.
E
get x = . (4.10) ⎝ n−m n−m ⎠

n−m
N
PC BP Example 4.16
Similarly, = .
PD AP
LI
y − y2 n Find the coordinates of the point that

Thus, = .
N
y − y1 m divides externally the line joining

the points A(–2, 8) and B(7, 3) in
O
Express y as subject of the formula to the ratio of 2:3.

ny1 − my2
obtain y = . (4.11)
n−m
R
Solution
If equations (4.8) and (4.10) are Let P( x, y ) be the point dividing the
FO
compared, it can be observed that they line in the ratio of 2 : 3 ⇒ m = 2

are similar except that m in equation and n = 3.
(4.8) has been replaced by –m in equation Also, let ( x1 , y1 ) = (–2, 8) and
(4.10). Similarly, –m in equation (4.11) ( x2 , y2 ) = (7, 3).
144
Form Five
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⎛ nx − mx2 ny1 − my2 ⎞ Exercise 4.7

From PP( x, y ) = ⎜ 1 , ⎟,
⎝ n−m n−m ⎠
⎛ 3(−2) − 2(7) 3(8) − 2(3) ⎞ 1. For each of the following pairs
PP( x, y ) = ⎜ , ⎟
⎝ 3− 2 3− 2 ⎠ of points, find the points which
= (−20,18). divides the line segment both
internally and externally:
Therefore, the point of external division is (a) A(3, 6) and B( − 8, − 2) in the
P ( x, y ) = (−20,18). ratio of 2:3
(b) C(1, 1) and D( − 3,5) in the
Example 4.17 ratio of 1:1
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(c) Q(−3,12) and R( − 8, − 2) in
If the point P(x, 6) divides externally the the ratio of 2:3
(d) S(3, 6) and T(7, 6) in the
N
line segment joining the point A (–1, 3) to
point B (4, y) in the ratio of −3 : 2 , find the ratio of 5:1
O
values of x and y. 2. Points A and B have coordinates
(7, 6) and (– 6, –10), respectively.
Solution
SE If the point C divides AB
Given the ratio externally in the ratio of l:2, find
−3: 2 ⇒ m = −3 and n = 2. the coordinates of C.
U
3. A line joins the points P(− 4, − 3)
Let ( x1 , y1 ) = ( −1,3) and
and Q(3, 2) . Given that point B
( x2 , y2 ) = ( 4, y )
divides PQ internally in the ratio
E
 nx − mx2 ny1 − my2  of 1:2 and point R divides PQ

From P ( x, y ) =  1 , 
N
 n−m n−m  internally in the ratio of 2:5, find

the length of BR .
LI
 2(−1) − (−3)(4) 2(3) − (−3) y 

⇒ ( x, 6 ) =
 , 
 2 − (−3) 2 − (−3)  4. A line PQ is divided internally
N
in the ratio 2:1 by the point

The value of x is given by; A(1, 1), and externally in the
O
−2 + 12 ratio −5 : 2 by the point B(4, 7).

x= ⇒x=2
5 Find the coordinates of P and Q.
R
Also, the value of y will be given by; 5. A line PQ is divided internally

in the ratio m : n by a point B.
FO
2(3) − (−3) y 6 + 3y
6= ⇒6= Given that P, Q, and B have the
2 − (−3) 5
coordinates (–2, –4), (3, 11), and
Þ 6 + 3y = 30 ⇒ y = 8
(1,5) respectively, find the values
Therefore, the values of x = 2 and y = 8.
of m and n.
145
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6. The line 2 x + y − 4 = 0 divides y

the line segment joining the
points A(2,−2) and B(3,7). Find
the ratio of the line segment.
P(x, y)
Applications of the ratio theorem r
The ratio theorem is used in other b
C(a, b)
areas of mathematics such as showing
similarity of two geometrical objects,
and in vector calculations. O a x
LY
Figure 4.13: A circle
A circle
In Figure 4.13, the radius, r = CP.
N
A circle is the locus of a point which
moves such that its distance from a Using the distance formula gives;
O
fixed point is constant. The fixed point CP = ( x − a ) 2 + ( y − b) 2
is called the centre of the circle and the
But, CP = r .
SE
constant distance is called the radius of
the circle.The diameter of a circle is any Thus, ( x − a)2 + ( y − b)2 = r .
line through the centre of the circle and Squaring both sides, gives
U
with endpoints at the circumference of ( x – a ) 2 + (y – b) 2 =
r 2. (4.12)
the circle. Objects such as a coin, a wheel
of a bicycle or vehicle, camera lenses, Equation (4.12) is the standard equation
E
pizzas, Ferris wheels, rings, steering of a circle.

N
wheels, and bottle tops, are all examples

of circular objects. If the middle point Example 4.18
LI
of a circular object is exactly located,

then the distance from the middle point Write the standard equation of the
N
towards any point of the edge will always circle given the following:
O
be the same. (a) Centre (3, 2) and radius 4 units.

(b) Centre (0, 4) and diameter 6
Standard equation of a circle units.
R
Suppose C(a, b) is the point at the centre

Solution
FO
of a circle, r is its radius, and P(x, y)

(a) Given the centre (a, b) = (3, 2)
is any point on the edge of the circle as
and r = 4, using the standard
shown in Figure 4.13, then the standard
equation of the circle, gives
equation of the circle can be obtained.
146
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( x – a ) 2 + (y – b) 2 =
r2 Note that; when comparing the coordinates
of the centre and radius of the circle, the
⇒ ( x – 3)2 + (y – 2)2 = 42
coefficients of x 2 and y 2 in any form
Therefore, the standard equation is of equation of a circle must be the same
( x – 3) 2 + (y – 2) 2 =
16. and positive. Otherwise, it will not be an
equation of a circle.
(b) Given the centre (a, b) = (0, 4) and
Since c = a2 + b2 – r2, then
d = 2r = 6 units ⇒ r = 3units . The
r2 = a2 + b2 – c.
standard equation of a circle is given by
⇒ r = a 2 + b2 – c
( x – 0) 2 + (y – 4) 2 =
32
Since g = – a and f = – b, then a = – g
LY
Þ ( x – 0)2 + (y – 4)2 =
9
and b = – f .
Therefore, the standard equation is
Hence, the centre and radius of a
x 2 + (y – 4) 2 =
9.
N
circle are (− g , − f ) and g2 + f 2 − c,
respectively.
O
The general equation of a circle
The general equation of a circle is an expansion
of the standard form of equation of a circle of SE Example 4.19
radius r and centre (a, b).
Find the centre and the radius of the
circle whose equation is
Now, from equation (4.12), the general equation
U
x2 + y2 – 4x + 2y + 1 = 0.
is obtained as follows:
( x – a ) 2 + (y – b) 2 =
r2 Solution
E
Given the equation

⇒ x 2 – 2 xa + a 2 +y 2 – 2 yb + b 2 = r 2
x2 + y2 – 4x + 2y + 1 = 0.
N
⇒ x 2 +y 2 – 2 xa − 2 yb + a 2 + b 2 = r 2 Compare the given equation with the

LI
⇒ x2 +y 2 – 2 xa − 2 yb + a 2 + b2 − r 2 = 0 general equation of a circle.

The values are g = –2, f = 1,
N
and c = 1. The radius, r and the centre

⇒ x 2 +y 2 + 2(−a) x + 2(−b) y + a 2 + b2 − r 2 = 0
of the circle are given by
O
(4.13)
r = g 2 + f 2 − c.
Let g = – a, f = – b and c = a + b – r .
2 2 2
R
Then, equation (4.13) becomes = (−2) 2 + (1) 2 − 1 = 4 + 1 − 1

x 2 +y 2 + 2 gx + 2 fy + c = 0 (4.14) ⇒r=2
FO
Centre = (− g , − f )
Equation (4.14) is called the general equation
= (2, −1)
of the circle.
Therefore, the centre of the circle is
(2, −1) and radius is 2 units.
147
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Alternatively, Therefore, the general equation of the circle is

it is possible to find the centre and x 2 + y 2 − 2 x − 6 y + 6 = 0.
radius if the general equation of a circle
is changed into the standard equation Exercise 4.8
by completing the square. That is, 1. Find the expanded form of the equation of a
x2 + y 2 – 4 x + 2 y + 1 = 0 circle using each of the following information:
⇒ x2 – 4 x + 4 + y 2 + 2 y + 1 = 4 = (a) Centre (0, = 2) and radius 4 units
(b) Centre = (–2, 2) and radius = 5 units
⇒ ( x − 2) 2 + ( y + 1) 2 = 4
(c) Centre = (0, 0) and diameter = 4 units
⇒ ( x − 2) 2 + ( y + 1) 2 = 22
 1 
LY
Compare the resulting equation with (d) Centre =  − ,5  and radius = 10 units
 2 
the standard equation of a circle. (e) Centre = (2, –3) and diameter = 2
2
N
( x – a ) 2 + (y – b) 2 =
r2 units
Thus, centre (2, −1) and r = 2. 2. Find the centre and radius of each of the
O
Therefore, the centre of the circle is circles given by the following equations:
(2, −1) and radius is 2units. (a) ( x − 1)2 + ( y + 2)2 = 45
SE
(b) x 2 + y 2 = 25
Example 4.20 (c) x 2 + y 2 − 4 y = 0
(d) ( x + 1) 2 + y 2 =4
U
Find the general equation of the circle (e) (2 x − 1) + (2 y + 3)2 = 4
2
whose centre and radius are (1, 3) and

3. Find the equation of a circle which touches
2 units, respectively.
E
both axes at the distance 4 units from the

N
origin.
Solution
From the general form of equation of a 4. Find the equation of the circle of radius 12
LI
circle x2 + y2 + 2gx + 2fy + c = 0 units whose centre is at the point at which

the lines =
y 4 x + 3 and = y 5 x + 44 meet.
N
Centre = (1, 3), then g = –1 and

f = –3. 5. Find the equation of the circle whose centre
O
2 2
The radius r = g + f − c is at (5, 2) and passes through the centre of
2 = (−1)2 + (−3)2 − c the circle x 2 + y 2 − 3 x − 4 y − 1 =0

R
⇒ 2 = 10 − c , c = 6. Equation of a circle given the end points of a diameter

FO
Substituting all the values into the general If AB is a diameter of a circle with coordinates
equation x 2 + y 2 + 2 g x + 2 fy + c = 0 A( x1 , y1 ) and B( x2 , y2 ) , and if P( x, y ) is any point
gives ˆ = 90°. Figure 4.14 illustrates
on the circle, then APB
x2 + y 2 − 2x − 6 y + 6 = 0 . the statement.
148
Form Five
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y Solution
Given
A( x1 , y1 ) = (2,1) and B( x2 , y2 ) = (−2, 2)
A(x1, y1)
B(x2, y2) Use the equation of the circle of the form
( x − x1 )( x − x2 ) + ( y − y1 )( y − y2 ) = 0
P(x, y) Substituting the given values in the
O x equation gives
( x − 2)( x − (−2)) + ( y − 1)( y − 2) = 0
Figure 4.14: Circle with end points of a diameter

⇒ ( x − 2)( x + 2) + ( y − 1)( y − 2) = 0
LY
⇒ x2 − 2 x + 2 x − 4 + y 2 − y − 2 y + 2 = 0
y − y1
In Figure 4.14 the gradient of AP = ⇒ x2 + y 2 − 3 y − 2 = 0
x − x1
N
y − y1 Therefore, the equation of a circle is
Thus, m1 = (4.15)
O
x − x1 x 2 + y 2 − 3 y − 2 = 0.
y − y2
Similarly, the gradient of BP = .
x − x2 SE
y − y2 Equation of a circle passing through three
That is, m2 = . (4.16) given points
x − x2
Suppose
But AP is perpendicular to BP, that
U
A1 ( x1 , y1 ), A2 ( x2 , y2 ), and A3 ( x3 , y3 )
is m1m2 = −1. Substituting equations
(4.15) and (4.16) gives; are three points on a circle with the centre
(a, b) and radius r. Substitution of each of the
E
⎛ y − y1 ⎞⎛ y − y2 ⎞
Thus, ⎜ ⎟⎜ ⎟ = −1. given point in the standard equation of the
⎝ x − x1 ⎠⎝ x − x2 ⎠
N
circle, enables determination of the unknown

This implies that, values.
LI
( x − x1 )( x − x2 ) + ( y − y1 )( y − y2 ) = 0.
y
N
A2(x2, y2)
(4.17)
Equation (4.17) can be used to find the
O
r P(x, y)
equation of a circle when given the two
end points of a diameter. C(a, b)
R
A1(x1, y1)
Example 4.21
FO
A3(x3, y3)
O x
Find the equation of the circle of
diameter AB with end points
Figure 4.15: Three points on a circle
A ( 2, 1) and B (−2, 2) .
149
Form Five
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Using Figure 4.15, the standard equation of the circle is given by,
( x − a ) 2 + ( y − b) 2 = r 2 .
Substitute the three given points lying on a circle:
For a point A1 ( x1 , y1 ), the equation will be:
( x1 − a ) 2 + ( y1 − b) 2 = r 2 (4.18)
For a point A2 ( x2 , y2 ) , the equation will be;
( x2 − a ) 2 + ( y2 − b) 2 = r 2 (4.19)
LY
For a point A3 ( x3 , y3 ) , the equation will be
( x3 − a ) 2 + ( y3 − b) 2 = r 2 (4.20)
N
O
Combine the three equations (4.18), (4.19), and (4.20) to form a system of
simultaneous equations
⎧( x1 – a) 2 + (y1 – b) 2 = r 2
⎪
SE
2 2 2
⎨( x2 – a ) + (y2 – b) = r .
⎪ 2 2 2
⎩( x3 – a) + (y3 – b) = r
U
Therefore, the system of equations that will be formed can be easily solved simultaneously
to obtain the values of a, b, and r ,which when plugged back into the standard equation
E
of the circle. The same procedure can be used when the general equation of a circle is
N
considered and gives the following system of simultaneous equations:

⎧ x12 + y12 + 2 gx1 + 2 fy1 + c = 0
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⎪ 2 2
⎨ x2 + y2 + 2 gx2 + 2 fy2 + c = 0 .
N
⎪ 2 2
⎩ x3 + y3 + 2 gx3 + 2 fy3 + c = 0
O
The system of equations can be solved simultaneously to obtain the values of

g , f , and c which when substituted back, the general equation of the circle will
R
be formed.
FO
Example 4.22
Find the equation of the circle which passes through the points A(3, 1),
B(2, 6), and C(3, 2).
150
Form Five
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Solution
The given points A( x1 , y1 ) = (3, 1), B( x2 , y2 ) = (2, 6),and C( x3 , y3 ) = (3, 2)
lie on a circle. Thus, they satisfy the system of general equations of a circle.
The system of general equations of a circle formed by the given points is
given by:
⎧ x12 + y12 + 2 gx1 + 2 fy1 + c = 0
⎪ 2 2
⎨ x2 + y2 + 2 gx2 + 2 fy2 + c = 0
⎪ 2 2
⎩ x3 + y3 + 2 gx3 + 2 fy3 + c = 0
Substitute the given points to get the values of g, f, and c:
LY
⎧32 + 12 + 2(3) g + 2(1) f + c = 0 ⎧6 g + 2 f + c = −10
⎪ 2 2 ⎪
⎨2 + 6 + 2(2) g + 2(6) f + c = 0 ⇒ ⎨4 g + 12 f + c = − 40
N
⎪32 + 22 + 2(3) g + 2(2) f + c = 0 ⎪6 g + 4 f + c = −13
⎩ ⎩
O
Solving the system of equations simultaneously, the values of g, f, and c are
7.5, −1.5, and −52, respectively. SE
Therefore, the equation of a circle is x 2 +y 2 + 15x − 3 y − 52 = 0 .
Alternatively, the three given points can be substituted in the standard equation
U
of the circle.
( x – a ) 2 + (y – b) 2 =
r2
For a point A( x1 , y1 ) = (3, 1) , the equation will be
E
(3 – a ) 2 + (1 – b) 2 =
r 2 ……………………………………….. (i)
N
For a point B( x2 , y2 ) = (2, 6), the equation will be

LI
(2 – a ) 2 + (6 – b) 2 =r 2 . ……………………………………… (ii)
For a point C( x3 , y3 ) = (3, 2), the equation will be
N
(3 – a ) 2 + (2 – b) 2 =r 2 ..............................................................(iii)
O
Combine equations (i), (ii), and (iii) gives the equations:

R
⎧(3 – a) 2 + (1 – b) 2 = r 2 ...................................................(iv)
⎪ 2 2 2
⎨(2 – a) + (6 – b) = r ...................................................(v)
FO
⎪(3 – a) 2 + (2 – b) 2 = r 2 ...................................................(vi)
⎩
Equating equations (i) and (ii) gives
(3 – a ) 2 + (1 – b) 2 =
(2 – a ) 2 + (6 – b) 2
151
Form Five
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⇒ a 2 − 6a + 9 + b2 − 2b + 1 = a 2 − 4a + 4 + b 2 − 12b + 36
−2a + 10b = 30
a − 5b = −15 ....................................(iv)
Equating equations (ii) and (iii) gives
(2 – a ) 2 + (6 – b) 2 =
(3 – a ) 2 + (2 – b) 2
⇒ a 2 − 4a + 4 + b2 − 12b + 36 = a 2 − 6a + 9 + b 2 − 4b + 4
2a − 8b = −27 ..................................(v)
Solve equations (iv) and (v) simultaneously to get, a = –7.5, b = 1.5.
LY
Thus, the centre of the circle is
(a, b) = (–7.5, 1.5). The radius of the Thus, x 2 + y 2 + 15x − 3 y − 52 = 0 .
N
circle is computed by substituting the
values of a and b in one of the equations Therefore, the equation of the circle is
O
in the system of simultaneous equations. x 2 + y 2 + 15x − 3 y − 52 = 0 .
Using equation (i), SE
Exercise 4.9
(3 – a ) 2 + (1 – b) 2 =
r 2 , then,
(3 – (−7.5)) 2 + (1 –1.5) 2 = r 2.
U
1. Find the equation of the circle
2 2
 15   3
r2
⇒  3 +  + 1 –  = with AB as a diameter when
 2  2 the coordinates of A and B are
E
respectively:
221
N
⇒ r2 = (a) (−2,3) and ( − 5, 2)

2
(b) (6,1) and ( − 2, − 5)
LI
221 (c) (−1,1) and (0, − 3)

⇒r =
2 (d) (8, − 3) and ( − 7, − 1)
N
⎛ 15 3 ⎞ (e) (0,3) and ( − 4, 0)

Thus, the circle has centre at ⎜ − , ⎟
⎝ 2 2⎠
O
221 2. Find the equation of a circle which

and the radius, r = .
2 passes through the following
R
points:
The equation of the circle is given by
(a) (−1, − 5), (6, 2), and ( − 2, − 2)
FO
2 2
⎛ 15 ⎞ ⎛ 3 ⎞ 221 (b) (1, 2), (0, − 6), and (4, 0)
⎜x+ ⎟ + ⎜y– ⎟ =
⎝ 2⎠ ⎝ 2⎠ 2 (c) (−5, − 10), ( − 6, − 5), and (12, 7)
225 9 221 (d) (1, 1), (1, 7), and (8, 8)
⇒ x 2 + 15 x + + y2 − 3y + =
4 4 2 (e) (1, − 5), (1, 2), and (0, − 2)
152
Form Five
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3. A triangle has vertices (0, 6), (4, 0), negative reciprocal of the slope of CP.
and (6, 0). Find the equation of the Therefore, the slope of the tangent line
circle passing through the three points. ⎛ x0 + g ⎞
is − ⎜ ⎟.
Equation of a tangent to a circle ⎝ y0 + f ⎠
A tangent to a circle is a straight line which Thus, the equation of the tangent line is
touches the circle at only one point. The ⎛ ⎞
given by y − y0 = − ⎜ x0 + g ⎟ .
point where it touches the circle is called the x − x0 ⎝ y0 + f ⎠
point of tangency. The line tangent to a circle
is always perpendicular to the radius at the Example 4.23
LY
point of tangency as shown in Figure 4.16.
Find the equation of a tangent to the
circle x2 + y2 – 2x + 4y + 1= 0 at the
N
y
point P(1, – 4).
O
Q(x, y)
Solution
Comparing the given equation
SE
C(-g,-f) Tangent line x 2 + y 2 – 2x + 4y + 1= 0 with
r the general equation of the
circle, the centre of the circle is
U
P(x0, y0)
(− g , − f ) = (1, −2) and the radius
O x of the circle is r = 2. Consider the
E
following figure:
N
Figure 4.16: Tangent line to a circle y

2
LI
In Figure 4.16, C(– g, – f ) is the centre of the 1

circle, P ( x0 , y0 ) is the point of tangency and
N
Q(x, y) is any other point on the tangent line. -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5 x

O
-1
The gradient from the centre to the tangency C(1, -2)
-2
y +f .
R
is given by CP = 0 r=2
x0 + g -3
FO
y+4=0
-4
The tangent line is always perpendicular to P(1, -4)
the line drawn from the point of tangency -5
to the centre of the circle (radius). The slope

(gradient) of the tangent line equals the
153
Form Five
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−4 − (−2)
From the previous Figure 4.16, the slope of CP is m1 = = ∞.
1−1
Undefined slope denotes that the line is parallel to the y-axis. Thus, the slope of
the tangent is parallel to the x-axis, that is m2 = 0
1
Thus, slope of the tangent, m2 =− 0.
=
∞
If Q(x, y) is any other point on the tangent, then
LY
y − (−4) y+4.
m2 = ⇒0=
x −1 x −1
N
Therefore, the equation of the tangent line is y + 4 = 0.
O
Example 4.24
SE
Show that if y = mx + c is a tangent to the circle x 2 + y 2 =
a 2 , then
c
a= .
U
1 + m2
Solution
2 2 2
Let y = mx + c be the tangent to the circle x + y = a . But the tangent line
E
satisfies the equation of the circle.

N
Thus, substituting y = mx + c in the given circle, to obtain

LI
x 2 + (mx + c) 2 =
a2.
⇒ x 2 + m2 x 2 + 2mcx + c 2 = a 2
N
⇒ (1 + m2 ) x2 + 2mcx + c 2 − a 2 = 0 , which is a quadratic equation.

O
Recall the general formula for solving a quadratic equation A x 2 + Bx + C = 0. That

−B ± B2 − 4AC
R
is, x = .
2A
FO
⇒ A = 1 + m2 , B = 2mc, and C = c2 − a 2
Substituting the values of A, B, and C into the general quadratic formula gives,
−2mc ± (2mc) 2 − 4(1 + m 2 )(c 2 − a 2 )

x=
2(1 + m 2 )
2mc (2mc) 2 − 4(1 + m 2 )(c 2 − a 2 )
x=− ± 154
Mathematics
Advanced 2(1 + m 2 ) for Secondary2(1
Schools
+ m2 )
Form Five
−2mc ± (2mc) 2 − 4(1 + FOR
m 2 )(cONLINE
2
− a 2 ) USE ONLY
x= DO NOT DUPLICATE
2(1 + m 2 )
2mc (2mc) 2 − 4(1 + m 2 )(c 2 − a 2 )
x=− ±
2(1 + m 2 ) 2(1 + m 2 )
Since the line is tangent to the circle, then it touches the circle, and hence the
discriminant is zero.
Thus, (2mc)2 − 4(1 + m2 )(c2 − a2 ) = 0 .
Squaring both sides, gives
( ) = (0)
2
(2mc)2 − 4(1 + m2 )(c 2 − a 2 ) 2
⇒ 4m2c2 − 4(1 + m2 )(c2 − a 2 ) = 0
LY
⇒ m2c 2 − (1 + m2 )(c 2 − a 2 ) = 0
N
⇒ m2c 2 − (c 2 + m2c 2 − a 2 − a 2 m2 ) = 0
Þ − c 2 + a 2 + a 2 m2 = 0
O
Þ=c 2 a 2 (1 + m 2 )
c2
Thus, a =
2
1 + m2
SE
c
U
Take the square root both sides to get, a = ± .
(1 + m 2 )
c
Therefore, a = .
1 + m2
E
N
Example 4.25
LI
Find the equations of the tangents to the circle x 2 + y 2 − 6 x + 4 y = 12 which

are parallel to the straight line 4 x + 3 y + 5 =0.
N
O
Solution
Any straight line parallel to the given equation is in the form of 4 x + 3 y + c =0,
R
where c is a constant.
The equation of the circle is given as
FO
x2 + y 2 − 6 x + 4 y =
12
⇒ ( x − 3) 2 + ( y + 2 ) =
2
52
Thus, the centre of the circle is (3, −2) and the radius is 5.
155
Form Five
FOR ONLINE USE ONLY
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For the straight line to be tangent to the From Figure 4.17, it can be observed that
circle, its distance from the point (3, −2) the slope of the normal is the same as the
must be equal to ±5. slope of CP, that is, the slope of the line
Hence, substituting ( x1 , y1 ) = (3, −2 ) , joining the centre of the circle and the
( a, b ) = ( 4,3) , and r = ±5 in the given point of tangency. In Figure 4.17,
perpendicular distance formula, P(x0, y0) is the point of tangency on the
ax + by1 + c circle and Q(x, y) is any other point on
r= 1 .
a 2 + b2 the line normal to the circle.
y +f
12 − 6 + c Now, the slope of CP = 0 .
⇒ ±5 = x0 + g
LY
42 + 32
Since the slope of the normal is equal
so that to the slope of CP, then the equation of
N
c = − 6 ± 25 ⇒ c = 19 or c = −31. y − y0 y0 + f
the normal is given as = .
O
Therefore, the equations of the tangents x − x0 x0 + g
0 and 4 x + 3 y − 31 = 0.
are 4 x + 3 y + 19 =
Example 4.26
SE
Equation of a normal to a circle
The normal to a circle is a straight line drawn Find the equation of the normal to
at 90º to the tangent at the point where the the circle x 2 + y 2 – 6 x + 4 y =
12 at
U
tangent touches the circle. On the other hand, the point (–1, –5).
the normal is referred as a perpendicular line
E
to the tangent at the point of contact to the Solution

circle as shown in Figure 4.17. Compare the equation of a
N
2 2
circle x + y – 6 x + 4 y = 12
LI
y Tangent line with the general equation of the

Q(x, y) circle. The centre of the circle is
N
(− g , − f ) = (3, − 2) and radius,

r = 5.
O
C(-g,-f )
Slope of the normal equation is given
r P(x0, y0) −5 + 2 3
R
by,
= m = .
Normal line −1 − 3 4
FO
O x
Suppose ( x, y ) is any other point on
the normal, then
y+5
Figure 4.17: Normal line to a circle m=
x +1
156
Form Five
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5. Show that the tangents to the circle

y+5 3
Thus, = x 2 + y 2 + 6 x − 2 y + 5 = 0 at the
x +1 4
points P ( –1, 2 ) and Q( – 2, –1),
⇒ −3 x + 4 y + 17 =0 respectively meet at the origin O.
Therefore, the equation of the normal
6. Show that the tangent to the circle
is −3 x + 4 y + 17 =0
⇒
x 2 + y 2 − 6 x + 2 y + 5 = 0 at the point
(1, 0) touches the circle 5 x 2 + 5 y 2 =4.
Exercise 4.10
7. Find the equation of the diameter of
LY
1. Find the equation of the tangent and the circle x 2 + y 2 − 4 x − 6 y + 12 = 0
the normal to each of the following that is parallel to the line x + y = 7.
circles at the point given: 8. Find the equations of the tangents to
N
(
(a) 8 x 2 + 8 y 2 = 5, 3 , − 1 ) the circle x 2 + y 2 + 4 x – 2 y – 24 =
0
O
4 4 at the points where the circle crosses
(b) x 2 + y 2 = 25, (−3, 4) the line y – x = 0 .
(c) ( x − 1)2 + ( y + 2)2 = 5, (3, − 3)

SE
9. Find the condition for line
=y mx + c to touch the circle
2 2   1
(d) 4 x + 4 y − 4 x + 8 y − 15 =
0, 1 , 1 ( x − a)2 + ( y − b)2 = r 2 . Hence, find
U
2  
the point of contact.
(e) x 2 + y 2 − 6 x − 2 y − 3 = 0, (5, 4)
10. Find the equations of the tangents
E
2 2
(f) x + y + 4 x + 6 y = 0, (0,0) 2 2
to the circle x + y = 25 which are
N
2
2. A tangent to the circle x + y =
2
5 parallel to the line 4 x − 3 y − 2 = 0.
at the point (1, − 2) also touches the
LI
2 2
11. Find the equations of the tangents to
circle x + y − 8x + 6 y + 20 = 0.
the circle x 2 + y 2 − 6 x + 10 y + 29 = 0
N
Find the coordinates of the

which are parallel to the line
corresponding point of contact.
O
2x + y + 8 =0.
3. Find the values of k such that the
12. Show that the line y = 2 x is tangent
R
line 3 x + 4 y = k touches the circle

to the circle x 2 + y 2 − 8x − y + 5 = 0.
x2 + y 2 =10 x .
FO
4. Find the equation of the normal to the 13. Find the equations of the tangents to
circle 2 x 2 + 2 y 2 − 2 x − 5 y + 3 = 0 the circle x 2 + y 2 − 6 x + 4 y + 8 = 0
which are perpendicular to the line
at the point (1, 1).
2 x − y − 1 = 0.
157
Form Five
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14. The tangent to the circle Suppose C1 (a1 , b1 ) and C2 (a2 , b2 ) are
x 2 + y 2 − 2 x − 6 y + 5 = 0 at the the coordinates of the centres of the
point (3, 4 ) meets the x-axis at circles C1 : ( x − a1 ) 2 + ( y − b1 ) 2 = r12 and
M. Find the distance of M from C2 : ( x − a2 ) 2 + ( y − b2 ) 2 = r22 , where,
the centre of the circle. r1 and r2 are radii of the circles.
centred at D(−3, −5) and that From Figure 4.18, the distance between
touches the line 12 x + 5 y − 4 = 0. the centres of the circles C1 and C2 is
given by
LY
Point of intersection of circles C1C2 = (a2 − a1 )2 + (b2 − b1 )2 .
There are three cases in which two circles
can intersect. The first case is when
The distance C1C2 is equal to the sum of
N
two circles touch each other externally,
their radii which is given by r= r1 + r2 .
the second case is when two circles of
O
different sizes touch each other internally 2 2
and the third case is when two circles Thus, (a2 − a1 ) + (b2 − b1 ) = r1 + r2 .
SE
intersect at two distinct points. Therefore, the condition for two circles
to intersect each other externally at one
(i) External point of intersection of point is given by;
U
circles C1C2= r1 + r2 .
Two circles touch each other externally
E
if and only if the distance between their Example 4.27

centres is equal to the sum of their radii.
N
Consider two circles touching each other Show that the circles
LI
externally as shown in Figure 4.18. whose equations are

x2 + y 2 – 4 x – 6 y – 3 =
0 and
N
y 2 2
x + y –12 x –12 y + 71 = 0,
intersect externally at one point.
O
Circle 1 Circle 2
Solution
R
r1 r2
C1 P(x, y) C2 If the two circles intersect externally,
FO
then they must satisfy the equation

C1C2= r1 + r2 .
O x
Given that,
Figure 4.18: Two circles intersecting 0,
C1 : x 2 + y 2 – 4 x – 6 y – 3 =
externally
158
Form Five
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Its centre is C1 (2, 3) and its radius is In Figure 4.19, the distance between the
r1 = 4 units centres of the circles C1 ( a1 , b1 ) and C2 ( a2 , b2 )
C2 : x 2 + y 2 –12 x –12 y + 71 = 0, 2
is given by C1C2 = (a2 − a1 ) + (b2 − b1 )
2
Its centre is C2 (6, 6) and its radius is (4.21)

r2 = 1 unit
Since r2 > r1 , then the difference between
Thus, the distance between the centres,
their radii is given by r = r2 − r1 .
C1C2 = (6 − 2)2 + (6 − 3)2
Thus, (a2 − a1 )2 + (b2 − b1 )2 = r2 − r1
= 25 (4.22)
=5 Equating equations (4.21) and (4.22) gives,
LY
Sum of the radii, r1 + r2 = 4 + 1 = 5 C1C2 = r2 − r1
Thus, C1C2 = r1 + r2 = 5. Therefore, the condition for two circles to
N
intersect each other internally at one point
Therefore, the two circles intersect
O
is given by; C1C2 = r2 − r1.
externally at one point because the
distance between their centres is equal SEExample 4.28
to the sum of their radii.
Show that the two circles whose
(ii) Internal point of intersection of the
U
equations are x 2 + y 2 + 2 x – 8 =
0 and
circles 2 2
x + y – 6 x + 6 y − 46 = 0
Two circles touch each other internally if and
intersect internally.
only if the distance between their centres is
E
equal to the difference between their radii. Solution

N
Consider two circles with different sizes The two circles intersect internally if
intersecting each other internally as shown
LI
they satisfy the equation C1C2= r2 − r1

in Figure 4.19. 0,
C1 : x 2 + y 2 + 2 x – 8 =
N
y centre is C1(–1, 0) and its radius is

O
r1 = 3 units.
C2 : x 2 + y 2 – 6 x + 6 y − 46 = 0 , its centre
C2 r1
C1 is C2(3, –3) and its radius is r2 = 8 units.
R
r2
FO
The distance between the centres is
O x C1C2 = (3 − (−1))2 + ((−3) − 0)2

= 25
Figure 4.19: Two circles intersecting internally =5
159
Form Five
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The difference of the radii, by solving the two equations of the circles
r2 − r1 = 8 − 3 = 5 simultaneously. The common chord of the
circles C1 : x 2 + y 2 + 2 g1 x + 2 f1 y + c1 = 0 and
Thus, C1C2 = r2 − r1 = 5 . 2 2
C2 : x + y + 2 g 2 x + 2 f 2 y + c2 = 0 is obtained
by solving the two equations simultaneously.
Therefore, the circles intersect internally
That is,
at one point because the distance
between their centres is equal to the ⎧⎪ x 2 + y 2 + 2 g1 x + 2 f1 y + c1 = 0
−⎨ 2 2
difference between their radii. ⎪⎩ x + y + 2 g 2 x + 2 f 2 y + c2 = 0
2( g1 − g 2 ) x + 2( f1 − f 2 ) y + c1 − c2 = 0
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(iii) Intersection of two circles at two
Therefore, the equation of the common chord
distinct points
of the two circles is given by
The intersection of two circles at distinct
N
2( g1 − g2 ) x + 2( f1 − f 2 ) y + c1 − c2 = 0
points occurs when the circles overlap each
other and meet at two distinct points A and
O
Example 4.29
B which satisfy both equations of circles
as shown in Figure 4.20. SE
Find the equation of common chord of
y the two circles x 2 + y 2 – 2 y − 4 = 0 and
x 2 + y 2 – x + y − 12 = 0 . Hence, find the
U
A
two distinct points of intersection.
C2(-g2,-f2) C1(-g1, -f1)
Solution
E
r2 r1
d
Given two circles x 2 + y 2 – 2 y − 4 = 0
N
B and x 2 + y 2 – x + y − 12 = 0 .
Solve the two equations simultaneously
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x
O as follows:
N
⎧⎪ x 2 + y 2 + 0 x – 2 y − 4 = 0
Figure 4.20: Circles intersecting at two distinct −⎨ 2 2
⎪⎩ x + y – x + y − 12 = 0
O
points
In Figure 4.20, the condition for the two x − 3y + 8 = 0

R
circles to intersect at two distinct point is Therefore, the equation of the common
given by chord is x − 3 y + 8 = 0.
FO
C1C2 < r1 + r2
The points of intersection are obtained by
The line segment joining AB is called solving simultaneously the equation of the
a common chord. The equation of a common chord with one of the equations
common chord is a straight line obtained of circles. In this case, take the equation
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x2 + y 2 – 2 y − 4 = 0, then substitute the 2 2

equations x + y − 4 x − 6 y = 0 and
equation of a common chord into the ( x − 1)2 + ( y + 1)2 = 16 .
selected equation of a circle as follows: 6. Find the equation of the
(3 y(− 8) 2 + 2y2+2 –y 222 –y 2− y4−=40= 0 circle which passes the points
(33yy−−8)8) + y – 2 y − 4 = 0
2
y – 252 y + 6 = 0
Þ yy ––55yy++66==00 (−2, 2), (2, 4), and (5, − 5). Show
y = 2 or y = 3. that this circle touches the circle
Þ yy==22 oror yy==33..
Substitute back the values of y in the 2 x 2 + 2 y 2 − 17 x + 16 y + 65 =
0 and
equation of the common chord to get the find the coordinates of the point of
values of x. That is, when y = 2 ⇒ x = −2 contact.
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and when y = 3 ⇒ x = 1 .
Therefore, the points of intersection of Orthogonal circles
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the circles are (−2, 2) and (1, 3) . Two circles are said to be orthogonal if and
only if they intersect in such a way that the
O
Exercise 4.11 tangents at the points of intersection are
perpendicular, as shown in Figure 4.21.
SE
1. Show that the circles
x2 + y 2 − 2 x − 2 y − 7 = 0 and y
Tangents
x 2 + y 2 − 10 x − 8 y + 37 = 0
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P(x, y)
intersect each other externally.
r1 r2
2. Show that the circles
E
x 2 + y 2 − 4 x − 2 y = 0 and C1(-g1, -f1 ) C2(-g2, -f2)

d
N
x2 + y 2 − 8x − 10 y − 4 = 0 touch
each other internally.
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3. Find the equation of the common

2 2 O x
chord of the circles x + y = 4
N
2 2
and x + y − 4 x − 2 y − 4 = 0. Figure 4.21: Orthogonal circles
O
4. Find the coordinates of the point

where the common chord of the In Figure 4.21, C1 ( − g1 , − f1 ) and C2 ( − g 2 , − f 2 )
R
2 2
circles x + y − 4 x − 8 y − 5 = 0 are the centres of the circles and P(x, y) is a
2 2
and x + y − 2 x − 4 y − 5 = 0 point of intersection. Let r1 and r2 be the
FO
meets the line joining their radii of the circles with centres C1 and C2 ,
centres. respectively, and d be the distance between
5. Find the points of intersection the centres of the circles.
of the circles given by the
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For the circles to be orthogonal, triangle

C1PC2 must be a right-angled triangle at d 2 = (4 − 2)2 + (7 − 4)2
P. Therefore, from Pythagoras’ theorem, 2
d= 22 + 32
2
d= r12 + r22 . = 13
That is, the square of the distance Thus, d 2 = 13.

between the centres must be equal to But r12 + r22 = 32 + 22
the sum of the squares of their radii. =9+4
Also, the tangent from C2 to the other = 13
circle is equal to the radius, R. That is, Hence, d = r12 + r22 = 13.
2
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if two circles are orthogonal, the length Therefore, the circles are orthogonal.
of the tangent drawn from the centre of
first circle to the second circle is equal
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to the radius of the first circle. Exercise 4.12
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Example 4.30 1. Determine whether or not the
SE following circles are orthogonal:
Prove that the two circles (a) 2 x 2 + 2 y 2 –12 x + 8 y + 4 = 0
x 2 + y 2 – 8 x –14 y + 56 =0 and and
2 x2 + 2 y 2 + 16 x + 4 y − 44 = 0
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2 2
x + y – 4 x – 8 y + 16 = 0 are
2 2
orthogonal. (b) x + y – 8x + 6 y − 23 = 0 and
x 2 + y 2 − 2 x − 5 y − 16 = 0
E
Solution (c) x 2 + y 2 – 8x + 6 y + 21 = 0 and

The two circles are orthogonal if they
N
x 2 + y 2 − 2 y − 15 = 0
satisfy the equation d = 2
r12 + r22 . 2 2
(d) x + y – 2 x + 8 y + 1 = 0 and
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C1 : x 2 + y 2 – 8 x –14 y + 56 = 0 x2 + y 2 + 2 y − 9 = 0
(e) x 2 + y 2 − 2 x − 3 =0 and
N
Its centre is C1 (4, 7) and its radius

is r1 = 3 units. 2 2
x + y + 4y − 3 = 0
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Also, 2. Find the equation of the circle which

C2 : x 2 + y 2 – 4 x – 8 y + 16 =
0 passes through the point (1, 2 )
R
and cuts orthogonally each of the

Its centre is C2 (2, 4) and its radius
FO
2 2
is r2 = 2 units circles x + y – 2 x + 8 y − 7 = 0 and
x2 + y 2 = 9.
Distance between the centres,
3. For each of the following find the
d 2 = ( g1 − g 2 ) + ( f1 − f 2 )
2 2
values of k if the circles:
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(a) x 2 + y 2 − 2 x + 22 y + 5 = 0 and x 2 + y 2 + 14 x + 6 y + k = 0 intersect at

right angles.
(b) x 2 + y 2 + 4 x + 6 y + 4 = 0 and x 2 + y 2 − 2 x + 14 y + k = 0 intersect
orthogonally.
4. Find the equation of the circle which intersect orthogonally the circles
x 2 + y 2 − 4 x − 6 y + 11 = 0 and x 2 + y 2 − 10 x − 4 y + 21 =
0 and has its
centre on 2 x + 3 y − 7 =. 0
Length of a tangent from a point to a circle
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2 2
Consider a circle whose equation is x + y + 2 gx + 2 fy + c = 0. The circle is
centred at (–g, –f ) and has a radius of g 2 + f 2 − c . Let P( x1 , y1 ) be a point
N
outside the circle as shown in Figure 4.22.
O
y
T SE
C(-g,-f)
U
P(x1, y1)
E
O x
N
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Figure 4.22: Length of a tangent from a point to a circle

N
The tangent line meets at right angle with the line passing through the centre at
O
2 2 2
Using the Pythagorasʼ theorem, it follows that CP
= CT + TP .
R
2 2 2
This implies that, TP = CP − CT (4.23)
FO
But, CT is the radius of the circle, which is given by

2
CT = g 2 + f 2 − c ⇒ CT = g 2 + f 2 − c (4.24)
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Applying the distance formula,
2
CP = ( x1 + g )2 + ( y1 + f )2 ⇒ CP = ( x1 + g )2 + ( y1 + f )2
(4.25)
Substituting equations (4.24) and (4.25) in equation (4.23) gives,
2
TP = ( x1 + g )2 + ( y1 + f )2 − ( g 2 + f 2 − c)
= x12 + 2 gx1 + g 2 + y12 + 2 fy1 + f 2 − g 2 − f 2 + c
= x12 + y12 + 2 gx1 + 2 fy1 + c
Thus, TP = x12 + y12 + 2 gx1 + 2 fy1 + c .

Therefore, the length of a tangent from point P( x1 , y1 ) to the circle x2 + y2 + 2gx
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+ 2fy + c = 0 is given by,
of tangent = x12 + y12 + 2 gx1 + 2 fy1 + c units.
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Example 4.31
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Find the length of a tangent from the point P(2,5) to the circle
x 2 + y 2 – 2 x – 3 y − 1 = 0.
SE
Solution
Given the equation of a circle with the corresponding values P( x1 , y1 ) = (2,5) ,
U
3
g = –1, f = – , and c = –1.
2
E
Length of tangent = x12 + y12 + 2 gx1 + 2 fy1 + c , substituting the values gives,
N
⎛ 3⎞
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Length of tangent = 22 + 52 + 2(−1)(2) + 2 ⎜ − ⎟ (5) − 1 units

⎝ 2⎠
= 3 units
N

Therefore, the length of a tangent is 3 units.
O
Exercise 4.13
R
1. Find the length of the tangent from the point (12, –9) to the circle
FO
3 x 2 + 3 y 2 – 7 x + 22 y + 9 =0.
2. A tangent is drawn to a circle of radius 5 cm from a point 8 cm away from
the end point of the radius on the circumference of the circle. Find the
length of the tangent.
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3. What is the length of a tangent from 2. The area of a rectangle whose vertices
the point P(4, 2) to the circle with are ( x1 , y1 ), ( x2 , y1 ), ( x2 , y2 ), and
centre (0, 0) and radius of 4 units? ( x1 , y2 ) is defined by the formula,
4. Find the length of a tangent to A = ( x2 y2 − x1 y2 − x2 y1 + x1 y1 ).
the circle x 2 + y 2 − 2 x + 4 y − 3 =0,
3. If L1 and L2 are two intersecting
from the centre of the circle
lines, and θ is one of the angle
x 2 + y 2 + 6 x + 8 y − 1 = 0.
between the lines, then the other angle
5. Compute the length of the tangent
between the lines is 180° − θ , where
from the point P (9, 8) to the circle
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which passes through the points  m2 − m1 
θ = tan −1  .
E(5, 7), F(−2, 6), and G(6, 0) .  1 + m1m2 
6. Show that the length of the 4. The perpendicular distance of point
N
tangents from the point (0, 5) to P ( x1 , y1 ) from a line ax + by + c =0
O
2 2
the circles x + y + 2 x − 4 =0 and ax + by + c
SE is given by .
x2 + y 2 − y + 1 =0 are equal. a 2 + b2
7. Find the equation of the circle such that 5. The equations to the bisectors
the lengths of the tangents from the of the angles between the
U
points (−1, 0), (0, 2), and (−2, 1)are two lines a1 x + b1 y + c1 = 0
0
and a2 x + b2 y + c2 =are
respectively 3, 10, and 3 3 units. a +b y+c 
a1 + b1 y + c1
E
= ± 2 2 .
2
2 2 2
a1  a2 + b2 
N
Chapter summary 6. The coordinates of the point

LI
P ( x, y ) which divides internally

1. A parallelogram is a quadrilateral
and externally the line joining
N
which obey the properties:

(i) Opposite sides are parallel to the points A ( x1 , y1 ) and
O
each other B ( x2 , y2 ) in the ratio m : n

(ii) The opposite line segments
R
 mx + nx1 my2 + ny1 

have equal length are  2 , 
 m+n m+n 
FO
(iii) The opposite interior angles

 nx − mx2 ny1 − my2 
are equal and  1 , ,
 n−m n−m 
(iv) The diagonals bisect each other. respectively.
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7. A circle is the locus of a point which Revision exercise 4

moves so that its distance from a fixed
point is always constant. 1. Find the value of k if the circles
8. The equations of the tangent and normal x2 + y 2 + 2 x − 4 y + k =0 and
to the circle x 2 + y 2 + 2 gx + 2 fy + c =0 2 2
x + y − 6 x + 4 y − 19 = 0 cut
at the point of the tangency P ( x0 , y0 ) orthogonally.
y − y0  x +g  2. A triangle has its vertices at points
are = − 0  and A(1, 7), B(5, 5), and C(8, –1). The
x − x0  y0 + f 
y − y0 y0 + f point M is the midpoint of AB ,
= , respectively.
LY
x − x0 x0 + g L is the point on BC such that
9. Two circles are said to be orthogonal if and BL : LC = 1: 2, and N is the point
on AC, such that AN : NC = 3 :1
N
only if they intersect in such a way that
the tangents at the points of intersection Find the coordinates of L, M, and N.
O
are perpendicular. 3. Find the area of the triangle
SE formed by the three lines
10. A circle whose equation is 3 x + 4=
y 30, 2= y x, and = y 3x
x 2 + y 2 + 2 gx + 2 fy + c =0 is centred 4. Show that the bisector of the acute
angle between y= x + 1 and the
U
at ( − g , − f ) and has a radius of
x-axis has the gradient of −1 + 2.
g2 + f 2 − c . 5. Find the equation of the circle
which intersects orthogonally the
E
11. If the circles

circles x 2 + y 2 + 2 x − 2 y − 2 =0
N
0 and
x 2 + y 2 + 2 g1 x + 2 f1 y + c1 =
0 intersect and x 2 + y 2 + 6 x − 4 y + 4 =0
LI
x 2 + y 2 + 2 g 2 x + 2 f 2 y + c2 =
2 and has the centre on the line
orthogonally, then d= r12 + r2 2 or
N
4 x − 3 y + 3 =.
0
2 g1 g 2 + 2 f1 f 2 =
c1 + c2 .
6. If the perpendicular distance of
O
12. The equation of the common cord to the point (m, 3) from the line
the two circles c1 and c2 is defined by 3 5
x − 2 y +1 =0 is units,
R
5
2( g1 − g 2 ) x + 2( f1 − f 2 ) y + c1 − c2 =
0. Find the value of m .
FO
7. Find the coordinates of the line

13. The common chord of two circles
segment joining points ( − 2, 3) and
c1 and c2 is a line passing through the (4, 6) in the ratio of 3:2 internally
point of intersection of the two circles. and externally division.
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8. Find the coordinates of the point that 17. Find the equations of a line passing
divides the line joining the points through the point (3, 2) and makes
(3, 4) and (4, 2): an angle of 45° with the line
(a) Internally in the ratio 3:2. y + 3x − 7 = 0.
(b) Externally in the ratio 3:2. 18. Determine the equations of two
9. Determine the equation to the bisector orthogonal lines through the point
of the acute angle between the lines (3, 2), which make an angle of 45°
3 x= y +6 0.
+ 4 y 1 and 5 x − 12= with the line −2 x + y − 1 = 0.
10. Show that the circles 19. Find an acute angle between the
LY
2 2
straight lines in 2 x + 5 xy − 12 y = 0.
x 2 + y 2 − 16 x + 12 y + 75 =
0 and
20. Four points (–2, –1), (4, 3), (a, b),
5 x 2 + 5 y 2 − 32 x − 24 y + 75 =0
and (0, – 4) are the vertices of a
N
touch each other. Hence, find the
parallelogram. Find the values of
equation of the common chord and
O
a and b.
11. Find the points L and M which divide SE which is circumscribed about
the line joining (1, 2) and (10, 8) into
the triangle whose vertices are
three equal parts.
12. Calculate the area of the triangle with (−2, 3), (5, 2), and (0, − 1) .
U
vertices ( − 1, 3), (5, 2), and (4, − 1). 22. Prove that A(2, 4), B(5, 3), C(2, 2),
and D(–1, 3) are the vertices of a
13. Find the area of a figure formed between
parallelogram.
E
the line 3 y + 2 x = 6 and the axes.

14. The vertices of a parallelogram are 23. Find the equation of the circle
N
P ( −2, 6) Q (1, 2) , R (10, 4) , and S ( 7, 8) whose centre is (2, − 3) and passing

LI
(a) Show that PQRS is a parallelogram through the point (3, − 5).
(b) Find the equations of the 24. A line from a point A (1, 2 )
N
diagonal. intersects the straight line

O
2 y + 3x − 14 = 0 at point B. If the
(c) Find the area of the parallelogram
perpendicular line is extended
15. Find the distance of the point of to point C in such a way that
R
intersection of the line 2x + 3y = 21 1

and 3x – 4y + 11 = 0 from the line AB = BC, determine the
FO
2
8x + 6y + 5 = 0. coordinates of point C.
25. If A = (9,13) and C = (4, − 2),
16. Find the angle between a pair
find the coordinates of point B
of lines whose equation is 3
given that AB = BC.
4 x 2 − 24 xy + 11y 2 = 0. 2
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26. Find the equation of the circle 36. Show that the line y = 2 x touches
2 2
whose diameters are x + y =2 the circle x + y − 8x − y + 5 = 0 .
Hence, find the coordinates of point
and x − y =0 and radius is 1 unit.
of the contact.
27. Find the equations of bisectors
of the angles between the lines 37. Determine the equation of a circle
3 x + 4 y = 7 and y − 1 = 0. of radius 5 units, which touches
28. If a point is equidistant from the x-axis and passes through the
(2, 1) and (–7, –5), find its locus. point (3, 1).
29. Find the locus of P, such that it 38. Find the centre and the radius of a circle
LY
is equidistant from (3, 1) and the given by x 2 + y 2 + 4 x − 8 y + 4 = 0.
line 3x − 4 y + 1 = 0. Use the circle to find the length of
30. What is the locus of the point the tangent from the point P(3, 8).
N
which moves in such a way that 39. A circle centred at the point (2, 3)
O
it is equidistant from point (2, 3) touches the line joining the points
and the line y = 4 ? (0, 4) and (3, 1). Find the equation
31. Determine the equation of the circle
SE of the circle.
which passes through the points 40. A line 2 x + 2 y − 3 = 0 touches the
A (1, 1), B(1, 7), and C(8, 8). circle 4 x 2 + 4 y 2 + 8 x + 4 y − 13 = 0
U
32. Show the line y= x + 1touches the at A. Find the equation of the line
circle x 2 + y 2 − 4 x + 6 y − 13 =
0. joining A to the origin.
E
33. Find the equation of the circle, 41. Show that the tangents to the circle
x 2 + y 2 = 169 at (5, 12) and
N
which has its centre on the line

x + y = 0 and passes through the (12, − 5) are perpendicular.
LI
points of intersection of the two 42. Find the value of c so that the
2 2
2 2
circles ( x − 1) + ( y + 5) = 50 circles x + y − 6 x + 4 y + 12 = 0
N
and x 2 + y 2 + 8 x + 2 y + c = 0 are
and ( x + 1)2 + ( y + 1)2 = 10.
orthogonal.
O
34. Find the equation of the circle 43. Find the equations of the lines that
joining A(0, 3) and B(4, 5) as a pass through the point (3, 1) and
R
diameter. tangent to the circle whose equation

FO
35. Which values of a and b is x 2 + y 2 − 2 = 0.

will make the equation 44. Find the equation of the
tangent and normal to the circle
ax 2 + 2bxy + 2 y 2 + 8x + 12 y = 0
x 2 + y 2 − 10 x + 4 y − 140 =
0 at the
to be a circle? point (−7, − 7).
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45. Find the equations of the tangents 48. Show that the line y= x + 1 touches
from the origin to the circle whose 2 2
the circle x + y − 8x − 2 y + 9 = 0
2 2
equation is x + y − 8x − y + 5 = 0.
49. Find the equation of the tangent to the
46. What is the length of the tangent from 2 2
circle x + y − 2 x + y − 5 = 0 at the
a point (8, 4) to the circle with centre points (3, − 2). If this tangent crosses
(3, 0) and radius of 2 units? the axes at A and B, calculate the area
of triangle OAB, where O is the origins.
47. Find the length of the tangents to the
50. Show that the line = y px + q
circle 2 x 2 + 2 y 2 − 4 x + 8 y − 6 = 0,
touches the circle x 2 + y 2 =
r 2 if
LY
from the centre of the circle
=q 2 r 2 (1 + p 2 ).
3x2 + 3 y 2 + 18x + 24 y − 3 = 0.
N
O
SE
U
E
N
LI
N
O
R
FO
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Chapter
Five Functions
Introduction
In mathematics, a function is a relation between a set of inputs and a set of
LY
outputs according to a certain rule. Functions have the property that each
input is related to exactly one output. The set of inputs is called the domain,
whereas the set of outputs is called the range. In this chapter, you will learn
N
how to plot graphs of functions. The competencies developed will help you in
O
designing machines, making predictions, studying growth relations, formulating
mathematical models, developing computer programs, and in solving many
other problems.
SE
Graphs of functions
U
4th degree, rational functions, composite
A function can be represented
functions, exponential functions, and
graphically. A function has an
logarithmic functions.
E
independent variable and a dependent

variable. Normally, x is the independent
N
Activity 5.1:Identifying a function

variable and y is the dependent from the drawn graph
LI
variable. To draw a graph of a function,

a common method is to choose some Individually or in a group, perform
N
values for the independent variable x, the following tasks:

O
substitute them into the function to get 1. Draw each of the following
a set of ordered pair (x, y). Tabulate figures in the xy-plane:
R
the values, and locate the point on the (a) A parabola opening upwards
xy -plane, then, connect the points or downwards.
FO
to obtain the graph. Normally, using (b) A parabola opening to the

more points gives a better graph. In left or to the right.
this section, you will learn how to plot (c) A circle of reasonable radius.
graphs of polynomial functions up to
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2. In each of the figures drawn in task 1, draw a vertical line that intersects the
figure at the middle.
3. What have you observed after performing task 2?
4. What conclusion can you draw from the figures?
Polynomial functions
A function f :ℝ→ℝ of the form y= f ( x)= an x n + an −1 x n −1 +  + a2 x 2 + a1 x + a0 , where
n ∈ , and an , an −1 , an − 2 , , a0 are constants, n is a positive integer and an ≠ 0 is
called a polynomial function.
LY
The degree of a polynomial function is the highest power of x appearing in the
polynomial.
N
For example, f1 ( x) =x + 2, f 2 ( x) =x 2 , f3 ( x) =x 3 − 2 x + 1, f 4 ( x) =3 x 4 − 2 x 3 + 5 are
O
polynomial functions of degree 1, 2, 3, and 4, respectively.
Polynomial functions are classified depending on their degrees, that is:

SE
(i) If the degree is 0, then the polynomial is a constant function.
(ii) If the degree is 1, then the polynomial is a linear function.
U
(iii) If the degree is 2, then the polynomial is a quadratic function.
(iv) If the degree is 3, then the polynomial is a cubic function.
(v) If the degree is 4, then the polynomial is a quartic function.
E
N
Graphs of linear functions y

A function defined by
LI
f ( x)= y= mx + c, where m is
the gradient, c is the y-intercept, c
N
and x is the independent

O
variable, is called a linear

f(x)=mx+c
function. The graph of a linear
R
function is always a straight

line, as shown in Figure 5.1. O x
FO
The x-intercept is denoted by a

c
“a” where a = − .
m
Figure 5.1: Graph of f ( x=
) mx + c, for m < 0
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Example 5.1
Draw the graph of f ( x=
) 3x + 2
Solution
Given f ( x=
) 3x + 2 .
The selected values for graphing the function are tabulated as follows:
3 1 1
x − –1 − 0
2 2 2
5 1 7
f(x) − –1 2
LY
2 2 2
The graph of f ( x=
) 3 x + 2 is shown in the following figure:
N
O
SE
U
E
N
LI
N
O
Alternatively:
R
The graph of f (x) = 3x + 2 can be sketched by using x and y-intercepts as follows:

FO
The x-intercept: The y-intercept:

2
when y = 0, x = − , when= x 0,= y 2
3
The graph of f (x) = 3x + 2 is shown in the following figure:
172
Form Five
FOR ONLINE USE ONLY
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f(x)=4x-1
1
1
,0
4
-3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 x
-1 (0, -1)
LY
-2
N
-3
O
Example 5.2
SEExercise 5.1
Draw the graph of each of the

Draw the graph of f ( x) = 4 x − 1.
following:
U
1. f (= x) –2 x + 6
Solution
1
Given f ( x) = 4 x − 1. 2. f= ( x) (4 x + 8)
3
E
The x and y-intercepts for graphing

3. f ( x) = −3x + 2
the function are tabulated as follows:
N
4. f ( x=
) 4x + 9
LI
1 5. f ( x) = −7 x − 3
x 0 4 1
N
6. f ( x) = x + 8
f ( x) −1 0 2
O
1
7. f ( x) = 8 x −
3
The graph of f ( x) = 4 x − 1 is shown
R
8. f ( x) = −9 x
in the following figure: 2
FO
9. f (=x) x+3
9
4
10. g ( x) = x
10
173
Form Five
FOR ONLINE USE ONLY
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Graphs of quadratic functions

Example 5.3
A polynomial function of the form
f ( x) = ax 2 + bx + c, where a, b, and c are
Draw the graph of f ( x) = x 2 + 4 x + 2.
constants, and a ≠ 0 is called quadratic
function. When a > 0 , the graph opens Solution
upwards and when a < 0, the graph opens Given f ( x) = x 2 + 4 x + 2 .
downwards, as shown in Figure 5.2(a) The selected values for graphing the
and Figure 5.2 (b), respectively. function are tabulated as follows:
LY
x – 4 –3 –2 –1 0
f (x) 2 –1 –2 –1 2
N
O
The graph of f ( x) = x 2 + 4 x + 2 is
shown in the following figure:
SE
U
Figure 5.2(a) : Graph of a quadratic function
for a > 0
E
N
LI
N
O
R
Example 5.4
FO
Figure 5.2(b) : Graph of a quadratic function

2
for a < 0 Draw the graph of f ( x) = − x + 2 x + 1.
174
Form Five
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Solution The graph of f ( x) = 3 x 2 + 5 x + 4 is

Given f ( x) = − x 2 + 2 x + 1 . shown in the following figure:
The selected values for graphing the
function are tabulated as follows:
x –1 0 1 2 3
f ( x) –2 1 2 1 –2
The graph of f ( x) = − x 2 + 2 x + 1 is
LY
shown in the following figure:
N
O
SE
Exercise 5.2
U
Draw the graph of each of the

E
following:
1. ) ( x + 3) 2
f ( x=
N
Example 5.5
LI
2. f ( x) = 3x 2 + 2 x + 1
Draw the graph of f ( x) = 3 x 2 + 5 x + 4 .
f ( x) =x 2 + 12 x + 3
N
3.
Solution
O
4. f (x) = x 2 − 2x − 3, and
Given f ( x) = 3 x 2 + 5 x + 4.
and g(x) = −2x 2 − 5x + 7 on the
The selected values for graphing the
R
function are tabulated as follows: same plane.

FO
3
3 1 5. f ( x) = 3 x 2 − x + 1
x –2 − –1 − 0 4
2 2
13 9 6. f ( x) = x 2 and g ( x) = −2 x + 7
f ( x) 6 2 4
4 4 on the same plane.
175
Form Five
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7. f ( x) = −( x 2 − 3x − 2) − 5
3 2
8. f ( x) =
5
( )
x + 2x + 2
9. f ( x) =
1
2
(
4 x2 + 5x + 1 )
2
10. f ( x) =− 4 x − x − 3
Graphs of cubic functions
LY
A polynomial function of the form
f ( x) = ax 3 + bx 2 + cx + d , where a, b, c,
N
and d are constants and a ≠ 0 is called a
cubic function. The procedure for graphing
O
a cubic function is the same as that used Domain
= {x : x ∈ }
for graphing a quadratic function. Range
= { y : y ∈ }
SE
U
Draw the graph of f ( x) = x3 − 4x Draw the graph of f ( x) = x 3 + 3 x 2 − 2 x − 5
and state its domain and range.
and state how the graph behaves for large
E
Solution positive and negative values of x.

N
3
Given f ( x) = x − 4 x.
Solution
The selected few values for graphing
LI
Given f ( x) = x 3 + 3 x 2 − 2 x − 5
the function are tabulated as follows:
The selected values for graphing the function
N
x –2 –1 0 1 2 are tabulated as follows:

O
f (x) 0 3 0 –3 0
x –3 –2 –1 0 1
The graph of f ( x) = x3 − 4x is f (x) 1 3 –1 –5 –3
R
shown in the following figure: 3 2

The graph of f ( x) = x + 3 x − 2 x − 5
FO
is shown in the following figure:
176
Form Five
FOR ONLINE USE ONLY
DO NOT DUPLICATE
y
4
3
2
f(x)=x3+3x2-2x-5
1
-5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 x
-1
-2
-3
-4
LY
-5
-6
N
Domain
= {x : x ∈ }
As x increases indefinitely, f ( x) increases Range
= { y : y ∈ }
O
and the graph of f ( x) is opening upwards.
As x decreases indefinitely f ( x) decreases SEExercise 5.3
and the graph of f ( x) is opening downwards.
Draw the graph of each of the following
functions and hence state the domain and
U
Example 5.8
range:
Draw the graph of f ( x) = − x3 − 2x2 + x + 1. 1. f ( x) = x 3 − 3 x

E
and state its domain and range. 2. f ( x) = 2 x 3 + 2 x 2 − 4 x + 5

f ( x) = 2 x3 + x 2 – x –1
N
3.
Solution 4. f ( x) = x( x − 2)( x + 3)
LI
Given f ( x) = − x3 − 2x2 + x + 1. 5. f ( x) = −( x3 − 7 x + 3)
The selected values for graphing the 6. f ( x) = x( x 2 + 3 x ) + 4
N

7. f ( x) = x3 − 4 x 2 + x and
O
x −2 −1 0 1 1 3
g ( x) = − x3 + x 2 + x on the
3 2
f ( x) −1 −1 1 −1
R
same axes.
8. f ( x) = − x 3 − 5 x 2 + 4
FO
3 2
The graph of f ( x) = − x − 2x + x + 1.
is shown in the following figure: 9. f ( x) = ( x − 2)3 − 4 x and
h(x) = – x2 + 4 on the same axes.
177
Form Five
FOR ONLINE USE ONLY
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Graphs of quartic functions

A polynomial function of the form f ( x) = ax 4 + bx 3 + cx 2 + dx + e , where a, b,
c, d, and e are constants and a ≠ 0 , is called a quartic function. The procedure
for graphing a quartic function is the same as the procedure for graphing a cubic
function.
Example 5.9
Draw the graph of f ( x) = x4 − 4 x3 + 2 x2 + 3x − 1.
Solution
LY
4 3 2
Given f ( x) = x − 4 x + 2 x + 3x − 1.
N
x –1 0 1 2 3
O
f ( x) 3 –1 1 –3 −1
SE
The graph of f ( x) = x 4 − 4 x3 + 2 x 2 + 3x − 1 is shown in the following figure:
y
U
3
E
2
N
1
LI
-3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 x
N
-1
O
-2
R
-3
FO
-4
f(x)=x 4 -4x 3 +2x 2 +3x-1
178
Form Five
FOR ONLINE USE ONLY
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Example 5.10
2 2
Draw the graph of f ( x) = ( x − 3)( x − 8).and give its domain and range.
Solution
2 2
Given f ( x) = ( x − 3)( x − 8) .
x −3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3
LY
f ( x) 6 –4 14 24 14 –4 6
N
O
The graph of f ( x) = ( x 2 − 3)( x 2 − 8) is Exercise 5.4
shown in the following figure: SE 1. Given that
f ( x) = x 4 − 2 x3 − x 2 + 2 x, find
the zeros of f ( x) .
U
2. Draw the graph of
f ( x) = x 4 − 3 x 3 − 4 x 2 + 6 x + 4
E
and then find its domain and range.

N
3. Draw the graph of each of the

LI
following:
(a) f ( x) = x 4 − 5 x 2 + 10 .
N
(b) f ( x) = − x 4 − 4 x3 − x 2 + 8 x .
O
(c) f ( x) = −( x − 2)( x + 2)2 (x + 1).

R
f ( x) = 4x 4 − 3x 2 .
FO

Domain = { x : − ∞ < x < ∞} =f ( x) x 2 ( x 2 − 1) over the
 25  interval −2 ≤ x ≤ 2 and find its
Range =  y : y ∈ , y ≥ − 
 4 range.
179
Form Five
FOR ONLINE USE ONLY
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Graphs of rational functions b, respectively, then the following hold:
p ( x)
A function of the form f ( x) = , (a) If the degree of p ( x) is the same
q ( x)
a
where the numerator p ( x) and as the degree of q ( x), then y =
b
denominator q ( x) are polynomial is the horizontal asymptote of the
functions and q( x) ≠ 0, is called a graph y = f ( x) .
rational function. This kind of functions (b) If the degree of p ( x) is less than
may not be defined at some values. The
the degree of q ( x), then y = 0 is
value at which the rational function is
the horizontal asymptote of the
not defined is known as a hole. As the
graph of y = f ( x) .
values of x get closer to or far from the
(c) If the degree of p ( x) is greater
LY
hole, the behaviour of the function is
determined. than the degree of q ( x), then
the graph of y = f ( x) has no
N
Asymptote horizontal asymptotes.
An asymptote to a curve is defined
O
An oblique asymptote is a straight line
as a curve towards which the curve
that is inclined at a certain angle with
approaches as the distance from the
the x-axis. The oblique asymptote is a
SE
origin increases. There are three types
of asymptotes that may exist in rational function of the form = y mx + b where
functions, namely; vertical asymptotes, m ≠ 0. This kind of asymptote exists
when the degree of the numerator is
U
horizontal asymptotes, and oblique
asymptotes. greater than that of the denominator.
A vertical asymptote is a vertical line Normally, the oblique asymptote is
E
obtained by equating the denominator the quotient obtained by dividing the

of a rational function to zero, that is numerator by the denominator using the
N
q ( x) = 0 . A horizontal asymptote is a long division method.

LI
horizontal line parallel to the axis of The graph of a rational function

the independent variable. To find the p ( x) has a hole at x = a if:
f ( x) =
N
horizontal asymptotes of the function

q( x)
f ( x), reduce the term with the highest (i) Both p ( x) and q ( x) have the
O
degree to a constant. This is done by common factor ( x − a ).

dividing each term in the rational
(ii) The simplified denominator does
function by the variable with highest
R
not have the common factor ( x − a).

degree, and then solve for y when the
FO
independent variable x approaches ± ∞. To find the y-coordinate of the hole in a

p( x) rational function, substitute x = a into
Generally, if f ( x) = is a rational
q( x) a simplified expression of f ( x) . In the
function, where p and q are polynomial graph, a hole (if any) is located using a
functions with leading coefficients a and small circle.
180
Form Five
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Steps for graphing a rational function Simplifying equation (i) and

When graphing a rational function use substituting x = 2 gives
the following steps: 4
f (2)= y= .
1. Identify the holes, if any. 5
⎛ 4⎞
2. Find and locate the x and Therefore, a hole is at the point ⎜ 2, ⎟ .
⎝ 5⎠
y-intercepts, if they exist.
3. Find the asymptotes (horizontal, Finding the vertical asymptotes, equate
vertical, or oblique) if any. the denominator of the function to
4. Draw the asymptotes on the graph, zero, that is, x 2 + x − 6 = 0 .
LY
using dotted lines. Solving for x gives x = 2 or x = −3 .
5. Sketch the graph by testing the Therefore, the vertical asymptotes are
behaviour of the graph. the lines x = 2 and x = −3 .
N
O
Note that, the graph of a rational function Example 5.12
may have many vertical asymptotes, but
Find the vertical and horizontal
it will have at most one horizontal or
SEasymptotes of the function
oblique asymptote.
x
f ( x) = .
U
Example 5.11 x −3
Solution
Find the holes and vertical asymptotes x
E
Given f ( x) = .
2 x2 − 4 x x −3
of the function f ( x) = 2 .
N
x + x−6 Vertical asymptotes:

Solution
LI
Finding the vertical asymptotes,

2 x2 − 4 x
Given f ( x) = 2 . equate the denominator of the function
x + x−6
N
to zero, that is,

Factorization of the numerator and x − 3 = 0 ⇒ x = 3.
O
denominator gives;
2 x( x − 2) .................(i) Therefore, the vertical asymptote is
f ( x) =
R
( x + 3)( x − 2) the line x = 3

FO
It can be observed that ( x − 2) is Horizontal asymptote:

a factor in both the numerator and Since the degrees of the numerator
denominator. Setting this factor and denominator are equal, then the
equals to zero, that is, x − 2 = 0, gives horizontal asymptote can be found
x = 2. as follows:
181
Form Five
FOR ONLINE USE ONLY
DO NOT DUPLICATE
Example 5.14
x
1 x
y= x = Sketch the graph of f ( x) = , 2
x 3 3 x −9
− 1− and hence determine the domain and
x x x
range.
As x → ± ∞, y →1
Solution
x
Therefore, the horizontal asymptote Given f ( x) = 2
.
x −9
is the line y = 1.
Find the x and y-intercepts:
The x-intercept is obtained when y = 0.
LY
Example 5.13 x
So, 0 = 2 Þx=0
x −9
Find the oblique asymptote of the
N
Thus, the x-intercept is at the point (0, 0).
4 x2 + 5
function f ( x) = .
O
x−2 The y-intercept is obtained when
0
x = 0. That is, y =
Solution SE 0−9
⇒ y=0
4 x2 + 5
Given f ( x) = . Thus, the y-intercept is at the point
x−2
Finding the oblique asymptote, divide (0, 0).
U
the numerator by denominator using Find the vertical asymptotes by
long division as follows: equating the denominator to zero:
x 2 − 9 = ( x + 3) ( x − 3) = 0
E
4x + 8
x − 2 4 x2 + 5 Hence, the vertical asymptotes are the
N
line x = −3 and x = 3.
− 4x2 − 8x
LI
Draw x = −3 and x = 3 using dotted

8x + 5 lines on the xy-plane.
N
− 8 x − 16 Find the horizontal asymptote by

21 dividing the expression by the term
O
4 x2 + 5 21 with the highest power.

Thus, y = = (4 x + 8) + . Since the degree of the numerator is
R
x−2 x−2
1 and that of the denominator is 2,
Therefore, the oblique asymptote is
FO
divide each term by x 2.

y 4 x + 8.
the line = x 1
= x
2
That is, f ( x) = 2 x
x 9 9
− 1− 2
x2 x2 x
182
Form Five
FOR ONLINE USE ONLY
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As x → ± ∞, y → 0.
Hence, the horizontal asymptote is the line y = 0.

But, the line y = 0 cannot be a dotted line as it define the x-axis.
Locate the points on either side of the vertical asymptotes, also select some
values of x and determine the corresponding values of y, then use these values
to sketch the graph.
x
The graph of f ( x) = 2 is shown in the following figure:
x −9
LY
N
O
SE
U
E
N
= { x : x ∈ , x ≠ ± 3}
Domain
Range
= { y : y ∈ }
LI
N
Example 5.15 Find the x and y-intercepts:

x-intercept; y = 0
O
x3 − 3x
Sketch the graph of f ( x) = , x3 − 3x
3( x 2 − 7) So, 0 =
3( x 2 − 7)
R
and hence determine the domain and

range. ( )
x3 − 3 x =0 ⇒ x x 2 − 3 =0
FO
Solution ⇒
= x 0 or x 2=
−3 0
x3 − 3x x 2 =3 =0 ⇒ x 2 =3
Given f ( x) = .
3( x 2 − 7) ⇒x=± 3
183
Form Five
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Thus, the x-intercepts are at the points Hence, the oblique asymptote is the line
1
( x, y ) = ( 0, 0 ) and ( ±
3, 0 ) y = x.
3
y-intercept; x = 0
Locate the points on either side of
0−0
That is, y = the vertical asymptotes, also select
3(0 − 7)
some values of x and determine the
⇒ y=0
corresponding values of y, then use these
Thus, the y-intercept is at the point (0, 0).
values to sketch the graph.
Find the vertical asymptotes by
LY
equating the denominator to zero, x3 − 3x
that is, The graph of f ( x) = is shown
3( x 2 − 7)
3( x 2 − 7) = 0 in the following figure:
N
2
Þ x =7
O
⇒x=± 7
Hence, the vertical asymptotes are the SE
lines x = − 7 and x = 7 .
Draw x = − 7 and x = 7 as dotted
U
lines on the xy-plane.
Since the highest degree of the
numerator is 3 and that of the
E
denominator is 2, divide the numerator

by the denominator to get the oblique
N
asymptote.
LI
That is, Domain

= { x : x ∈ , x ≠ ± 7 }
N
1x Range
= { y : y ∈ }
3
O
3 x 2 − 21 x 3 − 3 x Example 5.16
− x3 − 7 x
R
x2 − 2x + 1
4x Sketch the graph of f ( x) =
x3 + x 2 − 2 x
FO
Thus,
x3 − 3x 1 4x and hence determine the domain and
f ( x) = 2
= x+ 2 . range.
3( x − 7) 3 3x − 21
184
Form Five
FOR ONLINE USE ONLY
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Draw x = −2 as dotted line on the graph.

Solution
x2 − 2x + 1 But x = 0 cannot be a dotted line as it defines
Given f ( x) = . the y-axis. Since the degree of the numerator is
x3 + x 2 − 2 x
Factorize the numerator and 1, and the degree of the denominator is 2, the
denominator: horizontal asymptotes is obtained as follows:
( x − 1)( x − 1) x 1 1 1
f ( x) = →, 2
− 2 −
x( x + 2)( x − 1) f ( x) = x2 x = x x2 .
x x 2
x −1 +2 2 1+
thus, f ( x) = . x 2
x x
LY
x( x + 2)
As x→ ± ∞, y →0.
Hence, the hole is at x = 1. Substituting
x = 1, gives f (1) = 0 , this implies that Hence, the horizontal asymptote is the line y = 0 .
N
the hole is at (1, 0). Locate the points on either side of the asymptotes,
x-intercept; y = 0
O
also select some values of x and determine the
Þ 0 = x −1 corresponding values of y, then use these values
x( x + 2) to sketch the graph.
SE
⇒ x −1 = 0
x2 − 2x + 1
The graph of f ( x) = 3 is plotted
Þ x =1 x + x2 − 2x
U
Thus, the x-intercept is at the point in the following figure:
(1, 0).
y-intercept; x = 0 y
E
0 −1
5
Þ y=
N
0(0 + 2) 4
Þ y=∞ 3
LI
x 2 -2x+1
f (x) =
x 3 +x 2 -2x
Thus, the y-intercept is at infinity 2
N
(does not exist). 1
The vertical asymptotes are obtained

O
-6 -5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5 x
by equating the denominator to zero, -1
that is, x( x + 2) = 0 -2
R
Þ x = 0 or x = −2 -3
FO
-4
Hence, the vertical asymptotes are
-5
the lines x = 0 and x = −2.
185
Form Five
FOR ONLINE USE ONLY
DO NOT DUPLICATE
Domain
= { x : x ∈ , x ≠ − 2, x ≠ 0, x ≠ 1} Draw x = 3 as a dotted line on the
graph.
Range = { y : y ∈ , y ≥ 1.866, y ≤ 0.134, y ≠ 0}
Horizontal asymptote:
Since the degree of the numerator is 1
Example 5.17
and that of the denominator is 2, divide
each term by x 2 .
Sketch the graph of the function x 3 3 3
3 2+ 2 +
3x + 3 x x x x2
f ( x) = ,. and use it to show that That is, f ( x) = = 3
x(3 − x) x x2 −1
1 3 2− 2 x
LY
it has no real values between < y < 3 . x x
3
As x→ ± ∞, y →0.
Hence, state its domain and range.
N
Hence, the horizontal asymptote is the
Solution line y = 0.
O
3x + 3 Locate the points on either side of
Given f ( x) = .
x(3 − x) the vertical asymptotes, also select
Find the x and y-intercepts:
x-intercept; y = 0
SE
some value of x and determine the
corresponding values of y. Use the
Þ 0 = 3x + 3 selected values to sketch the graph.
U
x(3 − x) 3x + 3
The graph of f ( x) = is shown
Þ x = −1 x(3 − x)
in the following figure:
Thus, the x-intercept is at the point (−1, 0).
E
y − intercept; x = 0 , that is,

N
3(0) + 3 y
y=
0(3 − 0) 3x + 3 5
LI
f(x) =
x(3 -x)
4
Þ y= ∞ 3
N
Thus, the y-intercept is at infinity (does 2

No real values of y in this interval
O
not exist). 1
The vertical asymptotes are obtained by -5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 x

-1
equating the denominator to zero, that is,
R
-2
x (3 − x) = 0 -3
FO
Þ x = 0 or x − 3 = 0 . This gives x = 0 -4
or x = 3.
-5
-6
Hence, the vertical asymptotes are the
lines x = 0 and x = 3 .
186
Form Five
FOR ONLINE USE ONLY
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Composite functions
Domain = { x : x ∈ , x ≠ 0, x ≠ 3} A composite function is a function
 1  which is obtained after substituting one
Range
=  y : x ∈  , x ≠ < y < 3
 3  function into another function. Suppose
f ( x) and g ( x) are two functions, then,
Exercise 5.5 the composite of f ( x) and g ( x) is given
as f [ g ( x)]. The composite function
Sketch the graph of each of the f [ g ( x)] is written in short as ( f  g )( x)
following functions and state the
, and read as “ f of g of x ”. The function
domain and range:
LY
g ( x) is the inner function and the
x
1. f ( x) = function f ( x) is the outer function.
( x − 3)( x + 2)
Hence, f [ g ( x)] can be read as “the
N
3 2
x + 4 x + 5x + 2 function g is the inner function of
2. f ( x) =
O
x2 + x − 6 the outer function f ”. The composite
2x function is sometimes written as f  g .
3. f ( x) = SE
( x − 3)( x + 3)
x2 − 4 Activity 5.2: Verifying whether a
4. f ( x) = 2
x − 4x composite of two linear functions
U
is also a function
x3 + x
5. f ( x) = 2
x −9 Individually or in a group, perform
E
x3 + 2x 2 + 1 the following tasks:

6. f ( x) = 1. Write down any two linear
N
( x + 1)( x − 1)
functions.
LI
( x − 1)( x3 − 2 x 2 − 2 x + 1) 2. Substitute one function into

7. f ( x) =
x3 − x 2 − x + 1 another for the functions obtained
N
2 x3 + x 2 − 3 in task 1.
8. f ( x) =
O
x2 − 9 3. Verify whether the result obtained

x2 − 2 in task 2 is a function or not.
9. f ( x) =
R
x2 −1
Steps to form a composite function
FO
x 2 − 3x − 2
10. f ( x) = The following steps are used to form a
x2 − 4
composite function:
1. Decide which is the inner and

which is the outer function.
187
Form Five
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2. Substitute the inner function into the variable x of the outer function.
3. Simplify the resulting composite function.
Example 5.18
Give the functions g(x) = 2x – 2 and f (x) = x2 + 5, find each of the following:
(a) ( g  f )( x ) and ( f  g )( x ) .
f ( x)= x 2 + 5, find
d ( g  f )( x ) and
(b) ( f  g )( x ) .
Solution
LY
Given g ( x) = 2 x − 2 and f ( x)= x 2 + 5.
(a) To find ( g  f )( x), substitute x 2 + 5 as x in the function g ( x) = 2 x − 2.
2
That is, ( g  f )( x)= 2( x + 5) − 2
N
= 2 x 2 + 10 − 2
O
= 2x2 + 8
Therefore, ( g  f )(= x) 2 x 2 + 8. SE
(b) To find ( f  g )( x), substitute g ( x) = 2 x − 2 as x in the function f ( x=
) x 2 + 5.
2
That is ( f  g )( x) = (2 x − 2) + 5
= 4 x2 − 8x + 9 .
U
Therefore, ( f  g )( x) = 4 x 2 − 8 x + 9.
E
Example 5.19
N
Given f ( x) = 2 x + 7, find ( f  f )(x).

LI
N
Solution
Given f ( x) = 2 x + 7 .
O
Substitute 2 x + 7 as x into the function f ( x=

) 2 x + 7.
That is, ( f  f )( x)= 2(2 x + 7) + 7

R
= 4 x + 14 + 7
FO
= 4 x + 21 .
Therefore, (f  f )(x=
) 4 x + 21 .
188
Form Five
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Example 5.20 = ln 1+( x − 3)
= ln x − 2
Evaluate f [ g (6)] given that,
Therefore, g ( f =
( x) In x − 2 .
) 6 x + 2 and g ( x) = x – 2.
f ( x=
Example 5.22
Solution
Given f ( x= ) x 2 + 4,and
Given f ( x= ) 6 x + 2 and
g ( x) = x − 9 , then solve for x if
g ( x) = x – 2 .
( f  g ) ( x) = ( g  f ) ( x) .
Substitute x – 2 as x in the function
LY
f ( x=
) 6x + 2 Solution
That is, f [ g ( x)] = 6( x − 2) + 2 Given that f ( x=) x 2 + 4,and
N
= 6 x − 12 + 2 g ( x) = x − 9 .
O
= 6 x − 10 Substitute x − 9 as x into the
) x 2 + 4. That is,
function f ( x=
Hence, f [ g (6) ] = 6(6) − 10 = 36 − 10 = 26 SE
( f  g )( x) =( x − 9) 2 + 4
Therefore, f [ g (6)] = 26.
= x 2 − 18 x + 85 .
Example 5.21 Substitute x 2 + 4 as x into the function
U
g ( x)= x − 9. That is,
Given ( g  f ) ( x) = ( x 2 + 4) − 9
E
f ( x) = x − 3 and g ( x) = ln(1+x 2 ), = x 2 − 5.
find g ( f ( x) ) . But ( f  g ) ( x) = ( g  f ) ( x), thus,
N
x 2 − 18 x + 85 = x 2 − 5
LI
Solution
Given that Þ −18 x + 85 = −5
N
f ( x) = x − 3 and g ( x) = ln(1+x 2 ) . Þ −18 x = −90

Thus, x = 5 .
O
Substitute x − 3 as x into the function

Therefore, x = 5.
g(x) = ln(1+ x 2 ) that is,
R
g ( f ( x) = In 1+ ( f ( x) ) 
2 Example 5.23
 
FO
Find ( f  g )( x ) and ( g  f )( x ) given

= ln 1 + ( x−3 )
2
  that f = {(2,5), (5, 7), (9, 0)} and

g = {(3, 2), (4, 5), (0, 7)}.
189
Form Five
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Solution
Given f = {(2,5), (5, 7), (9, 0)} and g = {(3, 2), (4, 5), (0, 7)} . The composite
functions are given by:
f [ g (3) ]= f [ 2]= 5 → ( 3,5 ) g[ f (2)] = g[5] does not exist.
f [ g (4) ]= f [5]= 7 → ( 4, 7 ) g[ f (5)] = g[7] does not exist.
f [ g (0)] = f [7] does not exist. g [ f (9) ]= g [ 0]= 7 → ( 9, 7 )
Therefore, ( f  g ) ( x) {(3,
= = 5), (4, 7)} and ( g  f ) ( x) {(9, 7)} .
Example 5.24 Exercise 5.6
If f ( x) = 2 x 2 + 4 x + 4 , and
LY
1. Given f ( x= ) 3 x + 5 and g ( x) = 4 − x,
( f  g )( x ) = 2 x 2 − 8 x + 10 , find find f ( g ( x)) and g ( f ( x)) and use
g ( x).
N
the results to verify whether or not
Solution
the composition of the functions is
O
Given f ( x) = 2 x 2 + 4 x + 4 and
commutative.
( f  g )( x ) = 2 x 2 − 8 x + 10.
But ( f  g ) ( x) = f [ g ( x) ]
SE ⎛1⎞
2. Find f ⎜ ⎟ if
substitute g(x) as x into the function ⎝2⎠
x4 + x2
f(x) to obtain, (a) ( f  g ) ( x ) = and g ( x) = 1 − x 2 .
U
2
1+ x
= 2[ g ( x)]2 + 4 g ( x) + 4= 2 x 2 − 8 x + 10
simplification gives, (b) ( f  g ) ( x) = 3 x 2 − 6 x + 11 and
g(x) = x2 – 2x + 3.
E
2[ g ( x)]2 + 4 g ( x) − (2 x 2 − 8x + 6) = 0
This is a quadratic equation in g ( x).
N
3. Given the functions

Thus,
−4 ± 16 + 8(2 x 2 − 8 x + 6) {
f = (−1, 1), (0, 3), (4, 6) and }
LI
g ( x) = g = {(1, 1), (3, 5), (7, 9)} find ( g  f )

4
N
1 and determine its domain and range.

= −1 ± 1 + (2 x 2 − 8 x + 6)
2
O
4. In each of the following pair of

= −1 ± 1 + x2 − 4 x + 3 functions, find ( f  g )( x) :
R
= −1 ± x2 − 4 x + 4 2
(a) f ( x) = x − 2, g ( x) = x + 3
2
(b) f ( x) = x + 4, g ( x) = x − 11
FO
= −1 ± ( x − 2)2
= −1 ± ( x − 2) x
(c) f ( x) = e − 2, g ( x) = x
3
Therefore, (d) f ( x) = x3 , g ( x) = 3 x
g ( x) = x − 3 and g ( x) = 1 − x.
190
Form Five
FOR ONLINE USE ONLY
DO NOT DUPLICATE
Graphs of composite functions

5. Show that if f : A → B and The procedures for drawing graph of composite
g : B → C are one to one, then functions are similar to the procedures used
g  f : A → C is also one to one. to draw other functions.
x+9
6. Find g (− 4) if f ( x) = and Example 5.25
3x
2( x + 5)
( f  g )( x) =
3(2 x + 1) Given f ( x)= x + 3 and g ( x) = x 2 + 2x ,
2 sketch the graphs of ( f  g ) ( x) and
7. If f (x) = 27 − x 2 and g(x) = x − 2,
( g  f ) ( x) on the same xy-plane.
solve the equation ( g  f )( x) = 0.
LY
8. Let f (x) = 3x − 2 , g(x) = 4x, and Solution
h(x) = x 2 + 2 . Compute each of the Given f ( x)= x + 3 and g ( x) = x 2 + 2x.
N
following: Substitute x 2 + 2 x for x in f ( x)= x + 3
(a) f ( g (3)) (d) f ( g (h(3)))
and x + 3 for x in g ( x) = x2 + 2 x.
O
(b) f (h(6)) (e) h( g ( f (5)))
That is, f ( g ( x) ) = x 2 + 2 x + 3 and
(c) ( g  h)(12) (f) h( x − 1)
( g ( f ( x)) = ( x + 3) 2 + 2 ( x + 3) = x 2 + 8 x + 15.
SE
9. Given that h( x=) 4 x − 13 and Hence, ( f  g )( x) = x 2 + 2 x + 3 and
g ( x) = 2 x − 26 x + 9 , find:
2
( g  f )( x) = x 2 + 8 x + 15
U
(a) ( g  h)( x) The graphs of ( f  g ) ( x) and ( g  f ) ( x)
are plotted in the following figure:
(b) (h  g )( x) .
E
10. If f = {(3, 8), (2, 5), (4, − 5), (9, 3)}

N
and g = {(7, 2), (–5, 3), (5, 7), (8,10),

(1,7)}, find f  g and g  f .
LI
11. Functions f and g are sets of ordered

N
pair f = {(−2, 1), (0, 3), (4, 5)}

and g = {(1, 1), (3, 3), (7, 9)}. Find
O
g f.
R
12. Find the composite function f  g

given that f = {(3, 6), (5, 7), (9, 0)}
FO
and g = {(2, 3), (4,5), (6, 7)} .
191
Form Five
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Example 5.26 ⇒x= 2.

Hence, the vertical asymptote is the line x = 2 .
Given f ( x) = 3x − 1 and
4 Sketch x = 2 as a dotted line on the xy-plane.
g ( x) = , sketch separately Horizontal asymptote:
x−2 Since the degree of numerator and denominator
the graphs of ( f  g )( x) and
are equal.
( g  f )( x). 14 x 14
− −1
Solution x x x
Then, ( f =
g )( x) =
Given f ( x) = 3x − 1 and x 2 2
− 1−
4 . x x x
LY
g ( x) =
x−2 Thus, as x → ± ∞, y → –1
Then, Hence, the horizontal asymptote is the line y = –1.
⎛ 4 ⎞
f ( g ( x)) = 3 ⎜ ⎟ −1 Draw y = −1 as a dotted line on the xy-plane.
N
⎝ x−2⎠
Locate the points on either side of the asymptotes,
12 1 12 − x + 2
O
= − = also, select some values of x and determine the
x−2 1 x−2 corresponding values of y. Use the values to
12 − x + 2 14 − x sketch the graph.
SE
= = 14 − x
x−2 x−2 Therefore, the graph of ( f  g )( x) = is
14 − x x−2
Thus, ( f  g )( x) = as shown in the following figure:
U
x−2
x-intercept; y = 0 y
14 − x 10
So, 0 =
E
x−2 8
Þ 0 = 14 − x
N
6 14- x
(f º g)(x ) =
Þ x = 14 4
x -2
LI
Thus, the x-intercept is at the point 2

(14, 0)
N
y -intercept; x = 0 -4 -2 0
-2
2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 x
O
14 − 0
Þ y= -4
0−2 -6
Þ y = −7
R
-8
Thus, the y-intercept is at the
FO
-10
point (0, –7)
Vertical asymptote: substitute
Also, 3 x − 13xfor
substitute – 1x in
for x in
Equate the denominator to zero, 4
4
that is, x − 2 =0 g ( x) = , so that g ( f ( x) ) =
x−2 (3 x − 1) − 2
192
Form Five
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DO NOT DUPLICATE
4 Plot the points on either side of the vertical

=
3x − 3 asymptotes, also, select some values of x and
4 determine the corresponding values of y . Use these
Thus, ( g  f ) ( x) =
3x − 3 values to sketch the graph.
x-intercept; y = 0 4
Therefore, the graph of ( g  f ) ( x) = is
4 3x − 3
So, 0 = , implies there is shown as follows:
3x − 3
no x-intercept.
y-intercept; x = 0
4
LY
So, y =
3(0) − 3
4
Þy=−
3
N
Thus, y-intercept is at the point
O
 4
 0, − 
 3
Vertical asymptote:
SE
Equate the denominator to zero,
that is, 3 x − 3 =0
U
⇒x= 1
Hence, the vertical asymptote is Exercise 5.7
the line x = 1.
E
Draw x = 1 as a dotted line on the 1. The functions g and h are defined by

N
xy-plane. ) x 2 + 1 and h( x) =
g ( x= x + 4, where x ∈ .
Horizontal asymptote:
Sketch the graph of ( g  h ) ( x) and state its
LI
Since the degree of the numerator

is 0, and the degree of the domain and range.
N
denominator is 1, the horizontal 2. If f ( x) = x 2 + 2 x + 3 , find two functions of

asymptote is obtained as follows: g ( x), given that ( f  g ) ( x) = x − 4 x + 6 .
2
O
4 4 Hence, sketch the graph of ( f  g ) ( x).

( g =
f ) ( x) = x x 4x
R
3x 3 3 3. Given f (x) = 2x 2 +1 and g(x) = , find:

− 3− x2 − 2
x x x (a) ( f  g ) ( x)
FO
Thus, as x → ± ∞, y = 0.
(b) the asymptotes of ( f  g ) ( x)
Hence, the horizontal asymptote
Hence, sketch the graph of ( f  g ) ( x) and
is the line y = 0.
state its domain and range.
193
Form Five
FOR ONLINE USE ONLY
DO NOT DUPLICATE
6
4. Given f ( x) = 6 x 2 − 1 and g ( x) = , sketch the graph of ( g  f ) ( x) .
x−4
5. Given that ( f  g )( x ) = 3 x 2 + 10 x + 15 and f ( x) = x 2 + 2 x + 1.
(a) Find g(x) (b) Sketch the graph of ( f  g ) ( x)
x2 + 2
6. If ( f  g ) ( x) = ) x 2 + 1 , find f ( x) .
and g ( x=
x4 + 4
7. Given that f(x) = 4x + 1 and g (x) = 6x + k, find the value of k if
k if f ( g ( x) ) = g ( f ( x) ) . Hence, sketch the graph of g ( f ( x) ) ( x).
2
8. A function is defined by g : x → x − 10 for x ∈ . Find the value of x for
LY
which ( g  g )( x ) = 26. Hence, sketch the graph of ( g  g ) ( x).
1
9. If f ( x) = , determine the intercepts and the
N
3 x − 2 and h( x) =
1+ x
asymptotes of ( f  h  h ) ( x). Hence, sketch the graph of the composite
O
function. SE
2
) 3 x + 4 and g ( x) = x ,
10. Given the functions f ( x=
(a) find ( f  g )( x )
(b) find ( g  f )( x )
U
(c) Draw the graph of ( g  f ) ( x)
x
11. Given f ( x) = x 2 , g ( x) = x − 1, and h( x) = , find:
E
2
(a) ( f  g  h ) ( x) and sketch its graph.
N
(b) ( h  g  f ) (4) .
LI
12. Find ( f  g ) ( x) and ( g  f ) ( x) for each of the following pair of

functions and sketch their graphs on the same xy-plane:
N
(a) f ( x) =x + 6 and g ( x) = x+3

O
2
(b) f ( x) =x + 2 and g ( x) = x
(c) f ( x) =3 x + 1 and g ( x) =6 − 3x
R
Graphs of exponential functions

FO
An exponential function f (x) with base a is defined by f ( x) = a x or y = a x , where

a > 0, a ≠ 1, and x ∈ . To draw the graph of an exponential function, choose some
values of the independent variable x and determine the corresponding values of the
dependent variable y. Tabulate the values and plot them on the xy-plane.
194
Form Five
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DO NOT DUPLICATE

x
x 1
Draw the graph of f ( x) = 2 . Draw the graph of g ( x) =   and,
. determine
2
its domain and range.
Solution
Solution x
Given f ( x) = 2 x . 1
The selected few values for graphing Given g ( x) =   .
2
the function are tabulated as follows: The selected few values for graphing the
LY
x − 3 − 2 –1 0 1 2 3
x –3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3
1 1 1
f ( x) = 2 x
1 2 4 8 x
8 4 2 1 1 1 1
N
g ( x) =   8 4 2 1
2 2 4 8
O
The graph of f ( x) = 2 x is shown in the x
following figure: 1
The graph of g ( x) =   ,is shown in the
2
SE
following figure:
y
U
8
6
E
x
1
g(x) =
2 5
N
4
LI
3
N
2
O
-4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 x
R
-1
FO
-2
Domain
= { x : x ∈ }
Range = { y : y ∈ , y > 0}
195
Form Five
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Example 5.29
x
Draw the graphs of f ( x) = e , g ( x) = −e , and h( x) = e x −1 on the same xy-plane
x
Solution
The selected few values for graphing function are tabulated as follows:
x –3 –2 –1 0 1 2
0.0498 0.1353 0.3679 1 2.7183 7.3891
LY
f ( x) = e x
g ( x) = −e x – 0.0498 – 0.1353 – 0.3679 –1 – 2.7183 – 7.3891
N
h( x) = e x −1 0.0183 0.0498 0.1353 0.3679 1 2.7183
O
The graphs of f ( x) = e x , g ( x) = −e x , and h( x) = e x −1 , are shown in the following
figure: SE
U
E
N
LI
N
O
R
FO
196
Form Five
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Exercise 5.8 6. Graph each of the following

x functions and state the domain
1
1. Draw the graph of f ( x) =   and range.
3
x −1
and, determine its domain and 1
f ( x)  
(a)= +7
range. 7
2. Graph each of the following x+2
1
function and state its domain and (b)=
f ( x)   −1
4
range.
x+4 (c) f ( x) = 5 x +1
(a) f=
( x) 2 −4
LY
( x) 3x + 2 + 1
(d) f =
x+2
(b) f ( x) = −e
x −2 7. Sketch the graph of
1
N
f ( x)  
(c)= −3 f ( x) = e( x +3)ln 2 .
2
O
−2 x +3 + 1
(d) f ( x) =
Graphs of logarithmic functions
x) e− x + 3
(e) f (= If a is any positive real number not
SE
equal to 1, then a function defined
3. Draw the graph of y = 4 x , as= f ( x) log a x, x > 0, is called a
x
logarithmic function. A logarithmic
U
x 1
y = 5 , and f ( x) =   on
3 function is the inverse of an exponential
the same axes.
function, that is, if y = ax, then
4. Sketch the graph of f ( x) = a x for
E
=x log a y, a > 0, a ≠ 1.
the following values of a, on the
N
same axes. The procedure for drawing graphs of

(a) a = 3 (d) a = 6 logarithmic functions are similar to the
LI
1 procedure used for drawing exponential

(b) a = 7 (e) a =
6 functions.
N
(c) a = 2
5. Graph each of the following
O
Example 5.30
exponential functions.
(a) f ( x) = 8 x
R
Draw the graph of f ( x) = log 2 x and

(b) f ( x) = e x −1 state the domain and range.
FO
(c) f ( x) = 6 x +1
Solution
(d) f ( x) = 2 x + 4 Given f ( x) = log 2 x .
( x ) 2 x −3 − 1
(e) f =
197
Form Five
FOR ONLINE USE ONLY
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The selected few values for graphing the function are tabulated as follows:
1 1 1
x 1 2 4 8
8 4 2
f ( x) = log 2 x –3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3
The graph of f ( x) = log 2 x is shown in the following figure:
LY
N
O
SE
U
E
N
LI
N
Domain = {x : x ∈ , x > 0}, Range

= { y : y ∈ }.
O
Example 5.31
R
FO
Draw the graph of f ( x) = ln x.
Solution
Given f ( x) = ln x.
198
Form Five
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1 1 1 1 4
x 2
8 4 2
f ( x) = ln x –2.08 –1.39 – 0.69 0 0.69 1.39
The graph of f ( x) = ln x is shown in the following figure:
LY
N
O
SE
U
E
N
Example 5.32
LI
N
Draw the graph of f ( x) = log 1 x , hence state its domain and range.
2
O
Solution
Given f ( x) = log 1 x.
2
R
FO
1 1 1
x 8 4 2 1
2 4 8
f ( x) = log 1 x –3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3
2
199
Form Five
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The graph of f ( x) = log 1 x is plotted in the following figure.

2
LY
N
O
SE
Therefore, the domain = = { y : y ∈ }.
{x : x ∈ , x > 0} and range
U
Example 5.33
E
N
Draw the graph of f (=

x) log 4 ( x + 2) + 1 , hence state its domain and range.
LI
Solution
Given f (=
x) log 4 ( x + 2) + 1 .
N
O
x –1.9961 –1.9844 –1.9375 –1.75 –1 2

R
f (=
x) log 4 ( x + 2) + 1 –3 –2 –1 0 1 2
FO
The graph of f (=
x) log 4 ( x + 2) + 1 is shown in the following figure:
200
Form Five
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LY
N
O
Therefore, the domain
= = { y : y ∈ }.
{x : x ∈ , x > −2} and range
SE
Example 5.34
U
Draw the graphs of f ( x) = log3 x , g ( x) = log 6 x , h( x) = log 1 x, and
k ( x) = log 1 x on the same xy-plane . 7
4
E
Solution
N
The selected few values correct to one decimal point for graphing the functions
are tabulated as follows:
LI
N
1 1 1
x 1 3 9 27
27 9 3
O
h( x) = log 1 x 1.7 1.1 0.6 0 −0.6 –1.1 –1.7

7
R
f ( x) = log3 x –3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3
FO
g ( x) = log 6 x –1.8 –1.2 – 0.6 0 0.6 1.2 1.8
k ( x) = log 1 x
2.4 1.6 0.8 0 –0.8 – 1.6 –2.4
4
201
Form Five
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The graphs of f ( x) = log3 x , g ( x) = log 6 x , h( x) = log 1 x , and k ( x) = log 1 x

are shown in the following figure: 7 4
LY
N
O
SE
U
Exercise 5.9
E
1. Draw the graph and identify the domain and range of each of the following:
N
(a) =y log 6 ( x − 1) − 4 (d)=y log5 ( x + 2) + 1

LI
y log 6 (3 x − 14) + 1 (e)=

(b)= y log 2 ( x − 2) − 3
N
(c) y =− log5 ( x − 1) + 4
O
2. Draw the graph of f ( x) = −2log( x − 3) + 1 .
3. Draw the graph of f ( x) = −2log5 (−( x − 3)) + 1.

R
 15 
4. Draw the graph of f ( x) = log9  x  , find its domain and range.
FO
7 
5. Draw the graphs of f ( x) = e2 x and g ( x) = ln2 x on the same xy-plane.
202
Form Five
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6. Draw the graph of = f ( x) log 2 ( x + 1) .

7. Draw the graph of f= ( x) 4 x + 2 − 6. Hence, using the graph, find the
(a) Domain and range.
(b) Intercepts of f ( x) .
Chapter summary
1. A function is a relation between a set of inputs and a set of outputs according

to a certain rule.
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2. A polynomial function is defined by y = f ( x) = a0 + a1 x + a2 x 2 +  + an x n ,
where n ∈ , and a0 , a1 , ..., an ∈ .
p ( x)
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3. A rational function is any function of the form f ( x) = , where the
q ( x)
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numerator p ( x) and denominator q ( x) are polynomial functions and
q( x) ≠ 0.
4. A composite function is a function obtained by substituting one function
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into the other. If f ( x) and g ( x) are two functions, then the composite
function f [ g ( x)] is abbreviated as ( f  g )( x ) .
5. An exponential function f ( x) with base a is a function of the form
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f ( x) = a x or y = a x , where a > 0, a ≠ 1, and x ∈ .
6. A logarithmic function is the inverse of an exponential function.
E
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Revision exercise 5
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1. Draw the graph of f ( x) = 2 x − x 2 and state its domain and range.

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2. Draw the graph of each of the following:

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(a) f ( x) = − 5 x + 8 , and label the x-intercept.

3
R
1
(b) f (=
x) x + 1 , and g ( x) = 4 on the same set of axes and determine the
3
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point where f ( x) = g ( x) .
⎧ x + 2, x ∈ [−2, 2 )
(c) f ( x) = ⎪⎨
⎪⎩ 2 x − 3, x ∈ [1, 3]
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3. Draw the graph of each of the x

(a) f ( x) = 2
following: x + x − 14
2
(a) f ( x) = − x + 4 x − 3. x3 + 2
(b) f ( x) = x 2 − 4 x + 3, and (b) f ( x) = 2
x −2
determine the domain and
range. 2 x2 + 6 x
1 2 (c) f ( x) =
(c) f ( x) = − x 2 , g ( x) = − x , and x2 + 4 x + 3
3
h( x) = −3x 2 on the same axes. 3
(d) f ( x) =
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4. Find the domain for which the 3 − x2
functions f ( x) = x 2 − 3 and
x
g ( x) = 3x − 5 are equal. (e) f ( x) =
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( x + 1)( x − 2)
following functions and determine 5
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(f) f ( x) =
their domain and range: 2
( x − 1) ( x + 2)
(a) f ( x) = ( x + 2)( x + 4)( x − 2)
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(g) f ( x) = 1
3
(b) f ( x) = x − 9 x + 8 for ( x − 1)( x + 3)
−4 ≤ x ≤ 4
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3 2
(c) f ( x) = x + 3x + x − 2 x3 + 2 x 2 − 9 x − 18
(h) f ( x) =
x3 + 6 x 2 + 5 x − 12
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following: x2 − 2x + 1
(i) f ( x) =
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4 2
(a) f ( x) = 3x − 7 x x3 + x 2 − 2 x
4 2
(b) f ( x) = x − 2 x
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(j) f ( x) = 12
(c) f ( x) = x 4 − 2 x3 − 5x 2 2
4 3 2
x + 2x − 3
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(d) f ( x) = − ( x − 4 x − x + 10 x + 2)
3x − 9
(k) f ( x) =
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7. For each of the following rational 2

x −x−2
functions, find the vertical asymptotes,
horizontal asymptotes, oblique 2 − 3x
R
(l) f ( x) =
asymptotes, and holes (if any), then, 2
x + 3x − 3
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sketch the graph and describe its

behaviour near the asymptotes, hence, 2 x3
(m) f ( x) =
state its domain. x2 − 9
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8. Given that x = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5} , 14. Given that

g ( x) = {(1, 0 ) , ( 2, 1) , ( 3, 3) , ( 4, 6 ) , ( 5, 8 )} f ( x) = 20 − x 2 and g ( x) = x 2 − 4 ,
and f ( x) = 2 x − 4, find: solve for x if ( f  g )( x) = 0.
(a) ( f  g )( x ) (b) ( g  f )( x ) x −1
15. If f ( x) = x 2 − x and g ( x) = ,
x+2
find each of the following:
9. Given that f = {(1, 7), (2, 9),
(3, 12), (4, 15), (5, 19)} and (a) ( f  g )( x ) (b) ( g  f ) (−1)
g = {(7,3), (−1,5), (9, 4), (2, −3)}
16. If f ( x) = x − 4 and g ( x) = x ,
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Find: find each of the following:
(a) f  g (b) g  f
(a) ( f  g )( 8 ) (b) ( g  f )( 20 )
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10. Given that f (x) = x2 + 2x + 2, 17. Draw the graph of each of the
g(x) = x – 4, and h(x) = cosx, find following functions and determine
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each of the following: the domain and range:
(a) ( f  g )( x ) −x
SE 5
(b) ( g  f )( x ) (a) f ( x) =  
3
(c) ( g  f  h )( x )
(b) f ( x) = 4 x
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11. Given that (g º f ) (x) =18x2 + 2 1
x +1
and g (x) = 2x2 + 5x + 8, find f(x). f ( x)  

(c) = −1
3
4
12. If f ( x) = 4 – x and g ( x ) = ,
E
x ( x) 2 x −1 + 2
(d) f =
show that f  g ≠ g  f .
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x
5
13. Given that (e) f ( x) =  
3
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5 ,
f ( x) = 2 x − 2 and g ( x) = x+2
x−2 1
(f) f ( x) =  
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find: 4
(a) ( f  g ) ( x)
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x −1
1
(b) ( g  f ) ( x) (g)=
f ( x)   +4
4
(c) ( f  g ) (3)
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(h) f ( x) = e x −1
(d) ( f  g ) (4)
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−x
1
(e) Sketch the graph of ( g  f )( x ) (i) f ( x) = −  
6
and state its domain and range.
205
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18. Draw the graph of each of the following:

(a) f ( x) = −4log( x − 2) + 1
2
⎛ x+2⎞
(b) f ( x) = log ⎜ ⎟ .
⎝ x−3 ⎠
19. (a) If f ( x) = log3 x and g ( x) = x − 1, graph ( f  g )( x ) and find its
domain and range.
(b) Draw the graph of= f ( x) (log 6 x) − 2 .
20. (a) Describe a cubic function?
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(b) Draw the graph of f ( x) = x3 − 9 x + 5 and state the behaviour of
the function for positive and negative large values of x.
N
O
SE
U
E
N
LI
N
O
R
FO
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Chapter
Six Algebra
Introduction
Algebra deals with the representation of numbers and quantities in formulae
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and equations by symbols and letters. In this chapter, you will learn about
indices and logarithms, series, proofs by mathematical induction, roots of a
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polynomial function, remainder and factor theorems, inequalities, matrices,
binomial theorem, and partial fractions. The competencies developed can be
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applied in various real-life situations such as in solving problems related to
landscape designing, computer programming, real estate planning, business
SE
and finance management, geometry, budgeting, making a schedule of activities,
cooking, shopping, and in many other fields.
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Indices and logarithms Indices

E
Indices and logarithms are inter- An index is a number which shows

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related areas of algebra in the sense how many times a quantity has been
that they all deal with powers of multiplied by itself. This number is
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numbers. An index is the exponent for usually raised to another number or

variable and is called the exponent. For
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which a base is raised. For instance,

if y, b, and x are any real numbers, example, given 102 and x5, then 2 and
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such that y = b x , then b x is called a 5 are indices of 10 and x, respectively.

In algebra, the laws of indices are used
power with an exponent x (or index
to simplify the expressions involving
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x) and a base b. The index x is called

indices.
the logarithm of y to base b, and it is
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written as x = logb y. Fractional powers

There are several laws of indices which
of positive numbers, in radical sign
include multiplication, division, power
are called surds. of zero, brackets, power of products,
207
Form Five
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negative power, and fractional power. These laws enable to simplify calculations
or expressions involving powers of the same base.
Activity 6.1: Identifying the laws of indices

1. List down laws of indices and prove any two laws.
2. Construct two questions for each law in task 1.
3. Use the laws to solve the respective questions in task 2.
4. Share your work with other students for more inputs.
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Law of product of powers with the same base
When multiplying two terms of the same base, add their indices.
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a m + n , where a is any positive real number and m, n are
In general, a m × a n =
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positive integers.
Proof SE
a m = a × a × a × ... × a (m-times), and
a n = a × a × a × × a (n-times)
= ( a × a × × a ) × ( a × a ×  × a )
 
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m-times n-times
= a × a × a × × a (m + n-times)
= a m+ n
E
Therefore, a m × a n =
a m+ n .
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Law of quotient of powers

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When dividing two terms of the same base, subtract their indices.
In general, a m ÷ a n =
a m−n .
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Proof
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m a m a × a × a × × a ( m-times)
n
a ÷a = n =
a a × a × a × × a ( n-times)
R
If m > n, the n factors in the denominator will cancel with n of the m factors in the
FO
numerator leaving (m ‒ n) factors, such that

a m ÷ a n = a × a × × a to (m − n) times
= a m−n
Therefore, a m ÷ a n =
a m−n .
208
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Law of product of powers

If a quantity with a power is itself raised to another power, then the powers are
multiplied together. That is, (a ) = a .
m n mn
Proof
(a )
n
m
= a m × a m × × a m (n -times)
= a mn
Therefore, ( a m ) = a mn .
n
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Law of powers of product with the same exponent
If a product of two numbers is raised to a single power, then every factor of the
product is raised to that power. That is, (ab) m = a mb m , where a and b are any
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positive real numbers.
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Proof
(ab) m = (ab) × (ab) × (ab) × (ab)(m-times) SE
(ab) m = a × a ×× a × b
× b × × b

m-times m-times
= a mb m
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Therefore, (ab) m = a mb m .
Law of negative power

E
A negative power can be written as a fraction.

N
1
In general, a − n = .
an
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Law of power zero

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If a power is divided by itself or if a quantity is raised to zero, then the result is 1.

an
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0
In general, = n a n−=
n
a= 1
n a
a 0
= a n−=n
a= 1.
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n
a
Law of fractional power
FO
In case of a fractional power, the denominator stands for the type of the root, and
the numerator stands for exponent (or index).
n
 m1  n
( )
n
In general, = m m
a =a  a .

 
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2x Given x + 15 =15 − x − 30 .
Simplify
3 . Squaring both sides gives,
32 x−3 x + 15= 225 − 30 x − 30 + x − 30
Solution
⇒ 30 x − 30 =
180
Since a m ÷ a n =
a m−n .
2x ⇒ x − 30 =
6.
Thus, 32 x −3 = 32 x −(2 x −3) = 33
3 Again squaring both sides to get,
= 27 x − 30 = 36
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32 x ⇒ x = 66
Therefore, 2 x−3 = 27.
3 Therefore, x = 66 .
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O
x x
Solve for x if 4(3 ) – 3 = 27 . (x − 4)6 × x − 4
Simplify
SE .
( x − 4)3
Solution
Since 3x appears in both of the two Solution
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terms of the equation, it can be
(x − 4)6 × x − 4
factored out. Given .
( x − 4)3
Thus, 4 ( 3x ) –=
3x 3x (4 − 1)
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⇒ 3x (4 − 1) =27 (x − 4)6 × x − 4 (x − 4)6 × (x − 4)

⇒ =
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x
⇒3 × 3 =27 ( x − 4)3 ( x − 4)3
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⇒ 3x+1 =
33 ; = (x − 4)6 × (x − 4)1 ( x − 4) −3
Comparing the exponents gives,
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x +1 = 3 = (x − 4)6+1−3
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⇒ x=2 =
== ( x((x−−4)44)2)46+1−3
Therefore, x = 2.
= ( x − 4) 2
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Example 6.3 Therefore,

FO
(x − 4)6 × (x − 4)
Solve for x in the equation, = ( x − 4) 2 .
3
( x − 4)
x + 15 =15 − x − 30 .
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Exercise 6.1 a > 0 is written as y = log a x if and

only if x = a y .
1. Solve for each of the variable in
the following questions: Laws of logarithms
(a) 35 = 3
2 n −1 There are helpful laws for rewriting
expressions involving logarithms in
(b) 2 x = 4 x+1
different ways but yet in an equivalent
(c) 81u − 5(9u ) =36
x
way. These laws are known as the laws
1 of logarithms. The laws are applicable
(d)   = 2 x − 6
2 to any base, but the same base must be
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p p +2 q 1 used throughout the calculation.
2. Find , if = .
q q −2 p 2
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3. Solve the following system of Activity 6.2: Recognizing the laws
simultaneous equations: of logarithms
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x+ y

 3 =9 Individually or in a group, perform
 2 x −5 y
5
 = 625 the following tasks:
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1. List down the laws of logarithms
4. Solve for y if y =11 − y − 11 . you have learnt.
2 1
2. Prove the laws you have listed
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− −
5. Solve for x , if 2 x 5 − 8x 5 +4=0.
in task 1.
6. Find the value of x, if 3
3x − 1 =2. 3. What have you observed from
1
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(
7. Solve for x, in 4 x 8 x −3 = ) 162− x
. the tasks? Give comments.
4. List down the challenges you
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8. Solve for x, if 6 x+ 2 = 1296 . faced in tasks 1 and 2.

4 x +3 210−2 x
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9. Solve for x, if = . 5. Share your work with other

810 x 643 x students for more inputs.
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2 − 2 y −5 1
10. Solve for y, if 7 y = .
49 The following are four important laws
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of logarithms and their proofs.

Logarithms
R
Logarithm of a product
The logarithm of a number to a given base
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The logarithm of a product of two

is the index of the power to which the base
numbers with the same base is the sum
must be raised to produce the number. It is
of the logarithms of those numbers.
simply a mirror image of an index. Thus,
the logarithmic function to base a, where In general, logb=
( xz ) logb x + logb z ,
where x and z are positive numbers.
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Proof b q = z …………..............................(ii)
It is required to prove that Dividing equation (i) by equation (ii)
log= b ( xz ) log b x + log b z. gives,
Consider the right-hand side: bp x
=
Let p log
= = b x and q log b z. bq z
Thus, b p = x .....................(i) x ……...........................(iii)
⇒ b p −q =
and z
Introducing logarithm to base b on both
b q = z ..............................(ii)
sides of equation (iii) gives,
x
Multiplying equations (i) and (ii) gives, logb b p −q = logb  
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b p + q = xz …….....…..........(iii) z
x
Introducing logarithm to base b on both ⇒ ( p − q ) logb b = logb  
z
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sides of equation (iii) gives, x
 
⇒ p−q = logb   .
logb b p + q = logb ( xz ) z
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⇒
= ( p + q ) logb b logb = But p log
( xz ). But logb b 1= = b x and q log b z.
Thus, p + q = logb ( xz ).
SE
Substituting the values of p and q, gives
Substituting the values of p and q, gives x

log b x − log b z = log b   .
logb x + logb z = logb ( xz ) z
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 x
Therefore, logb= ( xz ) logb x + logb z . Therefore, logb=   logb x − logb z.
z
E
Logarithm of a quotient Logarithm of the nth power

The logarithm of a quotient of two numbers The logarithm of the nth power of a
N
with the same base is the difference of the positive quantity is n multiplied by the
LI
logarithms of the numbers. logarithm of the quantity. In general,

 x logb x n = n logb x.
In general, logb=
  logb x − logb z .
N
z
Proof
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Proof
It is required to prove that
It is required to prove that
logb x n = n logb x.
R
x
logb=
  logb x − logb z. Let p = logb x , so that
z
FO
x = b p .............................................. (i)
Consider the right-hand side:
Let p log
= = b x and q log b z
Raising to the power n on both sides of
p
Thus, b = x ................................... (i) equation (i), gives
and x n = b np ......................................... (ii)
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Introducing logarithm to base b on both If x and z are positive real numbers, and
sides of equation (ii) gives, b is a real number greater than zero for
logb x n = logb b np b ≠ 1 , then the laws of logarithms can
= np log b b be summarized as follows:
= np (a) logb= ( xz ) logb x + logb z
Thus, logb x n = nlogb x  x
(b) logb=
  logb x − logb z
Therefore, log b x = n log b x .
n
z
Logarithm of the mth root (c) logb ( x a ) = a logb x
The logarithm of the mth root of the  m1  1
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1 (d) logb  x  = logb x
positive quantity is multiplied by   m
m
the logarithm of the quantity. In general, (e) log b 1 = 0
N
 1 1
log b  x m  = log b x. (f) logb b = 1
  m
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(g) log b b = n
n
Proof
It is required to prove that SE
 1 1 Note that, if the logarithm of a quantity
log b  x m  = log b x
  m is written without indicating the base,
U
Let p = logb x , so that then it is considered to be in base 10.
x = b p ………………………..…… (i) For instance, log 2 x = 1 is the same as
1 log10 2 x = 1.
Raising to the power on both sides
E
m
of equation (i), gives
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 1
1 p m  Example 6.5
xm ………………………. (ii)
 
=b
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Introducing logarithm to base b on both Solve the following system of

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sides of equation (ii) gives, equations:

1 p
m p 1 log( x + y ) = 1
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⇒ logb xm logb b where

= m
= p 

m
p log 2 (2 x − y ) =5
log b
=
m b
R
Solution
p Given log( x + y ) = 1, then
=
FO
m x+ y = 10 ....................................(i)
1
1 Also, log 2 (2 x − y ) = 5, then
Thus, log b x m = log b x
m 2x − y = 25
1
1
Therefore, logb x m = logb x. ⇒ 2x − y =
32.............................(ii)
m
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2
⇒ log 2 ( x − 1) =
3
Solving equations (i) and (ii)
2
simultaneously, 23
⇒ ( x − 1) =
 x+ y = 10 ⇒ x 2 − 1 =8
+
2 x − y =32 ⇒ x2 =
9
Thus, 3 x = 42 ⇒ x = 14 Thus, x = 3 or x = −3.
From equation (i), it gives Since the logarithm of a negative
y= 10 − 14 =−4 number is not defined, then x = 3 is
the only solution.
Therefore, ( x,=
y ) (14, − 4).
Therefore, x = 3.
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Example 6.6 Natural logarithms
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There are two types of logarithms in
Given that log5 6 = 1.1133 and extensive use. These are the common
O
log5 3 = 0.6826, find the value of logarithms and the natural logarithms.
log5 54 correct to five significant Common logarithms are base 10
SE
figures. logarithms and they are usually written
without showing the base. For example,
Solution
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log10 7 and log10 2 can be written as
Let log
= 5 54 log 5 (6 × 9)
log 7 and log 2 , respectively. Natural
= log5 6 + log5 9
logarithms are logarithms with base
E
= log5 6 + 2 log5 3 e (where e = 2.71828...). Natural

N
= 1.1133 + 2(0.6826) logarithms are written as “ log e ”, but

Thus, log5 54 = 2.4785. often “ log e ” is replaced by “ln”. For
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Therefore, log5 54 = 2.4785 . example, log e x can also be written

N
as “ln x”. The natural logarithms also

satisfy all laws of logarithms.
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Example 6.7
For instance;
Solve for x in the equation, (a) ln ( xy
=) ln x + ln y
R
3.
log 2 ( x − 1) + log 2 ( x + 1) = x
(b) ln  =  ln x − ln y
FO
 y
Solution
(c) ln x n = n ln x
Given log 2 ( x − 1) + log 2 ( x + 1) =
3
⇒ log 2 [ ( x − 1)( x + 1) ] =3
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Example 6.8 2 −10 y +19
ln e 2 y = ln e7
Solve the following system of
simultaneous equations:
( 2 y 2 − 10 y + 19) ln e =
7 ln e
 2=
ln y 3ln 2 + ln x ⇒ 2 y 2 − 10
= y + 19 7, since
= ln e 1

 y ln 3 = x ln 81 ⇒ 2 y 2 − 10 y + 12 =
0
Solution ⇒=y 3 or= y 2
Given 2= ln y 3ln 2 + ln x =
Therefore, y 3=
or y 2 .
2
⇒ ln y = ln 8 x
2
⇒y = 8 x ............................ (i)
Example 6.10
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Also, y ln 3 = x ln 81
ln 3 y = ln 81x If ln3 =1.0986, ln7 =1.9459, and
⇒ 3y = 81x ln11=2.3979. Evaluate ln14553 correct
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⇒ 3y = 34 x to five significant figures.
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4 x .............................. (ii)
⇒y=
Solution
Substituting equation (ii) into
ln14553= ln(3 × 3 × 3 × 7 × 7 ×11)
SE
equation (i) gives,
(4 x) 2 = 8 x = ln(33 × 7 2 ×11)
⇒ 16 x 2 = 8x = 3ln 3 + 2 ln 7 + ln11
U
⇒ 8 x(2 x − 1) =
0 = 3(1.0986) + 2(1.9459) + 2.3979
1
Hence,
= x 0=
or x . But x cannot Thus, ln 14553 = 9.5855
E
2
1 Therefore, ln14553 = 9.5855.
N
be zero. Thus, x =
2
LI
From equation (ii), y = 4x, then

1 Conversion of logarithm from one base
=y 4=
  2
N
2 to another
1 
Therefore, ( x, y ) =  , 2 . One of the properties of logarithms as a
O
2  powerful method of computation is its

flexibility to change from one base to another.
R
Example 6.9
The change of base formula is used to write
2 −10 y +19
FO
Solve for y in e2 y = e7 . a logarithm of a number with a given base

as the ratio of two logarithms each with the
Solution same base that is different from the base of
Introducing natural logarithm both the original logarithm.
sides gives,
215
Form Five
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Let b and c be positive numbers not
equal to one. Suppose it is required and log9 (2m − 1) = n ⇒ 2m − 1 = 9n
to determine logb x, then it will be as Thus, 2m − 1 = 9n..................... (ii)
follows: From equation (ii), it implies that
2m − 1 =32 n .............................(iii)
If p = logb x, it implies that
But 3n =m ⇒ m 2 =32 n. ......... (iv)
x = b .....................................................(i)
p
Comparing equations (iii) and (iv),
Introducing logarithm to base c on both it follows that;
sides of equation (i) gives,
2m − 1 =m 2
log c x = p log c b
⇒ m 2 − 2m + 1 =0
LY
Making p the subject of the equation ⇒m= 1
gives, From equation (i) it gives;
log c x
⇒ p= m = 3n ⇒ 1 = 3n
N
log c b
⇒ 30 = 3n ⇒ n = 0
O
But p = logb x
⇒n=
Thus, 0.
log c x
Thus, log b x = . =
Therefore, m 1= and n 0 .
log c b SE
log c x
Therefore, logb x = . Example 6.12
log c b
U
This formula is used to convert a Solve for k if log k 9 + log3 k =
3.
logarithm of a number from one base
Solution
E
to another.
Given log k 9 + log3 k = 3.
1
N
Note that: The reciprocal of logarithm ⇒ 2 log k 3 + =3

can be expressed by; log k 3
LI
1 ⇒ 2(log k 3) 2 + 1 =3log k 3
logb a = .
log a b
N
⇒ 2(log k 3) 2 − 3log k 3 + 1 =0,

O
Example 6.11
Solving the quadratic equation
Solve for m and n if gives;
R
log3 m= n= log9 (2m − 1) 1

⇒ log k=
3 1 or log k=
3
FO
2
Solution
Thus,
⇒= k 9.
k 3 or=
Given log3 m =n ⇒ m =3n
Thus, m = 3n .............................(i) =
Therefore, k 3=
or k 9 .
216
Form Five
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Exercise 6.2 7. Find the solution of the following
system of simultaneous equations:
1. Solve for unknown variables in each
of the following equations: log 2 x 2 + log 2 y 3 =1
 2
5 log 2 x − log 2 y = 4
(a) log m 9 + log m 2 3 =
( ) 2
8. Find the values of p in the equation,
(b) log
= 2 y log 4 ( y + 6 )
log3 p + 3log p 3 = 4.
(c) ln ( ln ( 3 x ) ) = 0
9. Show that the values of q in the
(d) log3 z + 3log z 3 = 4
equation, log3 q − 4 log q 3 + 3 =0
(e) log3= 4 ln x + ln 4
1
LY
(f) e 4 x −2 = e x are and 3.
x 8
z  p y 10. Given that log8 ( z 2 + z ) =
log8 12 ,
2. If= p =  m where p ≠ 1 ,
 m  yz find the values of z.
N
show that x = .
y−z
O
Sequences and series
3. Given that log 2 m + 2 log 4 n =
4.
Show that mn = 16. Hence, solve The itemized collection of elements in
which repetitions are allowed is known
for m and n in the system of
SE
as a sequence, while a series is the sum of
simultaneous equations,
all elements.
log 4 (m + n) = 1;
U

log 2 m + 2 log 4 n = 4.
Sequence
4. In each of the following solve for x A set of numbers or algebraic expressions
E
giving answers to four decimal places: for which a member can be obtained from
(a) log x = log2x2 – 2 a proceeding member by a definite rule
N
(b) ln x + ln (x + 1) = 5 is called a sequence. The numbers that

LI
5. Express log16 ( fg ) into log 4 f and make up the sequence are called terms of
log 4 g . Hence, solve for f and g the sequence. The terms in a sequence are
N
1 named by using their positions.

in the equations, log16 ( fg ) = 3 ;
O
2
log 4 f In general, a sequence is usually written as;
= − 8.
log 4 g a1 , a2 , a3 ,..., an , where a1 is the first term,
R
6. If log 3 11 = 2.1827 and a2 is the second term, a3 is a third term, and

log 3 5 = 1.4650 , determine each of an is the nth term.
FO
the following: The nth term is also called the general term
11 1331 of the sequence, and it represents the last
(a) log 3 (c) log 3
5 625 term of the sequence. In this case, the
(b) log 3 275
217
Form Five
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subscript of each term represents the number of terms. A sequence is either finite
or infinite depending upon the number of terms in a sequence. If the number
of terms in a sequence is known, then the sequence is called a finite sequence,
otherwise it is infinite. Generally, the sequence a1 , a2 , a3 ,... is denoted by an . Other
defined notation for a sequence can be used.
For example, in the sequence 1, 3, 5, 7, 9, 11, … the rule is that, 2 is added to

obtain the next term.
By using symbols, it is written as a1 = 1 , a= 2 a1 + 2 , a=
3 a2 + 2,...
In general, ar += ar + 2 , where r = 1, 2, 3,...
LY
1
Activity 6.3 Identifying a formula for a sequence
N
Study the pattern of the given objects and perform the tasks that follows
O
individually or in a group:
1 2 3 4
SE 5 6 7

U
E
N
LI
N
O
R
1. Find the rule of the given pattern of the objects.

2. Suggest the number of objects in columns, 6 and 7 in task 1.
FO
3. Write the formula for terms of the pattern.

4. Share your findings with your fellow students for more inputs.
218
Form Five
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is known as series. A series is said to be

Example 6.13
finite if it is the sum of a finite number of
Find the first three terms of the
terms. Otherwise, it is infinite. For instance,
following sequences:
the series, 1 – 2 x + 3 x 2 − 4 x 3 is finite , while
1 1
(a) ar = ar
(b)= r (r + 1) the series, 1 + 2 + 3 + 4 + 5 +  is infinite.
r +1 2
Solution Example 6.14
1
(a) Given ar =
r +1
The first three terms can be obtained Find the next two terms of the series,
LY
as follows; 1 + 1 + 20 + 210 + 2300 +
1 1,
⇒ a1= = Solution
1+1 2
N
By observing the given series, it can be
1 1
=a2 = , and seen that the next term is ten times the
O
2 +1 3
sum of the two consecutive previous
1 1. terms.
= a3 =
3 +1 4
SE
The 6th term = 10(210 + 2300) = 25,100
Therefore, the first three terms are
Similarly,
1 1 1
, , and . the 7th term = 10(2300 + 25100) = 274,000
U
2 3 4
1
(b) Given= ar r (r + 1) . Therefore, the next two terms are
2
E
25,100 and 274,000.

The first three terms can be obtained
N
as follows;
1 Sigma notation
⇒ a1 = ×1(1 + 1) = 1
LI
2 Consider the sum of the first 6 terms of the

1
a2 = × 2(2 + 1) = 3 , and
N
series 3 + 6 + 9 + 12 + 15 + 18. This series

2
1 can also be written as
O
a3 = × 3(3 + 1) = 6 3(1) + 3(2) + 3(3) + 3(4) + 3(5) + 3(6).

2
All terms of this series are of the form 3n.
Therefore, the first three terms are
R
Thus, 3n is the general term. The series

1, 3, and 6.
can be defined as the sum of terms of the
FO
form 3n, where n takes all integral values

Series
in order from 1 to 6 inclusive. The Greek
When the terms of the sequence are
linked together with signs of addition letter ∑ called sigma is used to denote
or subtraction, the resulting expression “the sum of terms”. Therefore, the series
219
Form Five
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6
can be defined more precisely as ∑ 3k. This means that “the sum of all terms of
k =1
the form 3k, where k takes all integer values from 1 to 6 inclusive”.
The symbol can be used to indicate the finite and infinite series.
6
For example, ∑ 3k = 3 + 6 + 9 + 12 + 15 + 18 is a finite series and
k =1
∑ 3k =3 + 6 + 9 + 12 + 15 + 18 +  is an infinite series.
k =1
The sigma notation shortens the expression of series and enables to select a particular
LY
term of a series without writing down all the preceded terms. For example, given
19
the series ∑ 3(k − 1) then:
k =2
N
The first term is obtained when k = 2 ⇒ 3(2 − 1) = 3
O
The second term is obtained when k = 3 ⇒ 3(3 − 1) = 6
The tenth term is obtained when k =11 ⇒ 3(11 − 1) = 30
SE
The last term is obtained when k = 19 ⇒ 3(19 − 1) = 54.
U
Example 6.15
E
4
Write ∑ (−1) k +1
⋅ 3k −1 in expanded form.
N
k =1
LI
Solution
4
N
∑ (−1)
k =1
k +1
⋅ 3k −1 = (−1) 2 30 + (−1)3 31 + (−1) 4 32 + (−1)5 33
O
= (1)(1) + (−1)(3) + (1)(9) + (−1)(27)

=1 − 3 + 9 − 27
R
4
Therefore, ∑ (−1) k +1
.3k −1 =1 − 3 + 9 − 27.
FO
k =1
220
Form Five
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Example 6.16
12
Evaluate ∑2
k =5
4− k
.
Solution
12
∑2
k =5
4− k
=24−5 + 24−6 + 24−7 + 24−8 + 24−9 + 24−10 + 24−11 + 24−12
12
⇒ ∑ 24− k = 2 –1 + 2 –2 + 2 –3 + 2 – 4 + 2 –5 + 2 – 6 + 2 – 7 + 2 –8
k =5
LY
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
+ + + + + +
= +
2 4 8 16 32 64 128 256
255
=
N
256
12
255
O
Therefore, ∑ 2 =
4− k
.
k =5 256
Properties of sigma notation

SE
If u is any constant that does not depend on summation of index, then:
n n
U
=
1.
k n0=k n0
∑ uak = u ∑ ak
n n n
2. ∑ ( uak ± ubk =
) u ∑ ak ± u ∑ bk
E
=k n0 =k n0=k n0
n
∑ u = un
N
3.
k = n0
LI
Example 6.17
N
8
Evaluate ∑ [4 + (k − 1)] .
O
k =1
Solution
8
∑ [4 + (k − 1)] = (4 + 0) + (4 + 1) + (4 + 2) + (4 + 3) + (4 + 4) + (4 + 5)
R

k =1
+(4 + 6) + (4 + 7)
FO
= 4 + 5 + 6 + 7 + 8 + 9 +10 +11
= 60
8
Therefore, ∑ [4 + (k − 1)] = 60.
k =1
221
Form Five
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Example 6.18
n
Determine ∑1 .
k =1
Solution
n
∑ 1 = 1 + 1 + 1 + 1 +  + 1.
k =1
(This process is repeated “n” times as 1 does not change with the change in k).
Since the terms are not changing, we can take one term and multiply by the
number of times.
LY
n
∑1 = 1× n = n.
k =1
N
n
Therefore, ∑1 = n.
O
k =1
Activity 6.4: Deducing a formula for the sum of the first n natural numbers
SE
1. Write the formula for the sum of the first n terms of an arithmetic progression.
U
2. Use the formula in task 1 to deduce the formula for the first n natural
numbers.
E
3. What have you observed from tasks 1 and 2? Give comments.

4. Share your results with your fellow students for more inputs.
N
n
1
LI
∑k
The sum of the first n natural numbers is =
k =1 2
n ( n + 1) .
N
Example 6.19
O
n
1
∑k
Prove that =
2
n ( n + 1) .
R
k =1
Solution
FO
n
Let Sn = ∑ k .
k =1
Expanding Sn gives:
Sn = 1 + 2 + 3 +  + (n − 2) + (n − 1) + n ..................................................(i)
222
Form Five
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The same sum can also be obtained by reversing order of the series, that is:
Sn =n + ( n − 1) + ( n − 2 ) +  + 3 + 2 + 1 ...................................................(ii)
Arrange equations (i) and (ii) so that the corresponding terms come together:
Sn =1 + 2 + 3 +  + ( n − 2 ) + ( n − 1) + n
+ ......................(iii)
Sn =n + (n − 1) + (n − 2) +  + 3 + 2 + 1
Adding the two equations in the system (iii) gives;
LY
2Sn = (n + 1) + (n + 1) + (n + 1) +  + (n + 1) + (n + 1) + (n + 1)
= (n + 1)n
N
1
Thus, =
Sn (n + 1)n
O
2
n
1
∑
Therefore, =
k =1
k
2
n ( n + 1) . SE
Sum of squares of the first n natural numbers
U
Suppose k is a natural number and k2 is its square. If n consecutive natural
numbers are considered then the sum of their squares in expanded form is
n
12 + 22 + 32 + 42 + 52 + 62 +  + n2. In sigma notation, this is written as ∑k 2
.
E
Now, suppose Sn is the required sum, then k =1

N
n
Sn = ∑ k 2 =12 + 22 + 32 + 42 + 52 + 62 +  + n 2 .
LI
k =1
The value of k 2 can be obtained from the expansion of ( k − 1) as follows;

3
N
( k − 1)
3
= k 3 − 3k 2 + 3k − 1
O
⇒ k 3 − (k − 1)3 = 3k 2 − 3k + 1 ……………….....................................................(i)
Substituting k = 1, 2, 3, …, (n‒2), (n‒1), n in equation (i), it implies that:
R
3 (1) − 3 (1) + 1
2
When k= 1; 13 − 0=
3

FO
3 ( 2 ) − 3 ( 2 ) + 1
2
k 2; 23 − 1=
When = 3
            
( n − 1) − (n − 2)3= 3 ( n − 1) − 3 ( n − 1) + 1
3 2
When k = n − 1;
223
Form Five
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When k = n; n3 − (n − 1)3 = 3n 2 − 3n + 1
Adding all the terms from both sides gives

(13 − 03 ) + ( 23 − 13 ) + ... + (n − 1)3 − (n − 2)3  + n3 − (n − 1)3 
( )
= 3 12 + 22 + 32 +  + n 2 − 3 (1 + 2 + 3 +  + n ) + (1 + 1 + 1 +  +1; n times )
⇒ n3 − 0=
3
( )
3 12 + 22 + 32 +  + n 2 − 3 (1 + 2 + 3 +  + n ) + (1 + 1 + 1 +  +1; n times )
 n(n + 1) 
⇒ n3 = 3Sn − 3  +n
 2 
LY
3
Thus, 3Sn = n3 + n ( n + 1) − n
2
3
N
= n ( n + 1)( n − 1) + n ( n + 1)
2
O
 3
= n ( n + 1) ( n − 1) + 
 2 SE
n ( n + 1)( 2n + 1)
⇒ 3Sn =
2
n ( n + 1)( 2n + 1)
U
Thus, Sn = .
6
n n ( n + 1)( 2n + 1) .
∑k 2
E
Therefore, =
k =1 6
N
Example 6.20
LI
n 64
∑( 6k 2 − 8k + 2 = n ( n − 1)( 2n + 1). Hence, evaluate ∑ ( 6k − 8k + 2 ).

)
N
Prove that 2
k =1 k =1
O
Solution
n n n n
∑ (6k 2 − 8k +=
2) 6∑ k 2 − 8∑ k + 2∑1 ………………….....................…(i)
R
=k 1 =k 1 =k 1=k 1
FO
n
1 n
1
=k 1=k 1
But ∑ k = 2 n(n + 1) and ∑ k 2
=
6
n(n + 1)(2n + 1)
Substituting these values into equation (i) gives,
224
Form Five
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n
1  1 
∑ ( 6k
k =1
2
− 8k +
= )
2 6  n ( n + 1)( 2n + 1)  − 8  n ( n + 1)  + 2n
6  2 
= n ( n + 1)( 2n + 1) − 4n ( n + 1) + 2n
= n  2n 2 + 3n + 1 − 4n − 4 + 2 
= n  2n 2 − n − 1
=n ( n − 1)( 2n + 1)
n
Thus, ∑ ( 6k 2
)
− 8k + 2 = n ( n − 1)( 2n + 1) .
LY
k =1
64
( )
⇒ ∑ 6k 2 − 8k + 2= 64 ( 64 − 1)( 2 × 64 + 1)
N
k =1
= 64(63)(129)
O
= 520,128
n 64
Therefore, ∑(
k =1
)
6k 2 − 8k + 2 = n ( n − 1)( 2n + 1) and
SE ∑ ( 6k
k =1
2
) 520,128.
− 8k + 2 =
Activity 6.5: Deriving a formula for the sum of cubes of the first n
U
natural numbers
E

N
n n n
1. Write down the formula for
=
∑ k,
k 1=k 1
∑1, and=
∑k
k 1
2
.
LI
2. Find the expansion of (k − 1) 4 .

N
3. Use tasks 1 and 2 to deduce that the sum of the cubes of the first n natural
n
1 2
∑ n ( n + 1) .
O
2
numbers is given by the formula = k3
k =1 4
4. Have you observed any challenge from this activity? Give reasons.
R
5. Share your findings with other students for more inputs.

FO
225
Form Five
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Example 6.21
n 100
Simplify ∑ k ( k − 1)( 2k + 3) . Hence, evaluate ∑ k ( k − 1)( 2k + 3).
k =1 k =1
Solution
n n
∑ k ( k − 1)( 2k +=
k 1=k 1
3) ∑ ( 2k 3
+ k 2 − 3k )
n n n
= 2∑ k 3 + ∑ k 2 − 3∑ k
=k 1=k 1 =k 1
1 1 1
LY
2 
= 2  n 2 ( n + 1)  + n ( n + 1)( 2n + 1) − 3  n ( n + 1) 
4  6 2 
1 2 1 3
n ( n + 1) + n ( n + 1)( 2n + 1) − n ( n + 1)
2
=
N
2 6 2
1
O
= n(n + 1)(3n 2 + 5n − 8)
6
1
= n(n + 1)(n − 1)(3n + 8) SE
6
n
1
Thus, ∑ k ( k − 1)( 2k + 3=) 6
n ( n + 1)( n − 1)( 3n + 8 ) , and
U
k =1
100
1
∑ k (k − 1)(2k + 3) =
k =1 6
(100)(101)(99)(308)
E
= 51,328, 200.
N
n
1
Therefore, ∑ k (k − 1)(2k + 3)= 6
n(n + 1)(n − 1)(3n + 8)
LI
k =1
100
and ∑ k (k − 1)(2k + 3) =
51,328, 200.
N
k =1
O
Exercise 6.3
1. Write each of the following series by using sigma notation:

R
1 1 1 1 1 1
(a) 8 + 11 + 14 + 17 + 20 (e) + + + + +
FO
2 4 8 16 32 64
(b) 2 + 4 + 6 + 8 + 10 +  + 28 (f) −1 + 4 − 9 + 16 − 25 + + n
1
(c) 32 + 16 + 8 + 4 + 2 + 1 +
(d) 1 + 4 + 9 + 16 +  + 121 2
226
Form Five
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2. Write each of the following in expanded form:

6 7 9
(a) ∑ ( k + 3) (c) ∑ ( k − 3k ) 2
(e) ∑2 k −2
k =1 k =1 k =0
4 8
(b) ∑ ( 2k
k =2
3
− k 2 + 8k + 1) (d) ∑ (1 − 2 )
k =2
k
3. Evaluate each of the following series:

5 6
2 18
(a) ∑ (11 + 6k ) (c) ∑  k
k =1  5 
(e) ∑ ( −1) k
k =0 k =0
LY
5 13
(b) ∑2 k −1
(d) ∑ ( 57 − k )

k =0 k =6
N
4. Evaluate each of the following series:
n n n
O
(a) ∑ 4k
k =1
(b) ∑(k
k =1
2
+ 3k ) (c) ∑ k ( k + 2 ) ( k + 3)
k =1
5. Write each of the following series in sigma notation: SE

(a) 1 × 1 + 2 × 3 + 3 × 5 + 4 × 7 (d) − 4 − 1 + 2 + 5 +  + 17
2 3 4 1 1 1 1
(b) 1 − x + x − x + x (e) + + +
U
3 5 7 9
(f) 1 × 4 + 4 × 7 + 7 × 10 + 10 × 13
2 3 4
(c) y + 2 y + 3 y + 4 y +
E
6. Write down the first three terms in each of the following:

N
n 8
1 1 
(a) ∑ 2 k
(d) ∑  −
k =1  k

k +1 
LI
k =2
n n
(b) ∑ k ( k − 1) (e) ∑ (−1) k +1
k2
N
k =2 k =1
k +2
O
20 n
(c) ∑ ( k + 1)( 2k + 1)
k =0
(f) ∑ 6k ( 4k − 3) (2k + 1)
k =1
R
n 40
7. Simplify ∑ 2k ( k − 4 )( k + 6 ) . Hence, evaluate ∑ 2k ( k − 4 )( k + 6 ) .
FO
k =1 k = 20
n
n
8. Prove that
208
∑ (16k
k =1
2
− 10k +=
7)
3
(16n 2 + 9n + 14) . Hence, evaluate
∑(
k =1
16k 2 − 10k + 7 . )
227
Form Five
FOR ONLINE USE ONLY
DO NOT DUPLICATE
n
1
9. Prove that ∑ (80k
k =1
3
)
− 220k 2 + 150 =
3
(
n ( n + 1) 60n 2 − 160n − 85 . )
18
Hence, evaluate ∑(
k =6
80k − 220k + 150k .
3 2
)
10. Show that the sum to n terms of the series
3
(1× 3 × 6) + (2 × 5 × 9) + (3 × 7 ×12) + is n(n3 + 4n 2 + 5n + 2).
2
Proofs by mathematical induction

Mathematical induction is a method that is used to establish if a given statement
LY
is true for all natural numbers. The method used in mathematical induction is to
establish that the first statement in the infinity sequence of statements is true, and
prove that if any one statement in the sequence is true, then so is the next one.
N
This concludes that the statement are true for all natural numbers.
O
In general, proof by mathematical induction is an indirect method of proof which
is used in case a direct method is either not possible or not convenient.
SE
Activity 6.6: Verifying that the method of induction holds true on passing
information through various people from the first to the last
U
person
In a group, perform the following tasks:

E
1. Form a group of a convenient number of students.

N
2. Members of each group should stand in a straight line.

3. Let the first student in each line tell his/her secret to the one standing next.
LI
This process has to continue by each student to tell the same secret to the
next student in the line, and stop at the last student.
N
4. What did you observe in each of the following:

O
(a) Does the first student in your group know the secret?
(b) Does everybody in the line know the secret?
(c) Do you find the last student knowing the secret (if it was not altered
R
on the way). In each case give reasons.

FO
5. What have you observed during this activity? Give reasons.

6. Share your findings with other groups for more inputs.
228
Form Five
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From Activity 6.6, the following Generally, the principle of mathematical

observations can be made: induction is stated as follows:
Let Pn be the statement that “ Sn students If n is a natural number and the statement
know the secret”, and Sn be the nth Pk is true for k = 1 and also true for k =
student in the line. n + 1 then the statement Pk is true for
all natural numbers.
S2 knows the secret because it was
told by S1. So, P2 is true.
Example 6.22
S3 knows the secret because it was
LY
told by S2. So, P3 is true. etc. Prove by mathematical induction
that if n is the element of natural
Sn knows the secret because it was n
1
numbers, then = ∑ r n ( n + 1) .
N
told by Sn-1. So, Pn is true as well.
r =1 2
O
Remark: If the secret is unaltered Proof
(remained the same), then the secret is Let Pn be the statement,
induced from the first student to the last.
SE∑r
=
n
1
n ( n + 1) .
At the end, all students in the line know r =1 2
the secret. 1
Pn : 1 + 2 + 3 +  +=
n n ( n + 1)
U
2
The method used is to establish that For n = 1, check if P1 is true.
each person got the secret correctly and Consider the left-hand side of Pn ;
E
conclude that the secret was induced 1

⇒ P1 : ∑ r =
1
N
from one person to the last, hence proved

r =1
by induction.
LI
Consider the right-hand side of Pn ;

1
The proof by mathematical induction is ⇒ P1 : (1)(1 + 1) =
1
N
2
done in three steps as follows:
Since P1 is the same in both sides,
O
1. Prove that the statement is true for an

arbitrary natural number, say n = 1. then Pn is true, for n = 1.
2. Assume the statement is true for
R
n = k. Suppose Pn is true for n = k .

FO
1
3. Using the assumption made in step ⇒ Pk :1 + 2 + 3 + ... +=
k k ( k + 1)
2, prove that the statement is true 2
for n = k+1. Now, check if Pn is true for n= k + 1.
229
Form Five
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1
Pk +1 :1 + 2 + 3 + ... + k + (k +
= 1) k ( k + 1) + ( k + 1)
2
k ( k + 1) + 2 ( k + 1)
=
2
1
= ( k + 1)( k + 2 )
2
Thus, Pk +1 is true. Hence, Pk is true ⇒ Pk +1 is true.
Therefore, by mathematical induction, Pn is true for all natural numbers.
LY
Example 6.23
Use mathematical induction to prove that, n3 – n is divisible by 3 for all natural
N
numbers.
O
Proof
Let Pn be the statement: n3 – n is divisible by 3 SE
For n = 1, check if P1 is true:
n3 − n 13 − 1
P1 : = = 0, which is divisible by 3.
3 3
U
Thus, P1 is true.
Suppose Pn is true for n = k , that is,
E
k3 − k
Pk : = m ⇒ k 3 − k = 3m, where m is an integer.
3
N
⇒ k 3 =k + 3m ................................................…................…(i)
LI
Now, check if Pn is true for n = k + 1

N
Pk + 1: (k + 1)3 – (k + 1) = k3 + 3k2 + 3k + 1– k –1
= k3 + 3k2 + 2k
O
= (3m + k) + 3k2 + 2k, substituting the value of k3 from equation (i)

= 3k 2 + 3k + 3m
R
( )
= 3 k 2 + k + m is divisible by 3 since 3 is its factor.
FO
Thus, Pk +1 is true. Hence, Pk is true Þ Pk +1 is true.
Therefore, by mathematical induction, Pn is true for all natural numbers.
230
Form Five
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Example 6.24
Prove by mathematical induction that, if n is a natural number greater than 1, then

5 6 7 n+3 3 n+2
+ + + + = − .
1× 2 × 3 2 × 3 × 4 3 × 4 × 5 (n − 1)n(n + 1) 2 n(n + 1)
Proof
Let Pn be the statement,
5 6 7 n+3 3 n+2
+ + + + = −
1× 2 × 3 2 × 3 × 4 3 × 4 × 5 (n − 1)n(n + 1) 2 n(n + 1)
LY
For n = 2, check if P2 is true.
Consider the left-hand side of Pn ;
2+3 5
P2 : =
N
(1)(2)(3) 6
O
Consider the right-hand side of Pn ;
3 2+2 5
P2 : − =
2 2(3) 6 SE
Since P2 is the same in both sides, then Pn is true, for = 2.
Suppose Pn is true for n = k .
U
5 6 7 k +3 3 k +2 .
⇒ Pk : + + + ... + = −
1× 2 × 3 2 × 3 × 4 3 × 4 × 5 (k − 1)k (k + 1) 2 k (k + 1)
E
Now, check if Pn is also true for n= k + 1.

5 6 7 k +3 k +4
N
Pk +1 : + + + + +
1× 2 × 3 2 × 3 × 4 3 × 4 × 5 (k − 1)k (k + 1) k (k + 1)(k + 2)
LI
3 k +2 k +4
= − +
2 k (k + 1) k (k + 1)(k + 2)
N
3  k +2 k +4 
O
=− −
2  k (k + 1) k (k + 1)(k + 2) 
R
3 (k + 2)(k + 2) − (k + 4)
= −
2 k (k + 1)(k + 2)
FO
3 k 2 + 3k
= −
2 k (k + 1)(k + 2)
231
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3 k (k + 3)
= −
2 k (k + 1)(k + 2)
3 k +3
= −
2 (k + 1)(k + 2)
Thus, Pk is true ⇒ Pk +1 is true .
Therefore, by mathematical induction, Pn is true for all natural numbers greater
than one.
LY
Exercise 6.4
Use mathematical induction to prove each of the following for every natural
N
number n:
n n ( n + 1)( 2n + 1)
O
1. ∑ k 2 = .
k =1 6
n
n(n + 1)(n + 2) SE
2. ∑ k ( k + 1) =
k =1 3
n n ( n + 3)
3. ∑ ( k + 1) =
U
k =1 2
n n ( n + 1)( n + 2 )( n + 3)
4. ∑ k ( k + 1)( k + 2 ) = 4
E
k =1
2
5. 2 + 4 + 6 +  + (4n − 2) =2n .
N
1
6. 1× 3 + 3 × 5 + 5 × 7 +  + ( 2n − 1)( 2n=
+ 1)
3
( )
n 4n 2 + 6n − 1
LI
n
(
n ( n + 1)( 2n + 1) 3n + 3n − 1
2
)
7. ∑k 4
=
N
k =1 30
1 1 1 1 3 2n + 3
O
8. + + + + = −
1× 3 2 × 3 3 × 5 n(n + 2) 4 2(n + 1)(n + 2)
n
 m n +1 − 1 
∑
R
k
9. am = a  
k =0  m −1 
FO
n
10. ∑ 2=
k =0
k
2n +1 − 1
232
Form Five
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n
1 n
11. ∑ k ( k + 1) = n + 1
k =1
2
1
n

∑
12. =
k =1
k  n ( n + 1) 
2
3

3n
13. 2 − 1 is divisible by 7.
14. n(n − 1)(2n − 1) is divisible by 6, for n > 1 .
15. 7 2 n + 23n −3 × 3n −1 is divisible by 25.
LY
Roots of a polynomial function
Given a polynomial function, p(x) the values of the independent variable x for
N
which the polynomial is zero can be determined. This section discusses the general
O
form of a polynomial function and how its roots can be obtained.
Polynomial function SE
A polynomial function p(x) is well defined as an algebraic expression that takes
the form p ( x)= an x n + an −1 x n −1 + an − 2 x n − 2 +  + a1 x + a0 ,
U
where an , an −1 , an − 2 , , a1 , a0 are real numbers and n is a natural number. The degree
of a polynomial is the highest positive integer exponent of the variable with non-zero
coefficient in the polynomial. Polynomials are named basing on their degrees. Thus,
E
a polynomial of degree 1 is called linear, a degree 2 polynomial is called a quadratic,

N
a degree 3 polynomial is called a cubic, a degree 4 polynomial is called a quartic, a

degree 5 polynomial is called a quintic, and so on.
LI
Roots of polynomials
N
The values of x for which the polynomial, p(x) is zero are called roots or zeros
O
of p(x). The roots are called zeros because they are the values of x at which the
polynomial equals to zero. The highest exponent of a variable gives the maximum
number of roots the polynomial can have. If the highest exponent of a polynomial
R
is 2, the polynomial can have at most two roots. If the highest exponent is 3, then
FO
the polynomial can have at most three roots, and so on. It is also important to note
that f (x) = 0 is also a polynomial of undefined degree.
233
Form Five
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Example 6.25
Given that p(x) = (x – 3) (x2 – 1), find the roots of p(x).
Solution
The roots of p(x) are obtained when p(x) = 0.
⇒ (x – 3) (x2 – 1) = 0
⇒ (x – 3) (x + 1) (x – 1) = 0
Thus, either x − =
3 0, x + =
1 0 or x −=
1 0
LY
Þ x = 3, x = –1 or x = 1
Therefore, the roots of p(x) are –1, 1, or 3.
N
O
Relationships between roots and coefficients of a quadratic equation
The quadratic equation is an equation of the form ax2 + bx + c = 0, where a, b, and
SE
c are real numbers, such that a ≠ 0. The roots of a quadratic equation are obtained
by solving the equation. Alternatively, the roots can be obtained through the
coefficients of the equation. Therefore, there are relationships between coefficients
U
of a quadratic equation and its roots.
Let α and β be the roots of a quadratic equation ax 2 + bx + c =0.

E
Thus, either x − α = 0 or x − β = 0 .
This suggests that, the equation ax 2 + bx + c =0 is obtained by multiplying its
N
factors, (x – α) and (x –β). That is,

LI
( x − α )( x − β ) =
0.
⇒ x 2 − (α + β ) x + αβ =0 ........................ (i)
N
Now, consider the equation,

O
ax2 + bx + c = 0:
Divide it by a throughout to obtain,
b c
R
x2 + x + = 0 ............................................ (ii)
a a
FO
Comparing coefficients of corresponding terms of equations (i) and (ii), gives:

b c
α +β = − and αβ = .
a a
234
Form Five
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Hence, the sum of the roots of a quadratic Example 6.27

b
equation is given by α + β = − and the
a If α and β are the roots of the equation
c
product of the roots is given by αβ = .
a 2 x 2 − 3 x − 8 = 0;
Generally, if the roots of a quadratic (a) Find the values of each of the following:
equation are α and β, then the
(i) α 2 + β 2
equation of the particular quadratic
equation can be expressed in the form 1 1
(ii) +
x 2 − (α + β ) x + αβ = 0. That is, α β
LY
x2–(sum of roots)x+(product of roots)= 0. α β
(iii) +
β α
N
Example 6.26
(b) Write a quadratic equation with the roots
1 1 α β
O
If the roots of the equation + and + .
β α β α
2 x 2 + 3x − 2 =0 are α and β, find SE
the values in each of the following: Solution
(a) α + β (a) Given 2 x 2 − 3 x − 8 =0,
(b) αβ 3 8
then α + β = and αβ = − −4
=
U
2 2
Solution (i) Since (α + β ) = α + β + 2αβ ,
2 22
(a) Given 2 x 2 + 3 x − 2 =0. Compare

E
it with the equation ax + bx + c = 0. ⇒ α 2 + β 2 = (α + β ) − 2αβ

2 2
then
N
b 2
a= 2, b =3, c = −2, α + β = − . 3
a =   − 2 (− 4 )
LI
3 2
Thus, α + β =− .
2 41 .
=
N
3
Therefore, α + β =− . 4
2
c
O
αβ = 41
(b) Therefore, α2 + β 2 = .
a 4
2 1 1 β +α
R
⇒ αβ = − = −1 (ii) + =
2 α β αβ
FO
Therefore, αβ = −1 . 3
= ÷ (− 4)
2
3
= −
8
235
Form Five
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1 1 3
Therefore, + = − .
α β 8
α β α2 + β2
(iii) + =
β α αβ
41
= ÷ (− 4)
4
41
= −
16
LY
Therefore,
α β 41
+ = − .
β α 16 α β  1 1
N
(b) The quadratic equation with the roots  +  and  +  is given by;
β α  β α
O
x 2 − ( sum of roots ) + ( product of roots ) =
0
 1 1   α β    1 1   α β  
SE
⇒ x 2 −  +  +  +   x +  +   +   = 0
 α β   β α    α β   β α  
 −3 − 41   −3   − 41 
⇒ x2 −  + x+  =0
U
 8 16   8   16 
47 123
⇒ x2 + x+ = 0
16 128
E
⇒128 x 2 + 376 x + 123 =

0
N
Therefore, the required equation is 128x2 + 376x + 123 = 0.

LI
Example 6.28
N
O
Find the value of m in the equation x 2 + mx + 45 =

0 , given that the sum of
the square of the roots is 54.
R
Solution
0 , then α + β =−m and αβ =45.
FO
Given x 2 + mx + 45 =
But α + β =
2 2
54
⇒ (α + β ) 2 = α 2 + β 2 + 2αβ
⇒ (−m) 2= α 2 + β 2 + 2(45)
236
Form Five
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⇒ m 2 = α 2 + β 2 + 90
⇒ m 2 =54 + 90
⇒ m2 =
144
= 12 or − 12
⇒m
Therefore, m = 12 or m = −12.
Relationships between roots and coefficients of a cubic equation
LY
Suppose α , β , and γ are the roots of the equation ax3 + bx2 + cx + d = 0, where
a ≠ 0 , then ( x − α ), ( x − β ), and ( x − γ ) are its factors. Thus, the equation can be
obtained by multiplying its factors. That is, ( x − α )( x − β )( x − γ ) = 0 .
N
On expanding, it gives:
O
0 ....................................... (i)
x3 − ( γ + α + β ) x 2 + ( βγ + γα + αβ ) x − αγβ =
Dividing equation ax3 + bx 2 + cx + d = 0 by a throughout gives,

SE
b c d
x 3 + x 2 + x + = 0 ......................................................................(ii)
a a a
Comparing coefficients of corresponding terms of equations (i) and (ii) gives the
U
following relationships:
b c d
α + β + γ =− , αβ + αγ + βγ = , and αβγ =− .
E
a a a
b
N
Therefore, the sum of the roots of a cubic equation is α + β + γ =−, the sum of
a
LI
c
the products of the roots in pairs is given by αβ + αγ + βγ =, and the product
d a
N
of the roots is αβγ = − .

a
O
Generally, if the roots of a cubic equation are α, β, and γ, then the equation of the
particular cubic equation can be expressed in the form
R
x3– (sum of roots)x2 + (sum of product of roots in pairs) x – product of roots = 0.

FO
237
Form Five
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Example 6.29
If α, β, and γ are the roots of the equation 2x3 – 5x2 + 4x – 1 = 0, find the values
of each of the following:
1 1 1 1 1 1 1
(a) α + β + γ (b) αβγ (c) αβ + αγ + βγ
1 1 1
Hence, find a cubic equation whose roots are , , and .
α β γ
Solution
LY
Given 2x3 – 5x2 + 4x –1= 0, then:
b 5 c d 1
α + β + γ =− = , αβ + αγ + βγ = = 2 , and αβγ =− =.
a 2 a a 2
N
1 1 1 βγ + αγ + αβ
(a)
⇒ + + =
O
α β γ αβγ
1
= 2÷ SE
2
=4
1 1 1
Therefore, + + =4.
U
α β γ
(b) 1 1
=1 ÷ =2.
αβγ 2
E
1
N
Therefore, = 2.
αβγ
LI
1 1 1 α + β +γ
(c) αβ + αγ + βγ = αβγ
N
5 1
= ÷
2 2
O
=5
1 1 1
R
Therefore, + + = 5.
αβ αγ βγ
FO
 1 1 1  1 1 1   1 
The cubic equation is x3 −  + +  x 2 +  + + x− =.0
3 2  α β γ  αβ αγ βγ   αβγ 
⇒ x − 4 x + 5x − 2 = 0
Therefore, the cubic equation is x3 − 4 x 2 + 5 x − 2 =0.
238
Form Five
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Example 6.30
The roots of the equation x3 + tx 2 + ux + 30 =

0 are in the ratio 2:3:5. Find the
values of t and u.
Solution
Let k be the factor of the roots, then
=α 2= k , β 3k , and
= γ 5k .
Given x3 + tx 2 + ux + 30 =
0 , then
α + β + γ =− t ⇒ 2k + 3k + 5k =− t
LY
− t ....................................................................(i)
⇒ 10k =
Also, αβ + αγ + βγ =u ⇒ 6k 2 + 10k 2 + 15k 2 =u
N
⇒ 31k 2 =
u ....................................................................(ii)
O
Also, αβγ = − 30 ⇒ 30k 3 = −30
⇒ k =−1
on substituting k = − 1 in equation (i) gives,
SE
10( − 1) = − 1 ⇒ t =10.
From equation (ii),
U
u = 31(−1) 2 = 31.
Therefore, t = 10 and u = 31.
E
Exercise 6.5
N
1. If α and β are the roots of the equation (1– q) x2 – 2x – 1 = 0, find the

LI
values of α + β and α β.
N
2. If α and β are the roots of the equation 2x2 – 3x + 8 = 0, find the values of
(b) α + β
3 3
(a) α 2 β + αβ 2
O
3. If α and β are the roots of the equation 3 x 2 + 5 x –1 =

0 , find the equations
whose roots are:
R
1 1 1 1
(a) and β (b) α + and β +
FO
α β α
2
4. If x + mx + n = 0 and px 2 + 2mx − 3n = 0 have common roots, show
2
that n( p + 3)= 5m 2 ( p − 2).
5. If α and β are the roots of the equation 17x2 – 34x = 18, find the value of
α – β.
239
Form Five
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6. If α and β are the roots of the equation x2 + 3x – 3 = 0, find the quadratic

1
equation whose roots are 2(α + β ) and .
3αβ
7. If α and β are the roots of the equation 2 x 2 + 5 x – 3 =0 , find the
equation whose roots are given by the following pairs of the roots:
2α 2β
(a) ( 3α + β ) and ( 3β + α ) (d) and
β α
(b) α and β
2 2
(e) (α + 3) and ( β + 3)
(c) 3 and 3 (f) (α − 5 ) and ( β − 5 )
α β
LY
8. If the sum of squares of roots of the equation kx 2 + tx + s = 0 is 1, show
2 2
that =t 2ks + k .
N
9. If the roots of the equation ax 2 + bx + c = 0 are in the ratio p : q , prove
2 2
that ac( p + q ) = b pq.
O
10. If α , β , and γ are the roots of the equation 2x3 +3x 2 − x − 8 = 0, find the
equation whose roots are α 2 , β 2 , and γ 2 .
SE
11. The equation x 3 + 2 x 2 − 5 x + 1 =0 has roots α , β , and γ . Determine the
equations with the following roots:
U
(a) 2α , 2 β , and 2γ (b) α + β , α + γ , and β + γ
12. The roots of the equation x 3 − 5 x 2 + x + 12 =0 are α , β , and γ .

E
Calculate the value of (α + 2)( β + 2)(γ + 2) , hence find the values in

each of the following expressions:
N
1 1 1 1 1 1
(a) + + (c) α 3 + β 3 + α 3 (e) + +
LI
α β γ αβ αγ γβ
1
N
(b) α + β + γ
2 2 2
(d)
αβγ
O
Remainder theorem
R
Sometimes it is not easy to find factors of polynomials of degree three or higher

FO
or finding the remainder when polynomials are divided by an expression.

In arithmetic, numbers can be divided using long division method. By this method,
the dividend equals the product of the divisor and quotient plus a remainder.
For example, dividing 627 by 50 gives 12 with a remainder 27. Thus,
627 = 50 ×12 + 27. This relationship is also applied to polynomials.
240
Form Five
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Consider the polynomial p ( x) = 2 x 2 + 5 x − 4 . It can be divided by any polynomial

of degree less or equal to 2. Choosing to divide p(x) by x – 2, then long division
method gives,
2x + 9
2
Divisor → x − 2 2 x + 5 x − 4 ← Dividend
−(2 x 2 − 4 x)
9x − 4
−(9 x − 18)
14 ← Remainder
LY
From the long division, 2 x 2 + 5 x − 4 is a dividend, x − 2 is a divisor, 2x + 9 is a
N
quotient, and 14 is a remainder. Thus, 2 x 2 + 5 x − 4 = (2x + 9) (x ‒ 2) + 14.
O
Generally, the remainder theorem states that, if p(x) is a dividend, q ( x) is a quotient,
x – a is a divisor, and r(x) is a remainder, then p ( x)= q ( x) × ( x − a ) + r ( x). If x = a ,
SE
then p (a ) = r (a ). Therefore, the remainder theorem enables us to find the remainder
when a polynomial is divided by an expression without actually carrying out the
steps of the long division.
U
Example 6.31
E
Find the remainder when p ( x) = 3 x 3 − 5 x 2 + 2 is divided by x + 4.

N
Solution
LI
The divisor x + 4 can be rewritten as x − (− 4). Thus, the remainder is p (− 4).

But p ( − 4 ) = 3(− 4)3 − 5(− 4) 2 + 2
N
= 3 × (− 64) − 5 ×16 + 2
O
= ‒ 270
Therefore, when p(x) = 3x 3 – 5x2 + 2 is divided by x + 4 , the remainder is ‒270.

R
FO
Example 6.32
If hx3 − 11x 2 + 4 x + 12 is divided by x − 5 , the remainder is 132. Find the value

of a constant h.
241
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⇒c−d =2 ..................................(ii)
Solution
Let p ( x) = hx3 − 11x 2 + 4 x + 12 . Solving equations (i) and (ii)
The divisor is x ‒ 5 Þ x – 5 = 0. simultaneously gives c = 1 and d = – 1.
⇒ p (5) = h(5)3 − 11(5) 2 + 4(5) + 12
= 125h − 275 + 20 + 12 Therefore, the values of c and d are 1
and –1, respectively.
⇒ p (5) = 125h − 243. But p (5) = 132
⇒ 125h − 243 =
132 Factor theorem
LY
⇒ 125h = 375 The factor theorem states that if a
⇒h=
Thus, h3= 3. polynomial p(x) is such that the remainder
p (a ) = 0 , then x – a is a factor of p(x).
N
Therefore, the value of h is 3. This implies that p ( x) = ( x − a ) × q ( x) .
In other words, if x − a is a factor of the
O
Example 6.33 polynomial p(x), then p (a ) = 0. Thus,
the factor theorem is a special case of
SE
When the expression x5 + 4 x 2 + cx + d the remainder theorem in the sense that
2 the factor theorem is deduced from the
is divided by x − 1, the remainder is
remainder theorem when r ( x) = 0.
U
2 x + 3. Find the values of c and d.
Example 6.34
Solution
E
Let p ( x) = x5 + 4 x 2 + cx + d
Determine whether or not x + 1
N
The divisor is x 2 − 1 ⇒ x 2 − 1 =0 is a factor of the polynomial

LI
⇒x=−1 or x =1. p ( x) =x 4 − 3 x 3 + 4 x 2 − 8 .
For x =⇒
1, p (1) =1 + 4 + c + d Solution
N
But, p (1) = 2(1) + 3 = 5 Given p ( x) =x 4 − 3 x3 + 4 x 2 − 8.

O
⇒ 5 = 5+c+ d Rewrite x + 1 as x ‒ (‒1). This gives,

p ( −1) =−
( 1) − 3 ( −1) + 4 ( −1) − 8 =0
4 3 2
⇒c+d =0 ........................................ (i)
R
Since p (‒1) = 0, then x + 1 is a factor

For x = − 1, p ( − 1) = − 1 + 4 − c + d of p(x).
FO
⇒ p (−1) = 3 − c + d . But p (−1) = 2(−1) + 3 =1. Therefore, x + 1 is a factor of the

⇒1= 3−c + d polynomial p(x).
242
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Example 6.35
Find the factors of x3 + 2 x 2 − x − 2 .

Solution
Let p ( x) = x3 + 2 x 2 − x − 2
From the factor theorem, if x ‒ a is a factor of p(x), then p(a) = 0.
Choose values of a and substitute into p(x) to check or inspect whether p(a) = 0.
The factors of the constant term, ‒2 are 1, 2, ‒1, ‒2. So, the values to choose
must belong to the set {± 1, ± 2} .
When x = 1: p (1) = 1 + 2 (1) − 1 − 2 = 0
3 2
LY
Thus, x − 1 is a factor of p ( x ).
Therefore,
When x = ‒1: p ( −1) = ( −1) + 2 ( −1) − ( −1) − 2 = 0 ⇒ p (−1) = 0
3 2
N
Thus, x + 1 is a factor of p ( x ) .
Therefore,
O
When x = 2: p ( 2 ) = 2 + 2 ( 2 ) − 2 − 2 = 12 ⇒ p (2) ≠ 0.
3 2
Thus, x − 2 is not a factor of p ( x ) .

Therefore, SE
When x = ‒2: p ( −2 ) =( −2 ) + 2 ( −2 ) + 2 − 2 = 0 ⇒ p (−2) = 0.
3 2
Thus, x + 2 is a factor of p ( x ) .
Therefore,
U
Therefore, p ( x ) = x 3 + 2 x 2 − x − 2 = ( x + 1)( x − 1)( x + 2 ) .
Operations on polynomials
E
Mathematical operations such as addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division

can be applied for polynomial functions. The following activity highlights some
N
operations on polynomials.
LI
Activity 6.7: Recognizing the use of polynomials to model blood flow

N
Individually or in a group, read the following information, then perform the

O
tasks that follow.

Cardiac output is the amount of blood pumped through the heart. The output
R
is measured by a technique called dye dilution. A doctor injects dye into a

vein near the heart and measures the amount of dye in the arteries over time.
FO
The cardiac output of a particular patient can be approximated by the function

f (t )= 0.0056t 3 − 0.22t 2 + 2.33t , where t represents time in seconds after
injection, 0 ≤ t ≤ 23 and f (t ) represents the concentration of dye (in milligrams
per litre).
243
Form Five
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1. Evaluate f (t ) for t = 0 and t = 3.

2. Describe what do the values in task 1 represent.
3. Share your findings with other students.
Addition and subtraction of polynomials

Addition and subtraction of polynomials is simply done by adding or subtracting
the terms of the same power. The exponent of variable in a polynomial is always
a non-negative integer.
LY
Example 6.36
Given p ( x) = 3 x 4 + 2 x3 − 10 x 2 + 8 x + 15 and q ( x) = x 4 + x3 − 5 x 2 − 6 x − 10,
N
find the value of p( x) + q( x).
O
Solution
SE
Given p ( x) = 3 x 4 + 2 x3 − 10 x 2 + 8 x + 15 and q ( x) = x 4 + x3 − 5 x 2 − 6 x − 10.
p ( x) + q ( x) = 3 x 4 + 2 x3 − 10 x 2 + 8 x + 15 + x 4 + x3 − 5 x 2 − 6 x − 10
Combine like terms as follows:

U
) ( 3x 4 + x 4 ) + ( 2 x3 + x3 ) + ( −10 x 2 − 5 x 2 ) + (8 x − 6 x ) + (15 − 10 )
p ( x ) + q ( x=
= 4 x 4 + 3 x 3 − 15 x 2 + 2 x + 5
E
⇒ p ( x) + q ( x) = 4 x 4 + 3 x3 − 15 x 2 + 2 x + 5.
Therefore,
N
Example 6.37
LI
Simplify the following and write your answer in descending powers of x.

N
( 3x 2
+ 7 + x ) + (14 x3 + 2 + x 2 − x )
O
Solution
R
Given ( 3 x 2 + 7 + x ) + (14 x3 + 2 + x 2 − x ) =
FO
Combine the like terms to get,

14 x3 + ( 3 x 2 + x 2 ) + ( x − x ) + ( 7 + 2 ) =
14 x 3 + 4 x 2 + 9
Therefore, ( 3 x 2 + 7 + x ) + (14 x3 + 2 + x 2 − x=
) 14 x3 + 4 x 2 + 9.
244
Form Five
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Example 6.38
Find (10 x 5 − 4 x 4 + 3 x 3 + x 2 − 10 x + 9 ) − ( 6 x 5 − 10 x 3 + 12 x + 19 ) .
Solution
Insert the signs of the second polynomial, combine like terms, then simplify as
follows.
(10 x − 4 x + 3x + x − 10 x + 9 ) − ( 6 x − 10 x + 12 x + 19 )
5 4 3 2 5 3
= (10 x − 4 x + 3 x + x − 10 x + 9 ) + ( − 6 x + 10 x − 12 x − 19 )
5 4 3 2 5 3
LY
= (10 x − 6 x ) + ( − 4 x + 0 x ) + ( 3 x + 10 x ) + ( x + 0 x ) + ( −10 x − 12 x ) + ( 9 − 19 )
5 5 4 4 3 3 2 2
N
= 4 x5 − 4 x 4 + 13x3 + x 2 − 22 x − 10.
Therefore, (10 x 5 − 4 x 4 + 3 x 3 + x 2 − 10 x + 9 ) − ( 6 x 5 − 10 x 3 + 12 x + 19 ) =
O
4 x5 − 4 x 4 + 13x3 + x 2 − 22 x − 10.
SE
Example 6.39
U
4 3 2 4 3 4 3 2
If px − qx + rx + sx + t + 2 x − 3 x + 2 x − 18 = 24 x − 16 x + 8 x + 10 x − 24, find
the values of p, q, r, s, and t.
E
Solution
N
Given px 4 − qx3 + rx 2 + sx + t + 2 x 4 − 3 x3 + 2 x − 18 = 24 x 4 − 16 x3 + 8 x 2 + 10 x − 24.

( 24 x − 16 x3 + 8 x 2 + 10 x − 24 ) − ( 2 x 4 − 3 x3 + 2 x − 18 )
LI
⇒ px 4 − qx3 + rx 2 + sx + t= 4
= ( 24 x − 16 x + 8x + 10 x − 24 ) + ( −2 x + 3x − 2 x + 18)
4 3 2 4 3
N
= ( 24 x − 2 x ) + ( −16 x + 3x ) + (8x ) + (10 x − 2 x ) + ( −24 + 18)

4 4 3 3 2
O
= 22 x 4 − 13 x 3 + 8 x 2 + 8 x − 6
R
⇒ px 4 − qx3 + rx 2 + sx +=
t 22 x 4 − 13 x3 + 8 x 2 + 8 x − 6
FO
Comparing the coefficients of like terms gives,

p = 22, q = 13, r = 8, s = 8, and t = – 6.
Therefore, p = 22, q = 13, r = 8, s = 8, and t = – 6.
245
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Multiplication of polynomials
Multiplication of polynomial is the process of multiplying together two or more
polynomials. This can be performed by applying the distributive property for
multiplication to polynomials. To multiply two polynomials with each other, take
each term of the first polynomial and multiply to the second polynomial.
Example 6.40
Find ( 2 x 2 + x − 3) × ( x 2 − 2 x + 5 ) .
LY
Solution
Multiply each term of the first polynomial by the second polynomial and then
combine like terms as follows.
N
( 2x + x − 3) × ( x 2 − 2 x + 5=
) 2 x 2 ( x 2 − 2 x + 5) + x ( x 2 − 2 x + 5) + ( −3) ( x2 − 2 x + 5)
O
2
= 2 x 4 − 4 x3 + 10 x 2 + x3 − 2 x 2 + 5 x − 3 x 2 + 6 x − 15
SE
= 2 x 4 − 4 x3 + x3 + 10 x 2 − 2 x 2 − 3 x 2 + 5 x + 6 x − 15
= 2 x 4 − 3 x 3 + 5 x 2 + 11x − 15.
Therefore, ( 2 x 2 + x − 3) × ( x 2 − 2 x + 5 )= 2 x 4 − 3 x 3 + 5 x 2 + 11x −15.
U
Division of polynomials
E
Dividing polynomials is an arithmetic operation where a polynomial is divided by

N
another polynomial with the same or lower degree as compared to the dividend.
Division of polynomials can be done by using two ways namely long division
LI
method and synthetic division method.

N
Long division of polynomials

O
Division of polynomials can be done using a method similar to long division of

numbers. The following are steps to follow when dividing polynomials by long
R
division:
1. Rewrite the problem in long division form. Make sure that both polynomials
FO
are written in decreasing powers, filling in any missing term with a zero term.
2. Divide the first term of the dividend by the first term of the divisor. Place the
quotient to its corresponding like term. Multiply the quotient by the divisor,
place the product below its like terms then subtract.
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3. Bring down the next term of the dividend.

4. Repeat steps 2 and 3 until the last term is obtained.
5. Write the final answer. If there is a remainder, place the remainder over the
divisor and add it to the quotient.
Example 6.41
Divide 2 x 4 − 3 x3 + 5 x − 36 by x 2 + x + 2 .
Solution
LY
Rewrite the problem in long division form and follow the steps discussed.
2 x2 − 5x + 1
N
x 2 + x + 2 2 x 4 − 3 x 3 + 0x 2 + 5 x − 36
O
− (2 x 4 + 2 x3 + 4 x 2 )
− 5 x3 − 4 x 2 + 5 x
SE
(
− −5 x 3 − 5 x 2 − 10 x )
x 2 + 15 x − 36
U
− ( x 2 + x + 2)
14 x − 38
E
Thus, 2 x 4 − 3 x 3 + 5 x − 36 divided by x 2 + x + 2 gives 2 x 2 − 5 x + 1 with a

remainder 14 x − 38.
N
2 x 4 − 3 x3 + 5 x − 36 14 x − 38
Therefore, = 2 x2 − 5x +1+ 2 .
LI
2
x +x+2 x +x+2
N
Synthetic division method

Synthetic division is a simplified method for dividing a polynomial by another
O
polynomial of degree one. It is performed by writing down only coefficients of

several powers of the variable and changing sign of the constant term in the divisor
R
so as to replace the usual subtraction by addition.

FO
Example 6.42
Use synthetic division to divide 6 x 3 + x − 1 by x + 2 .
247
Form Five
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Solution
Since the divisor is of the form x − ( −2 ) , use the additive inverse of 2 which
is −2 .
Step 1: Write down all the coefficients of the dividend in a row, from left to
right, and then place −2 in that same row, to the left of the leading
coefficient of the dividend.
−2 6 0 1 −1
LY
Step 2: Bring down the leading coefficient of the dividend which is 6, and then
N
multiply it by the divisor −2 to get – 12. Write –12 to the corresponding
coefficient 0.
O
−2 6 0 1 −1
− 12 SE
6
Step 3: Add 0 and – 12 to get – 12, then write it to its corresponding term – 12.
U
−2 6 0 1 −1
− 12
6 − 12
E
Step 4: Apply Steps 2 and 3 to the result. That is, multiply −12 by −2 to get
N
24. Write 24 to the corresponding coefficient 1, then add 1 and 24 to

LI
get 25. Write 25 to the corresponding coefficient 24.

−2 6 0 1 −1
N
− 12 + 24
O
6 − 12 + 25
R
Step 5: Apply Steps 2 and 3 to the result. That is, multiply 25 by −2 to get −50.
Write –50 to the corresponding cefficcient –1, then add −50 and −1 to
FO
get −51. Write –51 to the corresponding coefficient –50.

−2 6 0 1 −1
− 12 + 12 − 50
6 − 12 + 25 −51
248
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Step 6: Read the coefficients of the quotient from the bottom row and write
the quotient:
q ( x ) = 6 x 2 − 12 x + 25.
The remainder, r (x) is −51, which is the last number in the bottom row.
Thus, 6 x3 + x − 1 divided by x + 2 is equal to 6 x 2 − 12 x + 25 remainder is − 51.
6 x3 + x −1  −51 
Therefore, = 6 x 2 − 12 x + 25 +  .
x+2  x+2
Example 6.43
LY
By using synthetic division, find the remainder when p ( x) =x 4 − 2 x3 − 15 x + 2
is divided by x − 2.
N
O
Solution
2 1 − 2 0 − 15 2 SE
+2 +0 +0 − 30
1 + 0 + 0 − 15 −28
U
Therefore, the remainder is – 28.
E
Exercise 6.6
N
1. Given that p ( x) = −18 x5 + 14 x 4 − 24 x3 − 24 x + 70 and

LI
−25 x5 + 72 x 4 − 32 x3 + 12 x 2 − 50 , find:
q( x) =
(a) p ( x) + q ( x) (b) p ( x) − q ( x)
N
2. If x − 4 and x + 6 are factors of the expression x3 + ax 2 + bx + c and it leaves

O
a remainder of −18 when divided by x + 3 , find the values of a, b, and c.

3. Use synthetic division to find the remainder when 2 x 4 + 3 x 3 − 2 x + 5 is
R
divided by x + 5 .
4. Find the constant e, f, and g such that when y 5 − 7 y 3 + 4 y − 2 is divided by
FO
2
( y − 1)( y + 1)( y − 3) the remainder is ey + fy + g .
5. Expand each of the following polynomials:
(x − 2 x − 3) ( 3x − x + 1)( − x 2 + 2 x − 1)
2
(a) 2
(b) 2
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6. Find the values of m, n, and p if

m + n ( x − 1) + p ( x − 1)( x − 2 ) + 2 ( x − 1)( x − 2 )( x − 3) , is divided
by ( x − 1) , ( x − 2 ) , and ( x − 3), gives the remainders 10, 3, and 3,
respectively.
7. By using synthetic division method, find the remainder and the quotient
in each of the following:
x 3 − 3x + 1 x 2 − 8x − 1
(a) (d)
x−2 x+5
LY
x 4 + x3 − 8x 2 + 2x −1 x4 − 4x2 + 2x + 6
(b) (e)
x +1 x−4
x6 − 4x4 + 2x − 1 2x 4 + x3 + 1
N
(c) (f)
x+2 x +1
O
8. Use long division method to find the result in each of the following:
2 x 5 + 8 x 2 − 3x − 2 2x 4 + x3 + 1
(a) (c)
x2 −1 SEx +1
1 − x2 + x4 x4 − a4
(b) (d)
x2 + x + 1 x−a
U
9. Find the remainder in each of the following expressions:
x3 + x 2 + 4 x − 4 x5 + x 4 − x − 2 16 x 3 + x 2 − 1
(a) (c) (e)
E
x −1 x−3 x−2
N
x 3 − 3x + 5 8 x 4 + 32 x 2 − x − 7
(b) (d)
x +1 x−4
LI
x2 − 8x − t
10. If the remainder of is –10, find the value of t and hence,
x+2
N
factorize the polynomial.

O
11. Show that x + 1 is a factor of x3 – x2 – 10x – 8.

R
Inequalities
It is common to compare two objects that are not of the same size. For instance,
FO
people say, “She must be older than you” or “No way, we cannot be equal” or “A
goat is smaller than a cow”. These statements compare two objects of different
sizes or unequal sizes. In mathematics, a statement describing relationships like;
“greater than, greater than or equal, less than, or less than or equal” between two
numbers or algebraic expressions is called inequality.
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Form Five
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In general, inequalities are statements that compare two values or sizes. The inequality
symbols include: ≤ (less than or equal), ≥ (greater than or equal), < (strictly less
than), and > (strictly greater than).
The inequality that involves variables can be solved and its solution is not a single
value, thus it is a set of values that satisfies the inequality. The method of solving
inequalities is very much like the method used for solving equations. The only
difference is on multiplying or dividing both sides by a negative number. That is,
when both sides of a given inequality are either multiplied or divided by a negative
LY
quantity, the sense of inequality must change (> changes to <, < changes to >, ≥
changes to ≤, and ≤ changes to ≥) .
N
Activity 6.8 Recognizing the solution of a quadratic inequality
O
1. List down the steps of drawing the graph of the quadratic function.
SE
2. Use the steps in task 1 to draw the graph of f ( x) = x 2 + 2 x − 8 on the
interval − 6 ≤ x ≤ 4 .
U
3. Identify the solution of f ( x) ≥ 0 using the graph in task 2.
4. Identify the solution of f ( x) ≤ 0 using the graph in task 2.
E
5. What have you observed in tasks 3 and 4? Give reasons.

N
6. Share your findings with other students for more inputs.

LI
Quadratic inequalities
N
A quadratic inequality is a polynomial of degree two that uses an inequality sign

O
instead of an equal sign. There are several ways of solving quadratic inequalities
which include graphical and algebraic methods. Quadratic inequalities can be
R
solved graphically by first rewriting the inequality in standard form, with zero on
one side. Sketch the quadratic function and determine where it is above or below
FO
the x-axis. Also, the inequality can be solved algebraically by making use of a sign
chart. To make a sign chart, use the function and test values in each region bounded
by the roots. The concern is to check if the function is positive or negative.
251
Form Five
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Example 6.44
Solve x 2 + 2 x ≤ 0 graphically.
Solution
Given x 2 + 2 x ≤ 0.
⇒ x( x + 2) ≤ 0
ÞEither x ≤ 0 and x + 2 ≥ 0 or x ≥ 0 and x + 2 ≤ 0
ÞEither x ≤ 0 and −2 ≤ x or x ≥ 0 and x ≤ −2
LY
or f ( x) ≤ 0, where f ( x) = x( x + 2) .
If the graph of f ( x) is sketched, then f ( x) ≤ 0 where the graph is below
the x-axis. The value of x corresponding to this portion of the graph satisfy
N
f ( x) ≤ 0 . The points where f ( x) = 0 ; that is x = 0 and x = −2 are part of the
O
solution as shown in the following figure:
SE
U
E
N
LI
N
O
From the graph, it is observed hat the set of values of x which satisfy the given
inequality is −2 ≤ x ≤ 0 .
R
Therefore, the solution is {x : −2 ≤ x ≤ 0} .

FO
Example 6.45
Solve x 2 + x − 6 > 0 algebraically.
252
Form Five
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Solution
Given x 2 + x − 6 > 0 .
⇒ ( x − 2 )( x + 3) > 0
Þ Either x − 2 > 0 and x + 3 > 0 or x − 2 < 0 and x + 3 < 0
Þ Either x > 2 and x > −3 or x < 2 and x < −3
Consider the signs of the factors in the following table of intervals:
x < −3 −3 < x < 2 x>2
LY
x−2 –ve –ve +ve
N
x+3 –ve +ve +ve
O
( x − 2 )( x + 3) +ve –ve +ve
SE
The solution for which ( x − 2 )( x + 3) > 0 is x < −3 or x > 2 .
Therefore, the solution is {x : x < −3 or x > 2} .
U
Example 6.46
E
Solve − x 2 − x + 6 > 0 graphically.

N
Solution
LI
Given − x 2 − x + 6 > 0.
N
⇒ ( x − 2 )( − x − 3) > 0
⇒ Either ( x − 2 ) > 0 and ( − x − 3) > 0 or x − 2 < 0 and − x − 3 < 0
O
⇒ Either x > 2 and x < −3 or x < 2 and − 3 < x

R
If the graph of f ( x) is sketched, then f ( x) > 0 where the graph is above the
x-axis. The values of x corresponding to this portion of the graph satisfy
FO
f ( x) > 0 . The points where f ( x) = 0 ; that is x = 2 and x = −3 are not part

of this solution as shown in the following figure:
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Form Five
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LY
N
O
From the graph, it is observed that the set of values of x which satisfy the given
inequality is −3 < x < 2. SE
Therefore, the solution is {x : −3 < x < 2}.
U
Rational inequalities
Rational inequalities are fractions that have a polynomial expression in the
numerator, denominator or both. Generally, a rational inequality compares two
E
p( x) p( x) p( x) p( x)
expressions in the form < 0; > 0, ≤ 0 or ≥ 0,
N
q( x) q( x) q( x) q( x)
where q ( x) ≠ 0.
LI
Note that; the properties of fractions can be applied to simplify rational inequalities,
N
such as simplifying the expressions by cancelling common factors from the

numerator and the denominator.
O
The following are steps in solving rational inequalities:

R
1. Rewrite the inequality to contain a zero on the right-hand side. Create a single
FO
fraction on the left-hand side.

2. Find the critical values of x that make the numerator equal to zero and that
make the denominator equal to zero.
3. Construct a table of intervals in which the columns are separated by the critical
values.
254
Form Five
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4. Select a test point in each interval and check to see if it satisfies the original
inequality or the inequality set is less than 0.
5. Test the roots of the numerator for their possibility of inclusion to the overall solution.
Include the roots to get a true statement if they are part of the overall solution.
6. Exclude the roots of the denominator in the overall solution since they make
the rational expression undefined.
Example 6.47
2x + 1
Find the values of x for which >1.
x
LY
Solution
2x + 1
Given >1.
N
x
Make the right-hand side equal to zero.
O
That is,
2x +1
⇒ −1 > 0
x SE
2x +1− x
⇒ >0
x
x +1
U
⇒ >0
x
x +1
⇒ f ( x) = >0
E
x
The numerator of f ( x) is zero when x = −1, and the denominator is zero when
N
x = 0. So the critical values are x = −1 and x = 0 .

LI
Construct a table of intervals in which the columns are separated by the critical
values as follows:
N
x < −1 −1 < x < 0 x>0

O
x +1 − ve +ve +ve
x − ve − ve +ve
R
x +1 +ve − ve +ve
f ( x) =
FO
x
2x +1
The solution for which > 1 is x < −1 or x > 0 .
x
Therefore, the solution is {x : x < −1 or x > 0}.
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Example 6.48
Find the possible values of x for which

( x + 1) ( x − 3)( x + 4 ) ≤ 0.
x−2
Solution
Given f ( x )
=
( x + 1) ( x − 3)( x + 4) ≤ 0.
x−2
The numerator of f(x) is zero when (x+1) (x–3)(x+ 4) = 0, thus x = –1, x = 3,
and x = – 4. The denominator f ( x) is zero when x − 2 = 0 ⇒ x = 2. So, the
LY
critical values are x = −1, x = 3, x =
− 4, and x = 2 .
Construct a table of intervals in which the columns are separated by the critical
values as follows:
N
x<–4 − 4 < x < −1 −1 < x < 2 2< x<3 x>3
O
x+4 − ve +ve +ve +ve +ve
x +1 − ve − ve +ve
SE +ve +ve
x−2 − ve − ve − ve +ve +ve
U
x −3 − ve − ve − ve − ve +ve
f ( x) +ve − ve +ve − ve +ve
E
The solution for which f ( x ) < 0 is − 4 < x < −1 or 2 < x < 3. The critical
N
values x = − 4, x =−1, and x = 3 satisfy the overall solution and the critical
LI
value of the denominator does not satisfy the solution as it makes the rational
expression undefined.
N
Therefore, the solution is {x : − 4 ≤ x ≤ −1 or 2 < x ≤ 3}.

O
Absolute value inequalities

The symbol is the sign of the absolute value. The absolute value of a real number
R
 x if x ≥ 0
x is written as x , where x = 
FO
− x if x < 0
The solution set of x = a is the union of the solution sets of the two equations.
Similarly, an equation that has the sign of an absolute value is equivalent to two
equations without the sign of the absolute value. An absolute value inequality is
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an expression with absolute functions as well as inequality signs. For example, the
expression p < c is an absolute value inequality containing “a less than” symbol.
This expression is defined as follows:
Definition 1
If p < c , then −c < p < c.
If p ≤ c , then −c ≤ p ≤ c , where p is any algebraic expression.
Note that, the value of c cannot be negative because if c < 0, then p < c
becomes p < 0, which is impossible. Thus, the definition of p requires
LY
that p is not negative.
N
Definition 2
O
If p > c, then p > c or p < − c.
If p ≥ c, then p ≥ c or p ≤ −c, where p is any algebraic expression.

SE
Solutions of absolute value inequalities can be presented algebraically or graphically.
U
The general solutions of such graphs are as follows:
E
Type of Equivalent inequality

Nature of the graph
inequality to be solved
N
LI
p <c −c < p < c

N
O
p ≤c −c ≤ p ≤ c
R
p >c p > c or p < −c

FO
p ≥c p ≥ c or p ≤ −c
257
Form Five
FOR ONLINE USE ONLY
DO NOT DUPLICATE
Example 6.49
Solve 2 x < 10 and plot its solution on the number line.
Solution
By definition, p < c is equivalent to − c < p < c .
This implies that −10 < 2 x < 10 .
Dividing by 2 each term gives −5 < x < 5.
This solution is plotted on the number line as follows:
LY
−5 < x < 5
N
-5 5
Therefore, the solution is { x ∈  : − 5 < x < 5}.
O
Example 6.50 SE
Solve 3 x − 5 ≥ 2 and plot its solution set on the number line.
U
Solution
Generally, the solution of p ≥ c is given by p ≥ c or p ≤ − c .
E
Thus, the solution of 3 x − 5 ≥ 2 is given by 3x ‒ 5 ≥ 2 or 3 x ‒ 5 ≤ ‒2.

⇒ 3x ≥ 7 or 3x ≤ 3
N
Dividing by 3 both sides gives:

LI
7
x≥ or x ≤ 1
3
N
This solution is plotted on the number line as follows:

O
7
x≥
x ≤1 3
R
7
-4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 3 4
FO
 7
Therefore, the solution is  x ∈  : x ≤ 1, x ≥ .
 3
258
Form Five
FOR ONLINE USE ONLY
DO NOT DUPLICATE
Example 6.51
2 − 3x
Solve ≤ 6 and plot its solution set on the number line.
2
Solution
Since p ≤ c is equivalent to −c ≤ p ≤ c .
2 − 3x
This implies that the solution of ≤ 6 is given by,
2
2 − 3x
−6 ≤ ≤6
LY
2
Multiplying by 2 in each term gives,
N
−12 ≤ 2 − 3 x ≤ 12
Subtracting 2 from each term gives,
O
−14 ≤ −3 x ≤ 10
Divide by −3 each term and change the sense of inequality signs:
SE
14 10
⇒ ≥x≥−
3 3
10 14
U
⇒− ≤x≤
3 3
This solution is shown on the number line as follows:
E
10 14
− ≤x≤
3 3
N
LI
-6 -5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6
 10 14 
N
Therefore, the solution set is  x ∈  : − ≤ x ≤  .

 3 3
O
Exercise 6.7
R
Solve questions 1 – 19.

FO
x+3
1. 3 − 2 x < 4 + x 2. x − 4 > 2 3. 2x + 2 > 5
4. 2 x − 1 + 4 < 2 5. 3x − 1 − x ≥ 0 6. x − 3 + x +1 > 4
259
Form Five
FOR ONLINE USE ONLY
DO NOT DUPLICATE
3x − 1
< 2 8. 2
x
≥ 0
( x + 1)( x − 1) ≤ 0
7. 9.
x −1 x −1 x
( x + 1)( x + 5)
10. x2 – 8x + 15 ≥ 0 11. x2 – 5x ≤ 0 12. ( x + 2 )( 2 x + 3) > 0
2x 2 + x − 5  x+3  x2 + 2
13. ≤ 1 14. log x   >1 15. < −2
2x2 + x − 3  x −1  x2 −1
x−2 x x+3 4
16. < 17. <
2 x − 3 3x − 2 x − 2 3x − 3
LY
 1− x 
18. log   < 1 19. 8 x − 4 + 10 > 4
 1+ 2x 
N
( x + 1)
2
4
20. Show that 0 ≤ 2 ≤ for all real values of x .
O
x + x +1 3
Matrices SE
A set of numbers arranged in a rectangular pair m × n of which m is the number of
array having m rows and n columns and rows and n is the number of columns
enclosed by a square bracket [ ] or round of a matrix. If a matrix has 3 rows and
U
bracket ( ) is called a matrix. Matrices 2 columns, then its order is written as
are denoted by capital letters A, B, C or 3 × 2.
E
any other letter, and described by using If the number of rows and columns
rows and columns with rows appearing are equal, the matrix is called a square
N
first. A matrix m × n (read as m by n) is matrix, and if the number of rows and

LI
expressed as follows: columns are not equal, the matrix is just

 a11 a12 a13 ... a1n  called a rectangular matrix.
N
   1 1 3
 a21 a22 a23 ... a2 n   
For example, A =  2 5 6  is a square
O
A =  a31 a32 a33 ... a3 n 

  7 7 5
 
      
a 
R
 m1 am 2 am 3 ... amn   − 4 −2 
 8 −1 is a rectangular
matrix and B =−
The entry aij is the element in the i th  
FO
row and j th column of the matrix. For matrix.  −7 −9 
example, a12 is the element in the first

row and the second column. The order
or dimension of a matrix is the ordered
260
Form Five
FOR ONLINE USE ONLY
DO NOT DUPLICATE
Row and column matrices

Activity 6.9: Recognizing the
A matrix consisting of a single row is
number of rows and columns in
called a row matrix or a row vector,
the matrix
whereas a matrix having a single column
is called a column matrix or a column
Individually or in a group, read
vector. For example, D = [1 4 8]
carefully the following paragraph and
 −6 
then perform the tasks that follow.
and E=  − 8  are row and column
An electronic company produces  −10 
laptops, mobile phones, and desktop matrices, respectively.
LY
computers. Each laptop requires 10
units of gold, 8 units of copper, and Null or zero matrix
A matrix in which each element is 0 is
N
12 units of iron. Each mobile phone
requires 9 units of gold, 7 units of called a null or zero matrix. For example,
O
copper, and 5 units of iron. Each the matrix
desktop computer requires 15, 11, 0 0 0 
C = 0 0 0  is called a zero matrix.
and 14 units of gold, copper, and
SE
iron, respectively. 0 0 0 
1. Present this information in matrix
U
form. Square matrix
2. Identify the number of rows and A matrix having the same number of
columns of the matrix in task 1. rows and columns is called a square
E
matrix. For example,

3. Identify the order of the matrix
N
2 6 10 
in task 1.  
C =− 2 −5 12 
LI
4. What are the similarities and  − 4 −8 −15

differences between the number
N
is a square matrix. Any matrix of order

of rows and columns identified
n × n is a square matrix.
O
in task 2?
5. Share your findings with your Scalar matrix
R
fellow students for more inputs. A square matrix whose elements in the
leading diagonal are equal or the same,
FO
Types of matrices and the rest of the elements are zero is

There are several types of matrices. The called a scalar matrix.
following are some types of matrices:
261
Form Five
FOR ONLINE USE ONLY
DO NOT DUPLICATE
For example, Addition and subtraction of matrices

 −14 0 0  Two or more matrices are added or
=K  0 −14 0 
 subtracted if and only if they have the
 0 0 −14  same order.
is a scalar matrix. Multiplication of a matrix

Diagonal matrix Two matrices can be multiplied if the
A square matrix in which all elements are number of columns in the first matrix
zero except those in the main or leading is equal to the number of rows in the
diagonal is called a diagonal matrix. second matrix. The dimension of the
LY
resulting matrix will have the number of
8 0 0 
rows of the first matrix and the number
For example, G = 0 9 0 
  of columns of the second matrix. For
N
0 0 − 6 
example, if matrix A is of order m × p
O
is a diagonal matrix of order 3 × 3. and matrix B is of order q × n , then
multiplication of the two matrices, AB
Identity matrix or unit matrix is possible if and only if p = q , and the
SE
A square matrix whose elements in the resulting matrix will be of order m × n.
leading diagonal are one and the rest of The steps for multiplying a matrix by
the elements are zero is called an identity another matrix are as follows:
U
or unit matrix. For example,  a11 a12 a13 
1 0 0   
Let matrix A =  a21 a22 a23  and
I = 0 1 0 
E
matrix a 
 31 a32 a33 
0 0 1 
N
is an identity matrix of order 3 × 3 .

LI
 b11 b12 b13 

Operations on matrices  
B =  b21 b22 b23  .
N
The operations on matrices include addition, b

 31 b32 b33 
subtraction, and multiplication.
O
To obtain the matrix AB, use the following steps:

R
1. Multiply the elements of the first row in A by the elements of the first column in B,
FO
 b11 
 
that is ( a11 a12 a13 ) ×  b21  = a11b11 + a12b21 + a13b31 ........... 1st element is obtained.
b 
 31 
262
Form Five
FOR ONLINE USE ONLY
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2. Multiply the elements of the first row in A by the elements of the second column
 b12 
 
in B, that is ( a11 a12 a13 ) ×  b22  = a11b12 + a12b22 + a13b32 ........... 2nd element is
obtained. b 
 32 
3. Multiply the elements of the first row in A by the elements of the third column in B,
 b13 
 
that is ( a11 a12 a13 ) ×  b23  = a11b13 + a12b23 + a13b33 ........... 3rd element is obtained.
b 
 33 
LY
4. Multiply the elements of the second row in A by the elements of the first column
 b11 
 
in B, that is ( a21 a22 a23 ) ×  b21  = a21b11 + a22b21 + a23b31 ........... 4th element is
N
b 
obtained.  31 
O
5. Multiply the elements of the second row in A by the elements of the second column
 b12 
 
SE
b 
U
6. Multiply the elements of the second row in A by the elements of the third column
 b13 
E
 
N
b 
LI
7. Multiply the elements of the third row in A by the elements of the first column in B,
N
 b11 
 
O
that is ( a31 a32 a33 ) ×  b21  = a31b11 + a32b21 + a33b31 ........... 7th element is obtained.
b 
 31 
R
8. Multiply the elements of the third row in A by the elements of the second column
FO
 b12 
 
obtained. b 
 32 
263
Form Five
FOR ONLINE USE ONLY
DO NOT DUPLICATE
9. Multiply the elements of the third row in A by the elements of the third column
 b13 
 
obtained. b 
 33 
 1st element 2nd element 3rd element 

 
Thus, AB =  4 th element 5th element 6 th element 
 7 th element 8th element 9 th element 
 
Therefore,
LY
 a11b11 + a12b21 + a13b31 a11b12 + a12b22 + a13b32 a11b13 + a12b23 + a13b33 
 
AB =  a21b11 + a22b21 + a23b31 a21b12 + a22b22 + a23b32 a21b13 + a22b23 + a23b33 
a b +a b +a b 
 31 11 32 21 33 31 a31b12 + a32b22 + a33b32 a31b13 + a32b23 + a33b33 
N
O
Example 6.52
 −2 −8 9   4 − 4 −10 
SE
   
If G =− 6 −5 7  and H = 13 −9 −11  , find GH .
 12 10 −3   3 6 −15 
U
   
Solution
 −2 − 8 9   4 − 4 −10 
   
E
GH=  − 6 − 5 7  × 13 − 9 −11  =

 12 10 −3   3 6 −15 
   
N
 (−2 × 4) + (− 8 ×13) + (9 × 3) (−2 × − 4) + (− 8 × −9) + (9 × 6) (−2 × −10) + (− 8 × −11) + (9 × −15) 

LI
 
 (− 6 × 4) + (− 5 ×13) + (7 × 3) (− 6 × − 4) + (−5 × −9) + (7 × 6) (− 6 × −10) + (−5 × −11) + (7 × −15) 
 (12 × 4) + (10 ×13) + (−3 × 3) (12 × − 4) + (10 × −9) + (−3 × 6) (12 × −10) + (10 × −11) + (−3 × −15) 
 
N
 − 85 134 − 27 
O
 
=  − 68 111 10 
 169 −156 −185 
R
 
 − 85 134 −27 
FO
 
Therefore, GH =  − 68 111 10  .
 169 −156 −185 
 
264
Form Five
FOR ONLINE USE ONLY
DO NOT DUPLICATE
Example 6.53
 4 a −6  12   − 72 
     
Given that E =
 −8 c − 4, F =  109  . Find the values of a,
 −15  , and EF =
b, and c.  10 3 b   −10   − 80 
     
Solution
 4 a − 6   12   4 ×12 + a × ( −15 ) + ( − 6 ) × ( −10 ) 
     
EF =  − 8 c − 4  ×  −15  =  − 8 ×12 + c × ( −15 ) + ( − 4 ) × ( −10 ) 
LY
     
 10 3 b   −10   10 ×12 + 3 × ( −15 ) + b × ( −10 ) 
 108 − 15a   −72 
   
N
= −56 − 15c  since, EF=  109  , then
 75 − 10b   −80 
   
O
 108 − 15a   −72 
   
 −56 − 15c  =  109 
 75 − 10b   −80 
SE
   
Equating the corresponding elements gives,
U
⇒ 108 − 15a =−72 ⇒ a =12,
⇒ −56 − 15c = 109 ⇒ c = −11,
E
⇒ 75 − 10b =− 80 ⇒ b =15.5.
N
Therefore, a = 12, b = 15.5, and c = −11 .

LI
Example 6.54
N
 −12 20 40 
O
Given =  
M  14 −8 −2  , verify that MI=IM = M, where I is a multiplicative
 26 15 6 
R
 
identity matrix.
FO
Solution
 −12 20 40   1 0 0   −12 20 40 
     
MI
=  14 − 8 − 2  ×  0 1 0=  14 − 8 − 2 
 26 15 6   0 0 1   26 15 6 
     
265
Form Five
FOR ONLINE USE ONLY
DO NOT DUPLICATE
 1 0 0   −12 20 40   −12 20 40 
Also,      
⇒ IM=  0 1 0  ×  14 −8 −=
2   14 −8 −2 
 0 0 1   26 15 6   26 15 6 
     
Therefore, MI=IM = M.
Transpose of a matrix
Let A be an m × n matrix, then the n × m matrix obtained after interchanging the
rows and columns of matrix A is called the transpose of matrix A and it is denoted
LY
 2 8 −7   2 4 6
  T  
by A T . For example, if A =  4 −2 9  , then A =  8 −2 1  .
6 1 5   −7 9 5 
N
   
O
Example 6.55
 −10 −15 12   4 1 7
SE
   
Given L =  8 4 3  and M =  −2 3 2  , verify that
 6 10 −1  −1 0 9 
  
U
(LM)T = M T LT .
Solution
E
Consider the left-hand side

N
 −10 −15 12   4 1 7 
   
LI
=⇒ LM  8 4 3  ×  −2 3 2 
 6 10 −1  −1 0 9 

N
 − 40 + 30 − 12 −10 − 45 + 0 −70 − 30 + 108 

O
 
=  32 − 8 − 3 8 + 12 + 0 56 + 8 + 27 
 24 − 20 + 1 6 + 30 + 0 42 + 20 − 9 

R
 −22 −55 8 
FO
 
⇒ LM =
 21 20 91 
 5 36 53 

266
Form Five
FOR ONLINE USE ONLY
DO NOT DUPLICATE
 −22 21 5 
 
⇒ ( LM )
T
Thus,  −55 20 36 
=
 8 91 53 

Similarly, consider the right-hand side:

 4 1 7  4 −2 −1
  T  
Since M =  −2 3 2  , then M = 1 3 0 
 −1 0 9  7 2 9 
   
 −10 −15 12   −10 8 6 
LY
   
Also, L =  8 4 3  , LT =  −15 4 10  .
 6 10 −1  12 3 −1
  
N
 4 −2 −1  −10 8 6 
O
Þ M L =  1 3 0  ×  −15 4 10 
T T
 7 2 9   12 3 −1
    SE
 −22 21 5 
T T  
Thus, M L =  −55 20 36 
 8 91 53 
U
 
Therefore, ( ML ) =M T LT .
T
E
N
Exercise 6.8
LI
1 2 2 
1. If N =  2 1 2  , verify that N 2 − 4N − 5I =
M , where I is an identity
N
 
 2 2 1 
O
matrix and M is a null matrix.

 1 2 3 −2 5 8 
   
R
2. Given A =  −1 0 9  and B =  − 6 10 12  , find AB.

 1 −3 4   13 4 7 
   
FO
8 7 2  − 4 5 −10 
   − 6 4 −12  , show that JK ≠ KJ.
3. Given that J = 10 6 4 and K =
   
12 14 21  − 8 10 −18
267
Form Five
FOR ONLINE USE ONLY
DO NOT DUPLICATE
 80 50 40   −19 
   
4. If L =  −57 , evaluate each of the following:
 20 30 −50  and M =
 −90 −70 −95   −38 
   
(a) LM (b) ML (c) M 2
 c 15 −20   −4  −70 

     
5. Given that P =
 −18 12 d  , Q =  36  find the values
 − 6  , and PQ =
 14 20 25   e   49 
     
of c, d, and e.
LY
 − 2 12 0   1 2 3   10 
     
6. Find  − 4 8 − 2  ×  4 5 6  ×  −10  .
N
 −5 4 − 6   8 1 − 2   20 
     
O
 −14 40 − 8 
 
7. If R =
 −16 20 − 6  , show that RI = R , where I is an identity matrix.
= IR
SE
 −21 30 − 4 
 
1 3 2  −2 1 −4 

8. Given P =   
 −1 2 −5  , find:
 2 2 3  and Q =
U
3 1 1  −3 3 −6 
   
(a) ( PQ )
T
E
(b) QT P T . Hence show that ( PQ ) = QT P T .

T
N
LI
9. The distribution of number of grades A, B, and C, and grade points from

the departments of Geography, Chemistry, and Biology are represented
N
by matrices M and N, respectively as follows:

O
A B C
Geography  45 60 50  A  20 
M Chemistry    
= 35 55 40  and N B 18 
R
Bio log y  48 50 36  C 12 

FO
Find the matrix MN and interpret it.
268
Form Five
FOR ONLINE USE ONLY
DO NOT DUPLICATE
10. Three students buy soft drinks of type D1 , D 2 , and D3 . The first student
buys 8, 12, and 16 bottles of D1 , D 2 , and D3 , respectively. The second
student buys 5, 9, and 10 bottles of D1 , D 2 , and D3 , respectively. The
third student buys 15, 18, and 12 bottles of D1 , D 2 , and D3 , respectively.
(a) Represent the information in matrix form.
(b) If the cost of each bottle of D1 , D 2 , and D3 is 500 Tanzanian shillings,
using matrix operations find the total amount of money spent by each
student individually.
LY
Determinant of a 3 × 3 matrix
A real number that represents the magnitude of square matrix is called a determinant
N
of a matrix. The determinant of a matrix A is denoted by det(A) or A . It can be
O
calculated provided that A is a square matrix. If A = 0 , then the matrix A is called
singular matrix, and if A ≠ 0 , then the matrix is called non-singular matrix.
SE
Finding determinants of 3 × 3 matrices
The following steps can be used in determining the determinant of a 3×3 matrix:
U
1. Choose any row or any column in the given matrix.
2. Compute the cofactors of each element in the chosen row or column.
E
3. The determinant is equal to the sum of the products of the elements and
their respective cofactors.
N
 a11 a12 a13 

 
LI
Consider matrix A =  a21 a22 a23 

a 
 31 a32 a33 
N
Choose the first row with elements a11 , a12 , and a13 . According to the patterns of
O
signs (+ or −) for calculating cofactors:

a a23 a a
R
cofactor of a11 = + 22 , cofactor of a12 = − 21 23 , and cofactor of

a32 a33 a31 a33
FO
a21 a22
a13 = +
a31 a32
269
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a22 a23 a21 a23 a21 a22

Therefore, A = a11 − a12 + a13 .
a32 a33 a31 a33 a31 a32
Example 6.56
 19 −20 −24 
 
=Given D  36 18 −16  , evaluate D .
 −10 15 14 
 
Solution
LY
Using the first row of the matrix D:
19 −20 −24
N
⇒ D
= 36 18 −16
−10 15 14
O
18 −16 36 −16 36 18
= 19 − (−20) + (−24) SE
15 14 −10 14 −10 15
= 9348 + 6880 − 17280
U
= −1052
Therefore, D = −1052.
E
Example 6.57
N
 2 4 −3   −5 −2 6 
   
LI
Given W=  −1 −2 1  and V =−
 6 5 1  , evaluate:
 5 3 − 4  2 3 −3 
  
N
(
(a) det ( WV )
T
) (b) det ( V T W T ) .
O
Hence, show that det ( WV ) ( T

) = det ( V W ).
T T
R
Solution
 2 4 −3   − 5 −2 6 
FO
(a) WV =  −1 −2 1  ×  − 6 5 1 
   
 5 3 − 4  2 3 −3 
   
270
Form Five
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 − 40 7 25 
 
=  19 −5 −11
 −51 −7 45 
 
 − 40 19 −51
)  7 −5 −7 
⇒ ( WV=
T
 25 −11 45 
 
Using the first column of matrix ( WV ) :
T
−5 −7 19 −51 19 −51
(
det ( WV ) =
T
)
LY
− 40 −7 + 25
−11 45 −11 45 −5 −7
= 12080 − 2068 − 9700
N
= 322
( ) = 322.
O
Therefore, det ( WV )
T
−5 −6 2   2 −1 5  SE
(b) V T =   
 −2 5 3  and W T =  4 −2 3 
 6 1 −3   −3 1 − 4 
  
U
 − 5 − 6 2   2 −1 5 
T T    
⇒V W = −2 5 3  ×  4 −2 3 
 6 1 −3   −3 1 −4 
E

 − 40 19 −51
N
 
=  7 −5 −7 
LI
 25 −11 45 
 
N
Using the third column of matrix W T V T :

7 −5 − 40 19 − 40 19
( )
O
det V T W T =+(−51) − (−7) + 45

25 −11 25 −11 7 −5
−2448 − 245 + 3015
=
R
= 322
FO
( )
det V T W T = 322.
( )
= det ( V T W T ) .
Therefore, det ( WV )= 322
T
271
Form Five
FOR ONLINE USE ONLY
DO NOT DUPLICATE
Minors of a matrix
The minor of an element in a matrix is the determinant of a sub-matrix formed
by deleting the rows and columns in a given element. Each element in a 3 × 3
matrix has its own minor. The minors may be denoted by Mij , where i and j are
the deleted rows and columns, respectively.
The steps for obtaining the minors are as follows:
 a11 a12 a13 
 
Let matrix A =  a21 a22 a23  , and Mij be the minors of A.
a 
 31 a32 a33 
LY
For M11 , delete the first row and first column of A, then compute the determinant
of the resulting 2 × 2 matrix as follows:
a11 a12 a13
N
a a23
M11 = a21 a22 a23 = 22 = ( a22 × a33 ) − ( a23 × a32 )
a32 a33
O
a31 a32 a33
For M12 , delete the first row and second column of A, then compute the determinant
SE
a11 a12 a13
a a
M12 = a21 a22 a23 = 21 23 = ( a21 × a33 ) − ( a23 × a31 )
U
a31 a33
a31 a32 a33
For M13 , delete the first row and the third column of A, then compute the determinant
E

N
a11 a12 a13

a a
M13 = a21 a22 a23 = 21 22 = ( a21 × a32 ) − ( a22 × a31 )
LI
a31 a32
a31 a32 a33
N
For M 21 , delete the second row and the first column of A, then compute the
O
determinant of the resulting 2 × 2 matrix as follows:

a11 a12 a13
a a13
M 21 = a21 a22 a23 = 12 = ( a12 × a33 ) − ( a13 × a32 )
R
a32 a33
a31 a32 a33
FO
For M 22 , delete the second row and the second column of A, then compute the
determinant of the resulting 2 × 2 matrix as follows:
272
Form Five
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a11 a12 a13

a11 a13
M 22 = a21 a22 a23 = = ( a11 × a33 ) − ( a13 × a31 )
a31 a33
a31 a32 a33
For M 23 , delete the second row and the third column of A, then compute the determinant
a11 a12 a13
a a
M 23 = a21 a22 a23 = 11 12 = ( a11 × a32 ) − ( a12 × a31 )
a31 a32
a31 a32 a33
LY
For M 31, delete the third row and the first column of A, then compute the determinant
a11 a12 a13
N
a a13
M 31 = a21 a22 a23 = 12 = ( a12 × a23 ) − ( a13 × a22 )
a22 a23
O
a31 a32 a33
For M 32, delete the third row and the second column of A, then compute the determinant
SE
a11 a12 a13
a a
M 32 = a21 a22 a23 = 11 13 = ( a11 × a23 ) − ( a13 × a21 )
U
a21 a23
a31 a32 a33
For M 33, delete the third row and the third column of A, then compute the determinant
E

N
a11 a12 a13

a a
M 33 = a21 a22 a23 = 11 12 = ( a11 × a22 ) − ( a12 × a21 )
LI
a21 a22
a31 a32 a33
N
 M11 M12 M13 

Therefore, M ij =  M 21 
O
M 22 M 23  is a matrix of minors.
M M 33 M 33 
 31
R
Cofactors of a 3 × 3 matrix
i+ j
A cofactor of an element aij is obtained after multiplying by (−1) to the minor
FO
Mij. The matrix of cofactors of a matrix A is abbreviated as cof (A). Generally, if

 a11 a12 a13 
 
A =  a21 a22 a23  , then cof (aij ) = (−1)i + j M ij.
a a32 a33 
 31
273
Form Five
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The cofactors of a matrix A are obtained

Example 6.58
as follows:
 − 8 56 −72 
( −1) × M11
1+1
The cofactor of a11 =  
Given M =  −12 28 66  , find:
 15 −39 95 
( −1)
1+ 2
The cofactor of a12 = × M12  
( −1)
The cofactor of a13 =
1+ 3
× M13 (a) The minors, M13 and M 22 .
(b) The cofactors of the elements a13and a22.
( −1)
2 +1
The cofactor of a21 = × M 21
Solution
LY
( −1)
2+ 2
−8 56 −72
−12 28
( −1)
2+3
The cofactor of a23 = × M 23 (a) M13 =
−12 28 66 =
15 −39
N
15 −39 95
( −1)
3+1
O
( −1)
3+ 2
The cofactor of a32 = × M 32 = (−12 × −39) − (28 ×15)
SE = 48
( −1)
3+ 3
− 8 56 −72
− 8 −72
The following pattern of signs may be M 22 =
−12 28 66 =
15 95
U
useful in calculating cofactors of a 3 × 3 15 −39 95
matrix. = (−8 × 95) − (−72 ×15)
+ − + 
E
= 320
That is,  − + − 
Therefore, the minors, M13 and M 22 are 48
N
 + − + 
and 320 , respectively.
LI
( −1)
1+ 3
Generally, the matrix of cofactors of a (b) Cofactor of a13 = × M13
matrix A is given by,
N
= 1× 48
cof(A)= (−1)i + j M ij  . = 48
O
For a 3 × 3 matrix A, the matrix of

( −1)
2+ 2
cofactors is, cofactor of a22 = × M 22
R
 + M11 −M12 +M13  = (1) × 320

cof(A)=  −M 21 +M 22 −M 23  .
FO
= 320
 +M 31 −M 32 +M 33 
Therefore, the cofactors of the elements a13 and
a22 are 48 and 320, respectively.
274
Form Five
FOR ONLINE USE ONLY
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Exercise 6.9
1. Calculate each of the following:

5 9 6 −2 4 1
(a) 3 7 8 (b) 5 10 3
21 55 6 3 − 6 −11
2. Find the matrix of the minors in each of the following:

 4 −7 6   1 2 5
   
(a) D =  −2 4 0  (b) E =  2 4 5 
LY
 5 7 − 4  3 1 3
   
3. Find the matrix of cofactors in each of the following:
N
1 1 1   2 0 6
   
(b)  1 5 0 
O
(a)  1 2 −3 
 2 −1 3   4 −1 3 
   
SE
4. Use cofactors to evaluate each of the following:
4 −7 6 1 −2 6
(a) −2 4 0 (b) 2 1 −3
U
5 7 −4 3 0 5
 3 −3 0  2 3 0 
   
E
K  6 −9 3  , show that ( JK ) = J K .
T T T
5. If
= J  6 3 9  and=
12 3 24   3 3 −3 
N
   
6. Verify each of the following:
LI
a+b a a
(a) a a+b a = b 2 (3a + b)
N
a a a+b
O
1 1 1
(b) a b c = (a − b)(b − c)(c − a )(a + b + c)
R
a 3 b3 c3
FO
7. In each of the following, show that:

1 1 1
(a) x y z =( x − y )( y − z )( z − x)
x2 y 2
z2
275
Form Five
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1+ x 1 1
 1 1 1
(b) 1 1 + y 1 = xyz 1 + + + 
1 1 1+ z  x y z
x− y−z 2x 2x
(x + y + z)
3
(c) 2y y−z−x 2y =
2z 2z z−x− y
 −18 −16 39   − 5 −10 14 
   
8. Given K =−
 42 15 41  and L=  − 6 −11 7  , show that
 32 28 60   − 4 15 2 
LY
  
(a) det(KL) = det(LK) (b) det ( (KL)T ) = det ( LT K T )
N
9. Find the values each of the unknown elements in each of the following
O
matrices:
 −2 1 1 
(a) D =  3 2 2  if D is a singular matrix

 1 m 4

SE
 
 8 −2 r 
U
 
(b) E =  2 −3 −2  if E = −328
6 3 8 
 
E
 −1 2 3 
10. Given that matrix C =  2 1 0  , find:
N
 
 3 2 1
 
LI
(a) The matrix from the expression C2 − 2C + I , where I is an identity

matrix.
N
(b) det(C2 − 2C + I)
O
Solving systems of linear simultaneous equations using Cramer’s rule

R
Consider the following system of linear equations:

 a11 x + a12 y + a13 z =
d1
FO

a21 x + a22 y + a23 z =d2
a x + a y + a z = d3
 31 32 33
276
Form Five
FOR ONLINE USE ONLY
DO NOT DUPLICATE
Write the system of equations in matrix form as follows:

 a11 a12 a13   x   d1 
    
 a21 a22 a23   y  =  d 2 
a    
 31 a32 a33   z   d3 
 a11 a12 a13 

 
Let A =  a21 a22 a23  be a coefficient matrix of the system of linear equations.
a a32 a33 
 31
By Cramer’s rule, the values of x, y, and z are obtained by using the following
LY
formulae:
Ax Ay Az
=x = , y ,=
and z where A is the determinant of the coefficient
A A A
N
matrix.
O
a11 a12 a13
That is, A = a21 a22 a23 .
a31 a32 a33
SE
A x is the determinant of matrix A, with the first column entries replaced by the
U
values d1 , d 2 , and d3 . That is,
d1 a12 a13
A x = d 2 a22 a23 ,
E
d3 a32 a33
N
A y is the determinant of matrix A, with the second column entries replaced by

LI
the values d1 , d 2 , and d3 . That is,

N
a11 d1 a13
O
A y = a21 d2 a23 , and

a31 d3 a33
R
A z is the determinant of matrix A, where the third column entries are replaced
FO
by the values d1 , d 2 , and d3 . That is,

a11 a12 d1
Az = a21 a22 d2 .
a31 a32 d3
277
Form Five
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Example 6.59
0 2 1 2 1 0
Solve the following system of linear
=1 −3 +1
1 −3 5 −3 5 1
equations using Cramer’s rule.
=−2 + 39 + 1
x + y + z = 3
 = 38
x − 3 y + 2z = 0
5 x − y − 3 z = 1 1
1 3

⇒ A z = 1 −3 0
Solution
5 −1 1
The matrix form of the given system of
LY
1 1 1  x  3 −3 0 1 0 1 −3
     = 1 −1 +3
equations is 1 − 3 2   y  =  0  −1 1 5 1 5 −1
 5 − 1 − 3   z  1 
N
     =−3 − 1 + 42
= 38
O
1 1 1 By using cramer's rule ;
 
Let=
A 1 −3 2  SE A x 38
5 −1 −3  ⇒ x= =
 A 38
1 1 1
1
⇒x=
U
⇒A = 1 −3 2
5 −1 −3
Ay 38
⇒ y= =
−3 2 1 2 1 −3 A 38
E
= 1 −1 +1
−1 −3 5 −3 5 −1 1
⇒y=
N
= 11 + 13 + 14 A z 38
z
⇒= =
A 38
LI
= 38
3 1 1 1
⇒z=
N
⇒ A x = 0 −3 2  x  1
1 −1 −3    
O
Therefore, the solution is  y  = 1 .

−3 2 0 2 0 −3  z  1
= 3 −1 +1    
−1 −3 1 −3 1 −1
R
= 33 + 2 + 3
FO
Adjoint of a matrix
= 38
Adjoint matrix of a matrix A is a transpose
1 3 1 of the matrix of cofactors of matrix A.
⇒ Ay =
1 0 2 Therefore, adjoint matrix of A is a given by:

5 1 −3
Adj ( A ) = ( cof( A) ) .
T
278
Form Five
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( )
But cof(A)= (−1)i + j M ij , where Mij are minors of A.
( )
T
Therefore, Adj ( A ) = ( − 1)i + j M ij .
Inverse of a 3×3 matrix

The inverse of a non-singular matrix A is denoted by A −1 . It can only be defined
if the given matrix is a square matrix. The inverse of a matrix exists if and only
if it is non-singular.
Properties of inverse of matrices

Let A and B be matrices whose inverses are A −1 and B−1 , respectively. The
LY
following properties hold:
(a) AA −1 = A −1A = I , where, I is the identity matrix.
N
(A )
−1
−1
(b) =A
O
( AB )
−1
(c) = B−1A −1
1
(d) When A = 0, then A is singular matrix. Hence, A is undefined and
SE
therefore singular matrices have no inverse.
Adj(A)
U
If A is a 3 × 3 matrix, then A −1 is defined as A −1 = , where Adj(A) and A
A
are the adjoint and determinant of matrix A, respectively.
E
Example 6.60
N
 1 2 1
LI
 
Given A =  1 1 1  , find the following:
 2 5 3
N
 
(a) det (A) (b) Minors of A (c) Cofactors of A
O
(d) adjoint of A (e) A −1

R
Solution
 1 2 1
(a) Given A =  1 1 1 
FO
 
 2 5 3
 
1 1 1 1 1 1
⇒ det ( A ) = 1 −2 +1
5 3 2 3 2 5
279
Form Five
FOR ONLINE USE ONLY
DO NOT DUPLICATE
= 1(−2) − 2 (1) + 1 ( 3)
= −2 – 2 + 3
= −1
Therefore, det ( A ) = −1..
 M11 M12 M13 
(b) Let M=  M 21 M 22 
M 23  be a matrix of minors of A.

M M 33 
 31 M 32
1 2 1
LY
 
Given A =  1 1 1  , then the following are the minors of A:
2 5 3 

N
1 1 1 1 1 1
M11 = = −2 ,= M12 = 1= , M13 = 3 ,
5 3 2 5
O
2 3
2 1 1 1 SE 1 2
M 21
= = 1 ,=
M 22 = 1=, M 23 = 1,
5 3 2 3 2 5
2 1 1 1 1 2
M 31
= = 1,= = 0 , M 33 = = −1 .
U
M 32
1 1 1 1 1 1
−2 1 3
 
Therefore, the matrix of the minors of A =  1 1 1 .
E
 1 0 −1

N
(c) The matrix of cofactors is obtained by multiplying the matrix of minors

LI
by the signs (–1)i +j, as shown in the following pattern.

+ − +
N
 
− + −
O
+ − +
   −2 −1 3 
(
Thus, the matrix of cofactors is cof(A)= (−1)i + j M ij = )
 
 −1 1 −1  .
R
 −2 −1 3   1 0 −1 
 
 
FO
Therefore, cof(A) =  −1 1 −1  .
 1 0 −1 
 
Adj(A)= [ Cof(A) ]
T
(d)
280
Form Five
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T
 −2 −1 3 
 
⇒ Adj(A) =
 −1 1 −1 
 1 0 −1 
 
 −2 −1 1 
 
=  −1 1 0 
 3 −1 −1
 
 −2 −1 1 
 
Therefore, adjoint of A =  −1 1 0  .
LY
 3 −1 −1
 
(e) The inverse of matrix A is determined by dividing each element in the
N
adjoint matrix by the determinant of A. That is,
O
 − 2 − 1 1   2 1 − 1
Adj ( A )
−1 1   
A = −  −1 1
= 0 = 1 −1 0 SE
A 1   
 3 −1 −1   −3 1 1 
 2 1 −1
U

−1 
A
Therefore,=  1 −1 0  .
 −3 1 1 
 
E
N
Solution of systems of linear equations using inverse matrix method

Consider the following system of linear equations
LI
 a11 x + a12 y + a13 z =

d1

N
a21 x + a22 y + a23 z =d 2 (6.1)



 a31 x + a32 y + a33 z =
d3
O
The system of linear equations (6.1) can be written in matrix form as;
R
 a11 a12 a13   x   d1 

FO
      (6.2)
 a21 a22 a23   y  =  d 2 
a    
 31 a32 a33   z   d3 
Thus, the equations (6.2)becomes;
Ax = d (6.3)
281
Form Five
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 a11 a12 a13   x

   
where A =  a21 a22 a23  , x =  y  ,
a 2 3 1 3 1 2
 31 a32 a33  z
  A= 1 − +
4 9 1 9 1 4
d
 1
  =6−6+ 2
and d =  d 2  .
d  =2
 3
The cofactors of A are as follows:
Pre-multiply the equations (6.3) by A −1
2 3
on both sides to obtain; C11 = 6
=
4 9
A −1A x = A −1 d .
LY
But A −1A = I , where I is an identity 1 3
C12 =
− −6
=
matrix. 1 9
N
Thus, I x = A −1 d 1 2
C13 = 2
O
⇒x= A −1 d =
1 4
 x  d1 
  −1  
SE 1 1
Therefore,  y  = A  d 2  . C21 =
− −5
=
z d  4 9
   3
1 1
U
C22
= = 8
Example 6. 61 1 9
1 1
Solve the following system of linear C23 =
− −3
=
E
equations by using the inverse matrix 1 4

N
method. 1 1
 x+ y+z = 3 C31
= = 1
LI
2 3

 x + 2 y + 3z = 4
N
x + 4 y + 9z = 6 1 1
 C32 =
− −2
=
1 3
O
Solution
The matrix form of this equation is, 1 1
C33
= = 1
R
1 1 1   x   3  1 2
1 2 3  y  =  4 
FO
      6 −6 2 
1 4 9   z   6   
Thus, cof (A) =
 − 5 8 − 3
1 1 1  1 −2 1 
   
Let A = 1 2 3 , then
But, Adj(A) = ( cof(A) ) .
T
1 4 9
282
Form Five
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 6 −5 1  2. Solve the following system of

 
⇒ Adj(A) =
 −6 8 − 2 equations by using determinant
 2 −3 1 
  method:
(a) 2 x + y + z =
11
 6 −5 1 
Adj ( A ) 1 
−1 

 3 y − z =−1
A = =  − 6 8 −2 
A 2  2z = 8
 
 2 −3 1 
Now, from the equation x = A −1 d (b) 4 x + 6 y + 4 z =
28

 x  6 −5 1  3   4x + 2 y − z =
15
 x + y + 3z =
LY
  1    8
⇒  y  =  − 6 8 −2   4 
  2  2 −3 1   6 
z    (c)  x + 2 y − z =−3

N
 x  4 2 x − 4 y + z =−7
  1   2 x + 2 y − 3z =
4

O
⇒  y =  2
 z  2 0
    (d)  x + y + z =4
SE 
 x   2  2 x + y − z =−3
    − x + 3 y + 4 z =19

⇒  y =1
 z  0
    (e)  3x + 2 y + z =
U
5

Therefore,
= x 2,=y 1, and
= z 0.  2x + y − z = 2
2 x + 2 y + 2 z = 0

E
Exercise 6.10
3. (a) Find the adjoint of the matrix,
N
1. Let R be a matrix such that,  3 −2 −2 

LI
 
1 2 3   2 3 −1 
   1 −1 3 
=R  2 −3 2 
N
 
 3 1 −1
  (b) Use the adjoint obtained in (a)
O
(a) Find the inverse of R to solve the following system

(b) Use the inverse obtained in (a) of linear equations.
R
to solve the following system of

3 x =+1 2 y + 2z
equations:
FO

2 x + 3 y =z + 13
 x + 2 y + 3z = 6  x + 3 z =y − 8
 
2 x + 2 z =14 + 3 y
 3x + y = z − 2

283
Form Five
FOR ONLINE USE ONLY
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 2 1 0  −1 2 0 
   
=4. If D = 1 5 2  and E  1 3 2  , find D −1E .
 1 −1 1   2 0 1
   
5. Use the inverse method to solve the following system of equations.
 4a − b + 5c =8

5a + 7b − 3c =42
 3a + 4b + c =27

6. The following system of linear equations represent the currents flow in a
unbalanced three-plane, star-connected electrical network. Use Crammer’s
LY
rule to determine the values of I1 , I 2 , and I 3 .
2 I1 − 5 I 2 + 3I 3 =14
N

9 I1 + 3I 2 − 4 I 3 =13
 7 I + 3I − 2 I =
O
 1 2 3 3
7. The height, h of an object thrown into the air is known to be given by a

SE
quadratic function of time (t) of the form, h = kt 2 + mt + n . If the object
23 1
is at h = metres, t = sec; at h = 7 metres, t = 1 sec; and h = 2 metres,
4 2
U
t = 2 sec. Find the values of k, m, and n by using Cramer’s rule.
8. The daily cost of hospital, H is a linear function of the number of in-patients,
I and out-patients, P plus a fixed cost q, given by H =q + rP + sI . The
E
following data represents the three days cost for in-patients.

N
Day Cost in Tshs, H Number of Number of

LI
in-patients, I out-patients, P
1 55,600 320 80
N
2 53,800 280 72
3 56,800 320 96
O
By using inverse matrix method find the values of q, r, and s by setting up

a linear system of equations.
R
9. A manufacturer produces three types of products: simple, medium, and

FO
complex. Each product is first processed in machine M1 , then in machine

M 2 , and lastly sent to machine M 3 for finishing. The following table shows
the number of minutes and the total time available.
284
Form Five
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Machine
M1 M2 M3
Product
Simple 180 90 270
Medium 135 180 90
Complex 90 270 135
Total time 2,700 4,050 3,150
Calculate the number of units of three types of the products produced by

constructing a matrix equation and then solve it by the inverse matrix
LY
method.
10. In a market survey, three commodities namely groundnuts, beans, and rice
N
were considered. In finding out the index number some fixed weights were
assigned to three varieties V1 , V2 , and V3 in each of the commodities. The
O
following table provides the information regarding the consumption of three
commodities according to three varieties and the total weight received by
SE
the commodity.
Varieties Total
V1 V2 V3
U
weight
Commodities
E
Groundnuts 324 540 648 2,916

N
Beans 216 432 540 2,268

LI
Rice 108 216 324 1,188

N
Find the weights assigned to the three varieties by using inverse matrix
method, given that the weights assigned to a commodity are equal to the
O
sum of weights of the various varieties multiplied by the corresponding

consumption.
R
Binomial theorem
FO
The binomial expression (a + b) can be raised to different powers. When (a + b) is

raised to any power different from 1, the need of having its expanded form arises.
These expansions range from simple expansion when such powers are small to
complex expansion when the powers are large fraction or negative numbers. The
285
Form Five
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pattern of expansion may give a rule of obtaining the coefficients of terms in an

expansion as it was discovered by a French Mathematician Blaise Pascal.
Activity 6.10: Identifying coefficients of a binomial expression
1. Write the expansion of ( a + b ) , ( a + b ) , and ( a + b )

1 2 3
2. Expand (a+b)n for n = 4 , n = 5, and n = 6.

3. Study how every coefficient in the following table is obtained and then
fill in the exponent in the expanded form and the binomial coefficients of
LY
the last three rows.
N
Binomial Binomial
Exponent Expanded form
O
expression coefficients
(a + b)0 0 1 SE 1
(a + b)1 1 a+b 1 1
(a + b)2 2 a2 + 2ab + b2 1 2 1
(a + b)3 3 a3 + 3a2b + 3ab2 + b3 1 3 3 1
U
(a + b)4 4
(a + b)5 5
(a + b)6 6
E
4. Is it possible to identify the binomial coefficients for (a + b)20? Give reasons.

N
5. What did you observe in tasks 1, 2, and 3?

LI
6. Share your results with other students for more inputs.

N
The following can be deduced from Activity 6.10.

O
1. The exponent of a is higher on the first term from left and decreases by 1 as
you move to the next terms.
2. The exponent of b is zero on the first term from left and increases by 1 as you
R
move to the next terms.

FO
3. The sum of the exponents in each term is n, where n is the value of the power.
4. The coefficients are symmetric since they increase from the beginning to the
line of symmetry and then decrease to the end.
5. If the coefficients are detached from the expansions, then a triangle is formed.
The resulting triangle is called Pascal’s triangle.
286
Form Five
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n
Figure 6.1 shows a Pascal’s triangle for the binomial expression ( a + b ) , where
n = 0, 1, 2,3, and 4.
(a + b) :
0
1
(a + b) :
1
1 1
(a + b) :
2
1 2 1
(a + b) :
3
1 3 3 1
(a + b) : 1
4
4 6 4 1
LY
Figure 6.1: Pascal’s triangle
N
Two things can be observed from Pascal’s triangle as seen in Figure 6.1:
(i) The rows start with 1 and end with 1
O
(ii) Each coefficient, except the first and the last, is the sum of 2 coefficients to
the left and to the right of the row directly above it. SE
Example 6.62
U
Expand ( 2 x + 3) in descending powers of x.
3
E
Solution
Given ( 2 x + 3) , where
3
= a 2=x, b 3, and
= n 3.
N
Applying the Pascal’s triangle to expand:

LI
⇒ ( 2 x + 3 ) = 1( 2 x ) ( 3 ) + 3 ( 2 x ) ( 3 ) + 3 ( 2 x ) ( 3 ) + 1( 2 x ) ( 3 )
3 3 0 2 1 1 2 0 3
N
= 8 x3 + 36 x 2 + 54 x + 27.
Therefore, ( 2 x + 3) = 8 x3 + 36 x 2 + 54 x + 27.
3
O
R
Example 6.63
FO
( ) − ( 2 − 3 ) leaving your answer in surd form.

4 4
Simplify 2 + 3
287
Form Five
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Solution
Apply the pascal's triangle to expand:
( ) ( 3) ( 3 ) + 6 ( 2) ( 3 ) ( 3) ( 3)
4 0 1 2 3 4
= 1( 2 ) + 4 ( 2) + 4 ( 2) + 1( 2 )
4 3 2 1 0
⇒ 2+ 3
= 16 + 32 3 + 72 + 24 3 + 9
= 97 + 56 3
( ) ( ) ( )
4 0 1
and 2 − 3 = 1( 2) − 3 + 4 ( 2) − 3 +
4 3
6 ( 2 ) ( 3 ) + 4 ( 2 ) ( − 3 ) + 1( 2 ) ( − 3 )
2 2 1 3 0 4
LY
= 16 − 32 3 + 72 − 24 3 + 9
N
= 97 − 56 3
( ) − ( 2 − 3 ) = (97 + 56 3 ) − (97 − 56 3 )
4 4
O
⇒ 2+ 3
= 112 3 SE
( ) − (2 − 3)
4 4
Therefore, 2 + 3 112 3 .
=
U
Example 6.64
4
 1 
Find the expansion of 1 + x  . If x = 0.1, evaluate the value of (1.025 ) ,
E
 4 
N
correctly to four decimal places.

LI
Solution
Let
N
4 0 1 2 3 4
 1  41  31  21  11  01 
1 + x  = 1(1)  x  + 4 (1)  x  + 6 (1)  x  + 4 (1)  x  + 1(1)  x 
O
 4  4  4  4  4  4 
3 1 1 4
=1 + x + x 2 + x3 + x
R
8 16 256
4
 1  3 1 1 4
FO
Thus, 1 + x  =1 + x + x 2 + x3 + x .
 4  8 16 256
Substituting x = 0.1 in the equation gives;
288
Form Five
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4
 1  3 1 1
1 + ( 0.1)  =+
1 0.1 + ( 0.1) + ( 0.1) + ( 0.1)
2 3 4
 4  8 16 256
⇒ (1.025 ) =
4
1.103812891
Therefore, (1.025 ) ≈ 1.1038.

4
Binomial expansion
The Pascal’s triangle becomes tedious when the value of the power becomes large.
The easy way to expand the expression of higher power is to apply the binomial
LY
theorem. Actually, binomial theorem is obtained after studying the expansions of
the individual expressions. It is the general expansion that can be used to obtain all
expansions. The binomial theorem states that,
N
n n ( n − 1) n ( n − 1)( n − 2 )
(a + b) = a n + na n−1b + a n − 2b 2 + a n−3b3 + ... + na b n−1 + b n , (6.4)
1× 2 1× 2 × 3
O
where n is a positive integer.
Sometimes, the binomial theorem is presented with factorials. To understand how
SE
factorials are involved in the expression, consider the expansion of (x + 3)4 by using
the binomial theorem (6.4) as shown in the following example.
U
Example 6.65
E
Expand ( x + 3) in descending powers of x.

4
N
Solution
LI
4 0
Let (x + 3)4 = x × 3 + 4 x 3 × 31 + 4 × 3 x 2 × 32 + 4 × 3 × 2 x1 × 33 + 4 × 3 × 2 × 1 x 0 × 34
1 1 1× 2 1× 2 × 3 1× 2 × 3 × 4
N
=x 4 + 12 x3 + 54 x 2 + 108 x + 81
O
Therefore, ( x + 3) =
4
x 4 + 12 x 3 + 54 x 2 + 108 x + 81.
R
From Example 6.65, it can be noted that, the denominators of the terms are in a
FO
particular order. The denominators of the 5th, 4th, and 3rd terms are the factorials of 4,
3, and 2, respectively. This is due to the definition of the factorial which states that;
if n is any positive integer, then n ! = n(n − 1)(n − 2)(n − 3)  ( 3)( 2 )(1) , where n!
is the factorial of the positive integer n.
289
Form Five
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The 1st and 2nd terms have denominators equal to 1. By following the trend from the
3rd term to the 5th term, it is possible to suggest the denominators of the 1st and 2nd
terms in factorial. Since it has been observed that from the 5th term towards the 3rd
term, there is a decrease of the denominator by 1. Hence, the denominators of the 2nd
and 1st terms are 1! and 0!, respectively.
To incorporate the factorial, the binomial theorem can now be modified to,
n n! n! n! n!
(a + b)
= an + a n − 1b + a n − 2b 2 +  + bn .
0!( n − 0 ) ! 1!( n − 1) ! 2!( n − 2 )! n !(n − n)!
LY
The expression can further be simplified to;
n n n n
( a + b=
)   a n +   a n−1b +   a n−2b2 +  +   bn ,
n
N
0 1  2 n
O
n n! n
where
=   = Cr .
 r  r !(n − r )
Generally,
SE
n(n − 1) n − 2 2 n(n − 1)(n − 2) n −3 3
(a + b)
n
= a n + na n −1b + a b + a b +  + bn
2! 3!
U
Example 6.66
E
Expand (x + 1)3 by using binomial theorem.

N
Solution
LI
From binomial theorem:

N
3! 3 3! 2 3! 3!
( x + 1=
) x + x (1) + x1 (1) + (1)
3 2 3
0!3! 2! 2! 3!( 0 ) !
O
3 × 2!
x + (1)
3
=x 3 + 3 x 2 +
2!
R
= x 3 + 3x 2 + 3x + 1
FO
Therefore, ( x + 1) = x 3 + 3 x 2 + 3 x + 1 .
3
290
Form Five
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Example 6.67
( )
10
Obtain the expansion of 1 + x − 3 x 2 , as far as the term in x3 .
Solution
( )
The expression 1 + x − 3 x 2 can be written as 1 + ( x − 3 x 2 )  , which may be
10 10
expanded by using the binomial theorem as follows:
1 + x − 3 x 2  =1 + 10 x − 3 x 2 + 10 × 9 x − 3 x 2
( ) ( ) ( ) 10 × 9 × 8
( )
10 2 3
LY
  + x − 3x 2 +
2! 3!
1 + 10 x − 30 x 2 + 45 x 2 − 270 x3 + 120 x3 −
=
N
1 + 10 x + 15 x 2 − 150 x3 +
=
O
( )
10
Therefore, 1 + x − 3 x 2 =1 + 10 x + 15 x 2 − 150 x3 +
Example 6.68
SE
If x3 and higher powers can be neglected, show that
U
10
1
(1 − x )5  2 + x ≈ 5 (205 + 511x + 578 x + )
2
E
Solution
N
10
 1 
Consider the binomial expansion of (1 − x ) and  2 + x  .
5
 2 
LI
5× 4
⇒ (1 − x ) =1 + 5(− x) + (−x) +
5 1 2
2 ×1
N
1 5 x + 10 x 2 +
=−
O
9  1  10 ( 9 )( 2 ) ( 2 x )
10 8 2
 1  1
210 + 10 ( 2 )  x  +
Also,  2 + x  = +
 2  2  1× 2
R
210 5 ( 2) x + 90 ( 2) x 2 +
9 5
=+
FO
10
 1 
⇒ (1 − x )  2 + x =1 − 5 x + 10 x 2 + 210 + 5 ( 2) x + 90 ( 2) x 2 + 
5 9 5
 2 
=1025 + 2555 x + 2890 x 2 +
291
Form Five
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(
= 5 205 + 511x + 578 x 2 + )
10
 1 

5
2 
(
Therefore, (1 − x )  2 + x ≈ 5 205 + 511x + 578 x 2 +  . )
Exercise 6.11
1. Use Pascal’s triangle to expand each of the following:

5
2
(a) ( 2 x + 3 z ) (c)  2x + 
(b) ( a − b )
5 7
LY
 x
2. Evaluate each of the following, leave the answer in surd form where
appropriate:
N
( 2 + 1) − ( 2 − 1) (c) ( ) −( )
6 6 3 3
(a) 6+ 2 6− 2
O
(b) ( 2 + 5 ) + ( 2 − 5 ) (d) ( 3) + ( 3)
7 7 4 4
SE 2+ 2−
( )
10
3. Expand 1 + x + x 2 as a series in ascending powers of x up to and including
the term in x3 . Hence, evaluate (1.0101) correct to three decimal places.
10
U
4. Use binomial theorem to evaluate each of the following correct to five
significant figures:
(c) ( 2.098 )
12
(a) (1.009 ) (b) ( 2.045 )
8 10
E
( )
N
5. The expansion of (1 + y ) 1 + my + ny 2 in ascending powers of y begins

10
with the terms 1 + y + y 2 . Find the numerical values of m and n.

LI
( )
4
6. In the expansion of 1 − 2a + ka 2 as a series of powers of a, the coefficient
N
of a 3 is zero. Verify that;

1 1
O
(a) k = −1 (b) The coefficient of a 4 is − 37

3 3
7. Find the expansion of ( 2 + y ) in ascending powers of y. Taking the first
5
R
three terms of the expansion, put y = 0.001 and find the value of ( 2.001)
5
FO
correct to five decimal places.

10
 1 
8. Find the first four terms of the expansion of  2 + y  in ascending powers
 4 
of y. Hence find the value of ( 2.025 ) correctly to four significant figures.
10
292
Form Five
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9. Obtain the expansion of ( c − 2 ) (1 − c ) in ascending powers of c as far as

2 6
the term in c 4 .
4
 1 
10. Find the expansion of  3a − b  by using the binomial theorem. Hence,
 2 
obtain the value of ( 29.5 ) correct to six significance figures.
4
Binomial expansion for fractional and negative indices

The binomial expansion is applicable for a case when n is a positive integer. For
the case when n is negative or fraction, the modified binomial theorem becomes:
LY
1 n n ( n − 1) 2 n ( n − 1)( n − 2 ) 3 n ( n − 1)( n − 2 )( n − 3) 4
(1 + x) n = + x + x + x + x + (6.5)
0! 1! 2! 3! 4!
N
The modified binomial theorem is used in the case when n is negative or a fraction.
O
The series of equation (6.5) does not terminate and it is only convergent with the
limit of its sum as (1 + x)n when x is between –1 and 1. This interval is also known
SE
as limits of x for which the expansion is valid.
U
Note that, when n is a positive integer, the series of equation (6.6) terminates at
the term in x n and its sum is (1 + x ) for all values of x.
n
E
Example 6.69
N
Find the first four terms in the expansion of each of the following binomial
LI
expressions. State the range of values of x for which the expansion is valid.
(a) (1 + 2x )
−1
N
(b) 3
2+ x
O
Solution
( −1) ( −2 ) ( −1)( −2 )( −3)
R
(a) (1 + 2 x ) = 1 + ( −1)( 2 x ) + ( 2x) ( 2x)

−1 2 3
+ +
2! 3!
FO
1 2x +
=−
8 2
x −
( 6 ) 8 x3 + 
2 ×1 3 × 2 ×1
1 2 x + 4 x 2 − 8 x 3 +
=−
293
Form Five
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Therefore, (1 + 2 x ) =−
−1
1 2 x + 4 x 2 − 8 x3 + 
This expansion converges in the interval,

2x < 1 ⇒ −1 < 2x < 1
1 1 1
⇒− < x < or x <
2 2 2
1
1
 x 3
( b) 3
x 2 1 + 
2 += 3
 2
LY
 2
 1   −2   x   1   −2   −5   x 
3

          
 1  x   3  3  2   3  3  3  2 
= 2 1+   +
3
+ + 
N
 3 2  2! 3! 
 
O
 
 x 1 2 5 3 
= 3
2 1 + − x + x +  SE
 6 36 648 
Therefore,  x 1 5 3 
3
2 +=
x 3
2 1 + − x 2 + x +  .
 6 36 648 
U
This expansion converges in the range,
E
x x
< 1 ⇒ −1 < < 1
2 2
N
⇒ − 2 < x < 2 or x < 2.

LI
N
Example 6.70
O
If x is small in comparison with unity such that x3 and higher powers can be
1 − 4 x 3 1 + 3x 3 33
R
neglected, show that ≈ 1 − x − x2 .

1+ x 2 8
FO
Solution
1 − 4 x 3 1 + 3x 1 1 1
(1 − 4 x ) 2 (1 + 3x ) 3 (1 + x ) 2
−
Given =
1+ x
294
Form Five
FOR ONLINE USE ONLY
DO NOT DUPLICATE
  1  1     1  2  
   −  ( −4 x ) −  ( 3x )
2 2
 1   1    
2 2 3 3
=1 + ( −4 x ) +    +  × 1 + ( 3 x ) +    +  ×
 2 2!   3 2! 
   
  1  3  2 
 1  −   −  ( x) 
2  2 
1 − ( x ) +  + 
 2 2! 
 
 x 3 
= (1 − 2 x − 2 x 2 + )(1 + x − x 2 + ) 1 − + x 2 +  
LY
 2 8 
 x 3 
( )
= 1 − x − 5 x 2 +  1 − + x 2 +  
 2 8
N

3 33
O
1 − x − x 2 −
=
2 8
1 − 4 x 3 1 + 3x 3 33 SE
Therefore, ≈ 1 − x − x2 .
1+ x 2 8
U
Example 6.71
Expand 1 + x in ascending powers of x as far as the term in x 2. Hence, estimate

E
30 correct to four significant figures.

N
Solution
LI
1
Given 1 + x =(1 + x ) 2 .
 n − 1  2 n ( n − 1) ( n − 2 ) 3
N
From (1 + x ) =+
n
1 nx + n  x + x +
 2!  3!
O
 1  1 
1   − 
1
2 2 2
=1 + x +   
R
⇒ (1 + x ) 2 x +
2 2!
FO
1 1
1+
= x − x 2 +
2 8
1 1
Hence, 1 + x =1 +
Therefore, x − x 2.
2 8
295
Form Five
FOR ONLINE USE ONLY
DO NOT DUPLICATE
Let =
30 25 + 5
 1
= 25 1 + 
 5
 1
= 25 1 + 
 5
1
 1 2
= 5 1 + 
 5
LY
1
1  1 2 1
Let x = , then
5  1 +  (
=1 + x ) 2.
 5 
N
 11 1 1  
O
⇒ 30 =5 1 +   −   + 
 2  5  8  25  
5 1 + ( 0.5 )( 0.2 ) − ( 0.125 )( 0.04 ) + 

=
SE
≈ 5 [1.095]
U
≈ 5.475
Therefore, the value of 30 ≈ 5.475 .

E
N
Example 6.72
LI
If x is small such that its cube and higher powers can be neglected, show that
N
1− x 1 1 83
≈ 1 − x + x 2 . Also, if x = , show that 7 ≈ 2 .
1+ x 2 8 128
O
Solution
R
1− x 1 1
(1 − x ) 2 (1 + x ) 2
−
Let =
1+ x
FO
  1  1    1  3  2 
   −  (−x) −   − ( x)
2
    
2 2  1 2  2 
= 1 + 12 (− x) +    +  1 +  −  ( x ) +  + 
 2!   2  2! 
   
296
Form Five
FOR ONLINE USE ONLY
DO NOT DUPLICATE
 1 1  1 3 
=1 − x − x 2 +   1 − x + x 2 +  
 2 8  2 8 
1 3 1 1 1
1−
= x + x2 − x + x2 − x2 + 
2 8 2 4 8
1 2
=1 − x + x + 
2
1− x 1
Hence, ≈ 1 − x + x2
1+ x 2
LY
2
1 1 − 18 1 11
Given x = , then ≈ 1− +   .
8 1+ 8 1
8 28
N
7 1 1
O
⇒ ≈ 1− +
9 8 128
⇒
7 113
≈
SE
3 128
113 339
U
⇒ 7≈ ×3 ≈
128 128
83
Therefore, 7 ≈2 .
E
128
N
Exercise 6.12
LI
1 1 45 2 135 3 
N
1. Use binomial theorem to show that = 1 − 6 y + y − y + 

(2 + 3y)
4
16  2 2 
O
2. If x is very small compared to unity, show that

( 1+ x ) (1 − x )
3
2
5
≈ 1− x +
(1 + x ) (1 + x ) 3
R
1+ 2x
3. Express as a power series, as far as the term involves x 2 . State the
FO
3
1 − 3x
range of values of x for which the series is convergent.
297
Form Five
FOR ONLINE USE ONLY
DO NOT DUPLICATE
1 1  189 2 
4. Using binomial theorem, show that = 1 − 9 y + y −   . For
(2 + 3y)
6
64  4 
what values of y is the expansion valid?
5. Use the binomial theorem to expand (1 + a ) (1 − 3a ) in ascending powers of

2
3
1 + a2
a as far as the term in a 2 . State the interval of a for which the series is valid.
1
6. Obtain the first four terms of the expansion of (1 − 16 y ) 4 . By substituting
LY
1
y= , evaluate 4 39 correct to three decimal places.
10, 000
1 3
N
7. When t is small, use binomial theorem to show that 1
=− t +
(1 + t ) 1 − t
2
2
O
1
8. Expand 3 1 + t up to the term in t 2 . Hence, by putting t = , calculate 3 9
SE 8
correct to three decimal places.
9. If x is small such that x3 and higher powers of x are neglected, show that
U
( 2 x + 3)(1 − 2 x )
10
≈ 3 − 58 x + 500 x 2 .
1 + 2n 3
10. Use binomial theorem to expand 2 so that n and higher powers
( )(
n − 1 n + 2 )
E
may be neglected. State the interval of values of n for which the expansion
N
is valid.
LI
The general term in the binomial expansion

N
Consider the binomial expansion (6.5), that is

n(n − 1) n − 2 2
( a + b ) = a n + na n−1b +
n
O
a b +  + bn .
2!
This equation can be written as:
R
( a +=
b) (6.6)
n n
C0 a nb0 + n C1a n −1b + n C2 a n − 2b 2 +  + n Cr a n − r b r +  + n Cn a 0b n
FO
From the expansion (6.6), it can be observed that:

n n−2 2
1st term = n C0 a nb0 , the 2nd term = n C1a n −1b, the 3rd term = C2 a b ,
the 4th term = n C3 a n −3b3 .
298
Form Five
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Hence, the ( r + 1) term, is given by Cr a b .

th n n−r r
Therefore, if Tr +1 denotes the ( r + 1) term, then Tr +1 = n Cr a n−r b r .

th
Note that, the formulae for the general term of binomial expansion are:
For ( a + b ) ⇒ Tr +1 =
n
Cr a n−r b r
n
n r n
For ( a − b ) ⇒ Tr +1 =
( −1) Cr a n−r b r
n
For (1 + x ) ⇒ Tr +1 =
n
Cr x r and
n r
For (1 − x ) ⇒ ( −1) n Cr x r .
Tr +1 =
LY
Example 6.73
N
8
 2 x3 
O
Find the fifth term in the expansion of  2 −  .
x 4
Solution SE
8
 2 x3  2 x3
From  2 −  , n = 8, a = , b =
− and r =
5
x 4 x2 4
U
n
⇒ Tr +1 = Cr a n−r b r
8−5 5 3 5
8  2   x3  8  2   x 
3
⇒ T6
= C5  2  =
−  C5  2   − 
E
x   4 x   4 
N
7 9
= − x
16
LI
7 9
Therefore, the fifth term is − x .
N
16
O
Example 6.74
Find the term independent of x in each of the following:

R
14 6
FO
 2 1  5 1 
(a)  x − 2  (b)  x 2 − 
 x  2 5x 
Solution
(a) Let ( r + 1) term be independent of x in the expansion.
th
299
Form Five
FOR ONLINE USE ONLY
DO NOT DUPLICATE
r
 1 
( )
14 − r
Cr x 28 −4 r ( −1)
14 r
Now, =
Tr +1 Cr x 2 − =
2 
14
 x 
For this term to be independent of x, set 28 − 4r = 0 ⇒ r = 7
So, ( 7 + 1) =
th
8th term is independent of x.
C7 x 28− 28 ( −1) =( −1) 14 C7

14 7
Putting T7 +1 =T8 =
= −3432
Therefore, the term independent of x is −3432 .
LY
(b) Let ( r + 1) term be independent of x in the given expression.
th
6− r r 6−r
5   1  5 1 −r
( x ) ( −1)
6− r
N
6 r
Now,
= Tr +1 Cr  x 2  =
−  6
Cr   2
x
2   5x  2 5r
O
6− r
5 1 −r
( x) ( −1)
6 12 − 2 r r
= Cr   x
2
SE 5r
6− r
r 1 5
( x ) ( −1) r
12 −3 r 6
= Cr  
5 2
U
For this term to be independent of x, set 12 – 3r = 0. That is,
12 − 3r = 0 ⇒ r = 4
2
5 4 1 375 3
E
T5
⇒= 6
C4   x 0 ( −1) = 4
= .
2 5 4 × 625 20
N
3
Therefore, the term independent of x is .
LI
20
N
Example 6.75
O
15
 6 1 
Find the coefficient of the term involving x in the expansion of  x + 4  .
10
 x 
R
Solution
FO
r
15 − r  1 
=Tr +1 15
Cr x 6
= ( )  4
x 
15
Cr x 90−10 r
Find the value of r where the term containing x10 occurs.
300
Form Five
FOR ONLINE USE ONLY
DO NOT DUPLICATE
⇒ x90−10 r =x10
Thus, 90 − 10r = 10 ⇒ r = 8
15
⇒ T9
= x90−80 6, 435 x10
C8=
Therefore, the coefficient of the term involving x10 is 6, 435.
Middle terms in a binomial expansion

The binomial expansion of ( a + b ) has ( n + 1) terms. Therefore, if n is even, then
n
th th
n   n +1 
the middle term is the  + 1 term, and if n is odd, the middle terms are 
LY

th
2   2 
 n+3
and   .
 2 
N
O
Example 6.76
10
 1 
Find the middle term in the expansion of  4 + x  .
SE
 3 
Solution
U
th
 10 
Here, n = 10, which is an even number. So,  + 1 term = 6 th term is the
middle term.  2 
E
5
5 x 258, 048 5
Hence, =
T6 T=
5 +1 C5 ( 4 )  =
10
 x
3 243
N
258, 048 5
Therefore, the middle term is x .
LI
243
N
Example 6.77
O
5
 x4 
Find the middle term in the expansion of  2 −  .
 2 
R
Solution
FO
5
 x4 
From  2 −  , n =
5 , which is an odd number.
 2 
th th
5 +1   5 + 3  that is, 3rd and 4th terms are middle terms.
So,   and   ,
 2   2 
301
Form Five
FOR ONLINE USE ONLY
DO NOT DUPLICATE
3
 x4 
C2 ( 2 )  − 
2
Now, =
T3 T=
2 +1
5
 2 
5 × 4 × 3! 2  x12 
= × 2 ×− 
2!3!  8 
= −5x12
2
 x4 
C3 ( 2 )  − 
5 3
T4 T=
= 3+1
 2 
5 × 4 × 3!  x8 
= ×8×  
LY
3!2!  4
= 20x8
N
Therefore, the middle terms are −5 x12 and 20 x8 .
O
Exercise 6.13
1. Show that, there is no term independent of x in the expansion of

11
SE
 2 1 
 2 x −  , x ≠ 0.
 4x 
n
U
 1 
2. If the coefficient of y and y in the expansion of  3 + y  are equal,
7 8
 2 
find the value of n.
3. Find the coefficient of z 5 in the expansion of (1 − z ) (1 + 3 z ) .
3 4
E
4. In the expansion of (1 + t ) , the coefficient of the r term and that of the

20 th
N
( r + 1)
th
term are in the ratio 1:2. Find the value of r.
LI
5. Find the general term in the binomial expansion of each of the following:
N
9 12
 4y 5   2 1
(a)  −  , y ≠ 0 (c)  y −  , y ≠ 0
 5 2y  y
O

5
 1
( )
6
(b)  2 y +  , y ≠ 0
2
(d) t − s
y
R
 18
 −
1

y 2
6. Show that the 13th term in the expansion of  9 y −  , y ≠ 0 is 18,564.
FO
3 
 
 
7. Verify that the middle terms in the expansion of
7
 y3  105 9 35 12
 3 −  are − y and y .
 6  8 48
302
Form Five
FOR ONLINE USE ONLY
DO NOT DUPLICATE
8. Find the values of p, q, and n in the expansion of ( p + q ) if the first three

n
terms of the expansion are 729, 7290, and 30375, respectively.

9. Find the term independent of y in the expansion of each of the following:
15 9
 3y2 1  3 3 2 1 
(
(a)  2 − 3 y  (c) 1 + y + 2 y  2 y − 3 y  )
   
10 14
 3   1
(b)  y − y 2  (d)  y − y 
   
10. Find the coefficient of the terms indicated in the expansions of the following:
LY
7 8
1  2
(a)  2m +  , term in m −5
6
(b)  p −  , term in p
 m  p
N
O
Partial fractions
3
In arithmetic, it is possible to decompose a fraction like into a sum of smaller
4
3 1 1 SE
fractions like = + . Similarly, a rational expression can be decomposed
4 2 4
2x + 1
into simpler parts known as partial fractions. For example, (x − 1) (x + 2) can be
U
2x +1 1 1 1 1
decomposed as = + . The fractions and are
( x − 1)( x + 2) x − 1 x + 2 x −1 x+2
E
2x + 1
called partial fractions of (x − 1) (x + 2) . The process of taking a rational expression
N
and decomposing it into simpler rational expressions that can be added or subtracted
to get the original rational expression is called partial fraction decomposition.
LI
Decomposition of fraction
N
The process of splitting fractions into its partial fractions is done by the method
of undetermined coefficients. The decomposition techniques differ depending on
O
the nature of the expression on the denominator.

R
Decomposition of fractions whose denominators consist of non-repeated

FO
linear factors
If the denominator of a fraction is the product of linear factors or it is an expression
which can be split into linear factors, then the fraction is split into terms of the
A B C
form, + + +
a1 x + b1 a2 x + b2 a3 x + b3
303
Form Five
FOR ONLINE USE ONLY
DO NOT DUPLICATE
Observe that, the number of partial

However, for simplicity choose x in such
fractions to be determined is normally
a way that either A or B cancels wherever
shown by the factors in the denominator.
possible.
The denominators of the partial
Setting x = 1 ⇒ 6 ×1 = A (1 + 2 ) + B (1 − 1)
fractions are the factors. However, ⇒ 6 = 3A + 0
their corresponding numerators are not
⇒ A=2
known. In this case, the assumption is
that, one constant for each denominator Setting x = −2,
will be the numerator, then the values of ⇒ 6 × −2= A ( −2 + 2 ) + B ( −2 − 1)
constants can be computed. ⇒ −12 = 0 − 3B
LY
⇒B=
4
Example 6.78
6x 2 4
= +
N
Thus,
Find the partial fractions of
( x − 1)( x + 2 ) ( x − 1) ( x + 2 )
O
6x
. Therefore,
(x − 1) (x + 2)
SE 6x 2 4
= + .
( x − 1)( x + 2 ) x − 1 x + 2
Solution
There will be two partial fractions,
U
and thus choose constants A and B
Decomposition of fractions whose
to the numerators. The expression is
denominators consist of non–repeated
rewritten as:
E
irreducible quadratic factors

6x A B
= + If the denominator is a quadratic term which
N
(x − 1) (x + 2) x − 1 x + 2
cannot be factorized, then the fraction is split
LI
Writing under common denominators Ax + B

gives; into .
ax 2 + bx + c
N
6x A ( x + 2 ) + B ( x − 1)
= However, the method is useful when the
(x − 1) (x + 2) ( x − 1)( x + 2 )
O
denominator is a product of either two

Since the denominators of left-hand quadratic terms which cannot be split further
side and right-hand side are equal,
R
or it is a product of linear factors and a

then the numerators are also equal. quadratic term which cannot be split into
FO
That is, linear factors.

6x = A (x + 2) + B (x –1).
To solve for the values of A or B,
substitute any value in x.
304
Form Five
FOR ONLINE USE ONLY
DO NOT DUPLICATE
Example 6. 79
x+2
Decompose ( )
(x − 1) x 2 + 1 into its partial fractions.
Solution
x+2 A Bx + C
Let = + 2
( )
( x − 1) x + 1 x − 1 x + 1
2
Writing under common denominators gives,

x+2 ( )
A x 2 + 1 + ( x − 1) ( Bx + C )
LY
=
(
( x − 1) x 2 + 1 ) ( x − 1) x 2 + 1 ( )
Equating numerators gives,
N
( )
2 A x 2 + 1 + ( x − 1) ( Bx + C )
⇒ x +=
O
x+2
⇒= ( A+B ) x 2 + (−B + C) x + A − C
Equating the coefficients of x 2 terms gives,
SE
0= A + B ....................................................................(i)
Equating the coefficients of x terms gives,
U
12 = −B+C ...................................................................(ii)
Equating the constant terms gives,
E
2= A − C ...................................................................(iii)
N
Subtracting equation (i) from equation (iii) gives,

2 =−B − C .................................................................(iv)
LI
3
Adding equations (ii) and (iv) gives, 3 = −2B ⇒ B= −
2
N
1
O
Subtracting equation (ii) from equation (iv) gives, 1 =

−2C ⇒ C= − .
2
1 1 3
Substituting C= − in equation (iii) gives, 2=A+ ⇒ A =.
R
2 2 2
3 3 1
− x−
FO
x+2 2 + 2 2
⇒ =
( x − 1) ( x + 1)
2
x − 1 x 2
+ 1
x+2 3 3x + 1
Therefore, = − .
( )
( x − 1) x + 1 2 ( x − 1) 2 x 2 + 1
2
( )
305
Form Five
FOR ONLINE USE ONLY
DO NOT DUPLICATE
Decomposition of fractions whose denominator consist of a repeated linear

or quadratic factors
If the denominator is of the form (cx + a)n, the number of fractions will be equal
B1 B2 B3 Bn
to n in the following order: , , , ...,
cx + a ( cx + a ) ( cx + a )
2 3
( cx + a )
n
( )
n
If the denominator is of the form ax 2 + bx + c the number of fractions will be
in the following order:

B1 B2 B3 Bn
, , ,...,
( ) ( ax ) ( ax )
2 2 3 n
ax + bx + c ax 2 +bx +c 2
+ bx + c 2
+ bx + c
LY
where B1 , B2 , B3 ,..., Bn are constants.
N
Example 6.80
O
2x + 8
Decompose into partial fractions.
(x − 1)3 SE
Solution
2x + 8 A B C
U
Let = + +
( x − 1) ( x − 1) ( x − 1) ( x − 1)
3 2 3

E
A ( x − 1) + B ( x − 1) + C
2
2x + 8
=
N
( x − 1) ( x − 1)
3 3
LI
Equating numerators gives:

2 x + 8 = A( x − 1) 2 + B( x − 1) + C
N
Setting x = 1, 10 = 0 + 0 + C ⇒ C = 10
O
Setting x = 2, 12 = A + B + 10 ⇒ A + B = 2...................................................(i)
Setting x =0, 8 =A − B + 10 ⇒ A − B =−2 .................................................(ii)
R
Solving equations (i) and (ii) simultaneous gives:

FO
=A 0=
and B 2
Therefore, =
2x + 8 2 10
+ .
( x − 1) ( x − 1) ( x − 1)
3 2 3
306
Form Five
FOR ONLINE USE ONLY
DO NOT DUPLICATE
Decomposition of fractions when the degree of the numerator is equal or

higher than the degree of the denominator
When the degree of the numerator is equal or greater than the degree of the
denominator, divide the numerator by the denominator and then proceed depending
on the type of fraction to be decomposed.
Example 6.81
2x 4 − 4 x 3 − 42
Decompose into partial fractions.
( x − 2) x2 + 3 ( )
LY
Solution
Since the numerator has degree greater than the denominator, divide the
N
numerator by the denominator:
2x
O
3 2 4 3
x − 2 x + 3 x − 6 2 x − 4 x − 42
−(2 x 4 − 4 x3 + 6 x 2 − 12 x) SE
− 6 x 2 + 12 x − 42
2 x 4 − 4 x 3 − 42 − 6 x 2 + 12 x − 42
U
Thus, = 2 x +
( x − 2) x2 + 3 ( )
( x − 2) x2 + 3 ( )
2 x 4 − 4 x 3 − 42 A Bx + C
E
⇒ =2x + + 2
(
( x − 2) x + 32
)
x−2 x +3
N
−6 x 2 + 12 x − 42 A Bx + C
⇒ = + 2
LI
( )
( x − 2) x + 3 x − 2 x + 3
2
N

(
− 6 x 2 + 12 x − 42 A x + 3 + ( x − 2 )( Bx + C )
2
)
O
=
(
( x − 2) x2 + 3 ) ( x − 2) x2 + 3 ( )
R
Equating numerators gives,

(
= A x 2 + 3 + ( x − 2 )( Bx + C ))
FO
− 6 x 2 + 12 x − 42
Setting x = 2 ⇒ − 42 = 7A ⇔ A = − 6
Setting x = 0 ⇒ − 42 = 3A − 2C ...............................................(i)
Substituting A = − 6 in equation (i) gives C = 12.
307
Form Five
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Setting x = 1 ⇒ −36 = 4A − B − C ....................................................(ii)

Substitute A = −6 and C =12 in equation (ii):
−36 = 4(− 6) − B − 12
⇒ − 36 = −B − 36
0.
⇒B=
− 6 x 2 + 12 x − 42 6 12
Thus, =
− + 2
(
( x − 2) x + 3
2
)
x−2 x +3
2x 4 − 4 x 3 − 42 6 12
LY
Therefore, =2x − + 2 .
(
( x − 2) x + 3
2
)
x−2 x +3
N
Example 6.82
O
Decompose
2 x3 − x + 4 into partial fractions.
x3 + 4 x SE
Solution
Since the numerator and the denominator have the same degree, divide the
U
numerator by the denominator as follows:
2
x3 + 4 x 2 x3 + 0 x 2 − x + 4
E
− (2 x3 + 0 x 2 + 8 x + 0)
N
− 9x + 4
LI
2x3 − x + 4 − 9x + 4
Thus, =2+ .
3
x + 4x x x2 + 4 ( )
N
−9 x + 4
The fraction can be split further as follows:
x x2 + 4 ( )
O
−9 x + 4 A Bx + C
= +
( )
x x2 + 4
R
x x2 + 4
FO
Now, write the equation under common denominators as follows.

−9 x + 4
=
( )
A x 2 + 4 + x ( Bx + C )
(
x x2 + 4 ) x ( x2 + 4)
4 A ( x 2 + 4 ) + x ( Bx + C ).
It follows that, −9 x +=
308
Form Five
FOR ONLINE USE ONLY
DO NOT DUPLICATE
Setting=x 0, = 4 4A ⇔ A=1
Setting x = 1, − 5 = 5 + B + C ⇔ B+C= − 10 ...................................(i)
Setting x = −1, 13 =+5 B−C ⇔ B−C = 8 ......................................(ii)
Solving equations (i) and (ii) simultaneously gives,
B= −1 and C = − 9.
−9 x + 4 1 x+9
Thus, = −
2
x x +4( )
x x2 + 4
2 x3 − x + 4 1 x+9
Therefore, 3
=2 + − 2 .
x + 4x x x +4
LY
Exercise 6.14
N
Decompose each of the following expressions into partial fractions:
O
2x 3x 2 + 7 x + 5
1. (x + 1)(x + 2)
( )
6. x 2 + 2 ( x + 1)
SE
10 − 2 x y 4 + y 3 − 19 y 2 − 44y − 21
2. (x − 3) (x − 1) 7.
( y + 3)( y + 2 )( y + 1)
U
x 2 − 14 x − 10 2 x 2 − 10 x + 10
3. x3 − 4 x 2 + x + 6 8.
( x − 1) ( x − 2 )( x − 3)
2
E
( x − 1)( x − 2 ) ( x − 3)
2
4. 9.
( 2 x − 1) ( x 2 + 3)
N
x3 + 1
(x )
− x + 7 ( x − 2)
LI
2
4t 2 − 28
5. 10.
(
x x2 − x + 1 ) t4 − t2 − 6
N
O
Summation of series using partial fractions

Some series may be summed using partial fractions. The series ∑ ur is called
R
a telescopic series if ur can be expressed as a sum of terms which appear in the

expression for ur + k , where k > 0, such that some of the terms of the series cancel
FO
on addition, leaving only a few terms which can be easily added. The following
two examples explains on how to use partial fractions in finding the summation
of the series.
309
Form Five
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Example 6.83
n+3
Express into partial fractions and deduce that
( n − 1) n ( n + 1)
5 6 7 n+3 3 n+2
+ + + + = − .
1× 2 × 3 2 × 3 × 4 3 × 4 × 5 ( n − 1) n ( n + 1) 2 n ( n + 1)
Hence, find the sum to infinity of this series.
Solution
n+3 A B C
Let = + +
( n − 1) n ( n + 1) n − 1 n n + 1
LY
n+3 An ( n + 1) + B ( n − 1)( n + 1) + Cn ( n − 1)
⇒ =
( n − 1) n ( n + 1) ( n − 1) n ( n + 1)
N
Equating numerators gives;
O
3 An ( n + 1) + B ( n − 1)( n + 1) + Cn ( n − 1)
n +=
Setting n =1 ⇒ 4 = 2A ⇔ A = 2
SE
Setting n = 0⇒ 3= −B ⇔ B = −3
Setting n =−1 ⇒ 2 =2C ⇔ C =1
U
n+3 2 3 1
Thus, = − + .
( n − 1) n ( n + 1) n − 1 n n + 1
Deducing the sum of the series is easily done by setting the working in columns
E
form:
N
5 3 1
Setting n = 2; = 2 − +
1× 2 × 3 2 3
LI
6 1
Setting n = 3; = 1 − 1 +
N
2 × 3× 4 4
7 2 3 1
Setting n = 4; = − +
O
3× 4 × 5 3 4 5
      
R
n +1 2 3 1
Setting n = n − 2; = − +
( n − 3)( n − 2 )( n − 1) n − 3 n − 2 n − 1
FO
n+2 2 3 1
Setting n = n − 1; = − +
( n − 2 )( n − 1)( n ) n − 2 n − 1 n
n+3 2 3 1
Setting n = n ; = − +
( n − 1) n ( n + 1) n − 1 n n + 1
310
Form Five
FOR ONLINE USE ONLY
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On adding, it implies that

5 6 7 n+3 3 1 3 1
+ + + + = 2 − +1+ − +
1× 2 × 3 2 × 3 × 4 3 × 4 × 5 ( n − 1) n ( n + 1) 2 n n n +1
3 n + 1 − 3 ( n + 1) + n
= +
2 n ( n + 1)
3 −n − 2
= +
2 n ( n + 1)
LY
3 n+2
= −
2 n ( n + 1)
N
5 6 7 n+3 3 n+2
Therefore, + + + + = −
1× 2 × 3 2 × 3 × 4 3 × 4 × 5 ( n − 1) n ( n + 1) 2 n ( n + 1)
O
n+2 3 n+2 3
Note that; as n → ∞, → 0 . This means − → as n → ∞
n ( n + 1) 2 n ( n + 1)
SE 2
5 6 7
Therefore, the infinite series + + +  is convergent and its sum
1× 2 × 3 2 × 3 × 4 3 × 4 × 5
3
to infinity is .
U
2
Example 6.84
E
N
Use partial fractions to find

2 3 4 n +1 .
+ + + +
LI
1× 3 × 5 3 × 5 × 7 5 × 7 × 9 ( )
4n − 1 ( 2n + 3)
2
N
Hence, determine the sum of this series when n tends to infinity.

O
Solution
n +1 A B C
R
Let = + +
( 2n − 1)( 2n + 1)( 2n + 3) 2n − 1 2n + 1 2n + 3
FO
n +1 A ( 2n + 1)( 2n + 3) + B ( 2n − 1)( 2n + 3) + C ( 2n − 1)( 2n + 1)

⇒ =
( 2n − 1)( 2n + 1)( 2n + 3) ( 2n − 1)( 2n + 1)( 2n + 3)
311
Form Five
FOR ONLINE USE ONLY
DO NOT DUPLICATE
Equating numerators gives;
1 A ( 2n + 1)( 2n + 3) + B ( 2n − 1)( 2n + 3) + C ( 2n − 1)( 2n + 1)

n +=
1 3 3
Setting n = ⇒ = 8A ⇔ A =
2 2 16
1 1 1
Setting n = − ⇒ = −4B ⇔ B = −
2 2 8
3 1 1
Setting n = − ⇒ − = 8C ⇔ C = −
2 2 16
n +1 3 1 1
LY
Thus, = − −
( 2n − 1)( 2n + 1)( 2n + 3) 16 ( 2n − 1) 8 ( 2n + 1) 16 ( 2n + 3)
2 3 1 1
N
Setting n= 1, = − −
1× 3 × 5 16 24 80
O
3 3 1 1
Setting n = 2, = − −
3× 5× 7 48 40 112
4 SE 3 1 1
Setting n = 3, = − −
5× 7 × 9 80 56 144
       
U
n −1 3 1 1
Setting n = n − 2, = − −
( 2n − 5)( 2n − 3)( 2n − 1) 16 ( 2n − 5) 8 ( 2n − 3) 16 ( 2n − 1)
n 3 1 1
E
Setting n = n − 1, = − −
( 2n − 3)( 2n − 1)( 2n + 1) 16 ( 2n − 3) 8 ( 2n − 1) 16 ( 2n + 1)
N
n +1 3 1 1
Setting n = n, = − −
LI
( 2n − 1)( 2n + 1)( 2n + 3) 16 ( 2n − 1) 8 ( 2n + 1) 16 ( 2n + 3)
N
2 3 3 1 3 1 1 1
On adding , + + ... = − + − − −
1× 3 × 5 3 × 5 × 7 16 24 48 16 ( 2n + 1) 8 ( 2n + 1) 16 ( 2n + 3)
O
5 1 4n + 5 
= −  
24 8  ( 2n + 1)( 2n + 3) 
R
2 3 4 n +1 5 1 4n + 5 
Therefore, + + + + = −  .
FO
1× 3 × 5 3 × 5 × 7 5 × 7 × 9 2
( )
4n − 1 ( 2n + 3) 24 8  ( 2n + 1)( 2n + 3) 

1 4n + 5 
Note that; as n → ∞,  →0.
8  ( 2n + 1)( 2n + 3) 
312
Form Five
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2 3 4
Therefore, the infinity series + + +  is convergent, and its
1× 3 × 5 3 × 5 × 7 5 × 7 × 9
5
sum to infinity is .
24
Exercise 6.15
2
1. Express in partial fractions and deduce that
n ( n + 1)( n + 2 )
1 1 1 1 1
. Hence, find the
LY
+ + + = −
1× 2 × 3 2 × 3 × 4 n ( n + 1)( n + 2 ) 4 2 ( n + 1)( n + 2 )
sum to infinity.
N
1 1 1 1 1
1−
2. Use partial fractions to show that 1× 2 + 2 × 3 + 3 × 4 +  + n ( n + 1) = .
n +1
O
n
3k + 2
3. Find the sum of the series ∑ k ( k + 1)( k + 2 ) , then evaluate the sum to infinity.
k =1 SE
2 n
2
4. Decompose 2
4n − 1
into partial fractions, hence find ∑ 4k
k =1
2
−1
.
n
4k
U
5. Evaluate ∑ ( 2k − 1)( 2k + 1)( 2k + 3) by using partial fractions.
k =1
2
E
6. Express in partial fractions and deduce that

n ( n + 2)
N
1 1 1 1 3 2n + 3
+ + + + = −
1× 3 2 × 4 3 × 5 n ( n + 2 ) 4 2 ( n + 1)( n + 2 )
LI
1 1
7. Express into partial fractions. By multiplying by , or
N
( 2k − 1)( 2k + 3) 2r + 1
n
1 1 1
∑ ( 2k − 1)( 2k + 1)( 2k + 3=)
O
otherwise prove that −

k =1 12 4 ( 2n + 1)( 2n + 3)
8. Use partial fractions to show that
R
2 3 4 n +1 n ( 5n + 7 )
+ + + + =
FO
1× 3 × 5 3 × 5 × 7 5 × 7 × 9 ( 2n − 1)( 2n + 1)( 2n + 3) 6 ( 2n + 1)( 2n + 3)

1 1 1 1
9. Find the sum of the series + + + + .
2 × 4 3× 5 4 × 6 ( n + 1)( n + 3)
313
Form Five
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10. Find the sum of the first n terms in each of the following series:
1 2 3
(a) + + +
3× 4 × 5 4 × 5× 6 5× 6 × 7
1 1 1
(b) + + +
1× 4 2 × 5 3 × 6
1 1 1
(c) + + +
3 × 6 6 × 9 9 ×12
LY
Chapter summary
N
1. Laws of indices include the following:
1 n
( a) .
O
−n n
(a) a m × a n =
am+n (c) a = n (e) a m = m
a
0
(b) a ÷ a =
m n
a m−n
(d) a = 1 SE
2. Laws of logarithms include the following:
( xz ) log b x + log b z (c) log b ( x ) = a log b x
a
(a) log b=
U
1
 x 1
(b) log b=  log b x − log b z (d) log b ( x m
) = log b x
z m
3. Natural logarithms satisfy all laws of common logarithms that is,
E
(a) ln =xy ln x + ln y n
(c) ln x = n ln x
N
1
x 1
(b) ln   =ln x − ln y (d) ln x = ln x
m
 y m
LI
4. If α and β are the roots of the quadratic equation ax 2 + bx + c =0, then

( x − α )( x − β ) = 0
N
⇒ x 2 − (α + β ) x + αβ =
0
O
b c
⇒α + β =− and αβ =
a a
R
5. If α , β , and γ are roots of a cubic equation ax3 + bx 2 + cx + d =

0, then
FO
x3 − (α + β + γ ) x 2 + (αβ + αγ + βγ ) x − αβγ =
0
b c d
⇒ α + β + γ =− , αβ + αγ + βγ = , and αβγ =− .
a a a
314
Form Five
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6. The remainder theorem states that, if p(x) is a dividend,q(x) is a quotient,

x – a is a divisor, and r (x) is a remainder, then p ( x)= q ( x) × ( x − a ) + r ( x) .
When x = a, gives p(a) = r(a). This theorem is used to calculate the remainder
of the division of any polynomial by a linear polynomial without carrying
out the steps of the division process.
7. The formulae for the sum of the first n, n2, and n3 natural numbers are:
n
1 n
1 2
∑ ( ) ∑ n ( n + 1)
2
(a) = k n n + 1 (c) = k3
k =1 2 k =1 4
n
1 n
(b) ∑ k = 6 n ( n + 1)( 2n + 1) (d) ∑1 = n

2
LY
k =1 k =1
8. If A is a 3 × 3 matrix, then:
Adj ( A )
N
T
(a) Adj ( A ) = cof ( A )  (b) A −1 = if A ≠ 0.
A
O
9. If A is a 3 × 3 matrix and A ≠ 0 , then by Cramer’s rule,
SE  x  d1 
Ax Ay Az   −1  
= x = , y = ,z and by inverse matrix,  y  = A  d 2  .
A A A z d 
   3
U
10. The formula for the general term of binomial expansion is Tr+1 = n Cr a n − r b r .
11. The binomial theorem for fractional and negation indices is given by
E
n ( n − 1) x 2 n ( n − 1)( n − 2 ) x3
(1 + x ) =+ + , where x < 1.
n
1 nx + +
N
2! 3!
12. The absolute value of a real number x is written as x , and it is defined by;
LI
 x if x ≥ 0
x =
N
 − x if x < 0
O
13. The following definitions apply for absolute value inequality expressions:
If p < c , then − c < p < c, where, c ≥ 0.
R
If p ≤ c , then − c ≤ p ≤ c.
FO
If p > c, then p > c or p < − c.

If p ≥ c, then p ≥ c or p ≤ − c,
where p is any algebraic expression.
315
Form Five
FOR ONLINE USE ONLY
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Revision exercise 6
1. The roots of the equation ax 2 + bx + c =0 are α and β . The roots of the

2 2 2 2
equation a x + b x + c = 0 are 2α and 2 β . Show that the equation whose
roots are nα and nβ is x + 2nx + 4n 2 =
2
0.
2
2. If one root of the equation mx + nx + t =0 is twice the other, show that
2n 2
= m.
9t
LY
3. The roots of the equation x 3 + 3 x 2 + 5 x + 7 = 0 are α , β , and γ . Find the
equation whose roots are:
(a) 3α , 3β , and 3γ (b) α 2 , β 2 , and γ 2 (c) α + 3, β + 3, and γ + 3 .
N
4. Use the remainder theorem to find the three factors of x 4 + 3 x 2 − 4 and
O
2 x3 − x 2 − 7 x − 14
hence write into partial fractions.
x 4 + 3x 2 − 4
SE
5. If y= a + bx n is satisfied by the following table of values,
x 1 2 4
U
y 7 10 15
5
Show that n = log 2   , and hence deduce the values of a and b.
3
E
7+ x
6. Express into partial fractions. Assuming that −1 < x < 1 ,
N
1 + x + x 2 + x3
7+ x
obtain an expression for , give your answer in the form
LI
1 + x + x 2 + x3
a + bx + cx 2 + dx3 + Hence, find the value of the coefficients as far as
N
5
the term in x inclusive.
O
2u
=7. If u v v= and v 2 u 3 , find the possible values of u and v.
R
2 x 2 − 3x + 2
8. Express in partial fractions.
( x − 2)8
FO
9. Use the principal of mathematical induction to prove that the sum of cubes
of any three consecutive natural numbers is divisible by 9.
10. Show that ab + 5(a − b) = 1 , if a = log12 18 and b = log 24 54 .
316
Form Five
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log b a
11. Prove that = 1 + log b c .
log bc a
12. Simplify the following expression, to the most simplified form.
3(2n +1 ) − 4(2n −1 )
2n +1 − 2n
13. (a) Find the value of x and y in the following system of equations,
log x − 3log y =1, xy =160 .
 log5  3x  
(b) Solve for x if 75  2    =4 x .
 
 
LY
 1 1 1
14. Find the inverse of  5 4 3 .
 
N
10 5 1
O
15. Solve the following system of equations by using the matrix method:
x + 2 y + z =
10

2 x + y + z =20 SE
x + 3y + z =30

16. Solve the following system of equations by using the matrix method:
U

x + y + z = 3
5 x + 4 y + 3 z =
11

E
 1
10 x + 5 y + z =11
2

N
17. Write down the first four terms of the expansion of each of the following
LI
and state the values of x where the expansion is valid:

2
N
2 3
(b) (1 − x )
−3
(a) (1 + x)
7
O
18. Find the 5 term in the expansion of (1 − 5 x) .

th 2
n(n + 1) 2 n ( n + 1)( n + 2 ) 3
If x < 1, show that (1 − x) = 1 + nx +
−n
19. x + x +
R
2 ! 3!
7x + 3
20. Express ( 3x − 1)( x + 1)2 into partial fractions and then use binomial theorem
FO
to find the coefficient of x n in ascending powers of x.

21. Use binomial expansion to evaluate each of the following:
(a) 1.01 (b) 3
0.98
317
Form Five
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22. In the binomial expansion of (1 + x ) , where n is a positive integer, the

n
3
coefficient of x 4 is times the sum of the coefficients of x 2 and x3 . Find
2
the value of n and determine these three coefficients.
a1 b1 c1 a1 + b1 b1 c1
23. Prove that a2 b2 c= 2 a2 + b2 b2 c2
a3 b3 c3 a3 + b3 b3 c3
24. Expand each of the following:
1 1 1 1 x x2
LY
(a) a b c (b) 1 y y2
b+c c+a a+b 1 z z2
N
25. Prove that log  m  + log n  + log z  = 0.
O
n z m
n n n
26. Show that 3∑ k 2 + 3∑ k + ∑1 = ( n + 1) − 1. SE 3
=k 1 =k 1=k 1
27. Prove each of the following statements by mathematical induction:

1
U
(a) 2 + 6 + 12 +  + n ( n +=1) n ( n + 1)( n + 2 ) .
3
1 1 1 1 n ( 3n + 5 )
+ + +  + =
E
(b) 3 8 15 n ( n + 2 ) 4 ( n + 1)( n + 2 )
N
x 2 2 xy y 2
(x )
2
28. Prove that y 2 x 2 2 xy
= 3
+ y3 .
LI
2 2
2 xy y x
N
29. Write down the first four terms of the expansion of (1 − x) −2 in ascending
O
∞
a + (b − a ) x
powers of x, hence deduce that ∑ (a + bn) x = 2 .
n
n =0 (1 − x)
R
30. Use Cramer’s rule to solve the following system of equations:

2 x − 5 y + 2=
z 14, 9 x + 3 y − 4= z 3.
z 13, 7 x + 3 y − 2=
FO
31. Evaluate each of the following:

 3 2  1 2 3   −1 −2 1 
     
(a) ( 2 3 1) ×  4 7  (b)  −1 0 2  ×  −1 2 3 
1 6  1 −3 −1  −1 −2 2 
     
318
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1 2 2
32. If A =  2 1 2  , verify that A 2 − 4A − 5I = 0.
 2 2 1 
2+ x
33. Write the first three terms in the expression of in ascending
(3 − 2x )
2
powers of x. Also, state the condition under which the expression is valid.
34. Use partial fractions to show that
2 3 4 n +1 5n 2 + 7 n
+ + + + = 2
LY
1× 3 × 5 3 × 5 × 7 5 × 7 × 9 ( 2n − 1)( 2n + 1)( 2n + 3) 6 4n + 8n + 3 ( )
35. Prove by mathematical induction that:
N
1
1× 3 + 3 × 5 + 5 × 7 +  + ( 2n − 1)( 2n=
+ 1) (
n 4n 2 + 6n − 1 . )
O
3
36. Find the set of values of k for which the equation f ( x) = 0,
SE
if f ( x) = 3 x 2 − kx + 3 has:
(a) Repeated roots (b) Distinct real roots
U
37. Solve each of the following inequalities:
( x + 2 )( x − 5) > 1
(a) 3 x + 2 > 2 x − 3 (b)
( x − 3)( x − 2 )
E
65
∑ 3( k )
n
∑ 3 ( k + 3k + 2 ) , hence evaluate
2
38. Find 2 + 3k + 2 .
N
k =1 k =15
LI
39. A botanist requires 12, 6, and 7 units of copper, zinc, and calcium, respectively
for his secondary school. A concentrated product contains 3, 1, and 1 units of
N
copper, zinc, and calcium per carton, respectively. A diluted product contains
1, 0, and 2 units of copper, zinc, and calcium per carton, respectively. A dry
O
product contains 1, 1, and 1 units of copper, zinc, and calcium per carton,
respectively.
R
(a) Formulate and express a system of equations in matrix form.

(b) By using the inverse matrix method, find how many of each should be
FO
purchased in order to meet the requirements.

40. Prove that the sum to n terms of the series 1× 32 + 4 × 42 + 7 × 52 + 10 × 62 +
1
is
12
( )
n ( n + 1) 9n 2 + 49n + 44 − 8n .
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Chapter
Seven Trigonometry
Introduction
The word trigonometry comes from the Greek words “trigonon” which means
triangle and “metron” which means to measure. Trigonometry deals with
LY
determination of measures of sides and angles of triangles by means of relevant
trigonometric functions. The trigonometric functions are sine, cosine, tangent,
N
secant, cosecant, and cotangent of an angle. In this chapter you will learn
about trigonometric ratios, trigonometric identities, compound angle formulae,
O
double angle formulae, trigonometric equations, factor formulae, radians and
small angles, trigonometric functions, and inverse of trigonometric functions.
SE
The competencies developed can be applied in various real life situations
such as in solving problems related to astronomy, navigation, architecture,
oceanography, and in creation of maps. Generally, trigonometry has great
U
practical importance to builders, architects, surveyors, engineers, and users
in many other fields.
E
Trigonometric ratios
N
Trigonometric ratios are values of trigonometric functions based on the ratio of

LI
sides of a right-angled triangle.

N
Activity 7.1: Deducing the formulae 3. Use the derived formulae in task
of trigonometric ratios
O
2 to deduce the formulae for

secant, cosecant, and cotangent
Individually or in a group, perform of an angle α.
R
the following tasks: 4. Give a suggestion of the formulae

deduced in tasks 2 and 3.
FO
1. Construct a right-angled triangle

in the xy-plane. 5. What have you observed in task
2. Deduce the formulae for trigonometric 4? Give comments.
ratios of sine, cosine and tangent of an 6. Share your findings with your
acute angle α . fellow students for more inputs.
320
Form Five
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The ratios of sides of a right-angled Now, using Pythagoras’ theorem, the

triangle with respect to any of its acute following relation is obtained;
angles are known as the trigonometric
( OA ) + ( AB) =
( OB) .
2 2 2
ratios of that particular angle. The three

sides of the right-angled triangle are The reciprocal of the trigonometric
hypotenuse (the longest side), opposite functions of sine, cosine, and tangent
(side across from the angle), and adjacent
are cosecant, secant, and cotangent,
(base of the angle). Consider the right-
respectively. These are defined from
angled triangle OAB in Figure 7.1.
Figure 7.1 as follows:
LY
1 Length of hypotenuse
1 Length
Side OBof hypotenuse Side OB
cosec
= θ = cosec
= θ == =
sin θ sin θ Side
Length of opposite Length
AB of opposite Side AB
N
1 Length of hypotenuse
1 Length
Side OBof hypotenuse Side OB
O
sec
= θ = sec
= θ == =
cos θ cos θ Side
Length of adjacent Length
OA of adjacent Side OA
cot
= θ =
1
cot
=
SE
Length of adjacent
θ ==
1 Side
Length
OAof adjacent Side OA
=
tan θ Length of opposite
tan θ Length
Side ABof opposite Side AB
Figure 7.1: A right-angled triangle OAB
U
Example 7.1
From Figure 7.1, the hypotenuse of the
right-angled triangle is OB , OA is the In the following figure, if side BH is
E
adjacent side to angle θ , and AB is perpendicular to side AC, find the

N
the opposite side to angle θ . The three value of x correct to three significant
basic trigonometric ratios with their
LI
figures.
abbreviations are defined as follows:
N
Length of opposite Side AB

O
sin θ = = x
Length of hypotenuse Side OB
11cm
R
Length of adjacent SideOA 39º

cosθ = = A C
Length of hypotenuse SideOB
FO
H
19 cm
Length of opposite Side AB
tan θ =
Length of adjacent SideOA
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Form Five
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Solution Solution
BH Since A is a right angle, both triangles
From the figure, tan 39° = ABC and ABD in the figure, are right
AH
angled-triangles.
11 11
tan 39
= ° ⇒ AH
= Using Pythagoras’ theorem, the value
AH tan 39°
of x can be found as follows:
HC= 19 − AH From a triangle BAD;
11
( )
2
= 19 − 142 =102 + AD ⇒ AD = 142 − 102
tan 39°
Using Pythagoras’ theorem, for the Also, from a triangle BAC;
LY
( )
2
right-angled triangle HBC, it gives; 162 =102 + AC ⇒ AC = 162 − 102
( BH ) + ( HC ) =
( BC )
2 2 2
N
x AC − AD
Thus,=
⇒ 11 + ( HC ) =
2
2
x 2
= 162 − 102 − 142 − 102
O
= 156 − 96
Substitute HC to find the value of SE
x, so that; = 2.69
2 Therefore, x = 2.69 cm.
 2 11 
x = 11 + 19 − 
tan 39° 
U

Example 7.3
= 12.3.
Therefore, x = 12.3 cm.
If tan θ = 3, where θ is an acute
E
angle, find the value of each of the

N
Example 7.2
following leaving your answer in
LI
In the following figure, A is a right surd form.

angle. Find the value of x correct to (a) secθ (b) cot θ (c) cosec θ
N
two decimal places.

O
Solution
B
3
Given tan θ = 3 ⇒ tan θ =
R
1
10 cm 16 cm The values corresponding to the sides
FO
14 cm of the corresponding right-angled

triangle are as shown in following
A D x C right-angle triangle ABC:
322
Form Five
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C Exercise 7.1
1. Find the values of x and h in the

2 following figure.
i
A B h
1
10 cm
Using the Pythagoras’ theorem,
2 2 2 51º
AB + BC =
AC
LY
2 2
x
⇒ 12 + 3 =
AC
2
2. Find the lengths of all sides of the
⇒4=AC following right-angled triangle
N
⇒ AC =
2 units. with an area of 400 square units.
O
U
Thus, it follows that;
1
(a) secθ = SE
cos θ
1 h
But cos θ =⇒ secθ =2 2x
2
U
Therefore, secθ = 2.
1 V x W
(b) cotθ =
E
tan θ 3. In the following figure, AB and

1 3
N
But tan θ = 3 ⇒ cotθ = = CD are both perpendicular to

3 3 BC and the size of angle ACB
3
LI
Therefore, cot θ = .
3 is 31°. Find the length of the
line segment BD, correct to 3
N
1
(c) cosec θ =
sin θ significant figures.
O
B D
3 2 3
But sin θ =⇒ cosec θ = 9 cm
2 3 6 cm
R
2 3
Therefore, cosec θ = . C
FO
A
3
4. The area of a right-angled triangle
JKL is 50 square centimetres.
One of its angles is 45°. Find the
lengths of the sides of the triangle.
323
Form Five
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5. In a right-angled triangle DEF, Trigonometric identities

119 Consider the right-angled triangle shown
tan D = . Find the values of
120 in Figure 7.2.
cosec D and sec D.
13 y
6. If sec B = , where B is an acute C
5
angle, find the value of each of
the following; r
(a) cosec B (b) tan B y
7. In a right-angled triangle LMN
LY
with angle L equal to 90°, θ
find angle M and N so that A x B x
sin M = cos M.
N
8. A rectangle has dimensions 10 cm
O
by 5 cm. Determine the measures Figure 7.2: A right-angled triangle in
of the angles at the point where SE the xy-plane
the diagonals intersect and find
the length of the diagonal. Using Pythagoras’ theorem;
( AB) + ( BC ) =
( AC )
2 2 2
9. The lengths of sides PQ and QR
U
of a scalene triangle PQR are 12
cm and 8 cm respectively. If the Since,= AC r=, AB x, and=
BC y
size of angle R is 59°, find the then,
E
length of side PR. x2 + y 2 =r2

N
10. Maria is riding vertically in a hot Divide throughout by r

2
air balloon directly over a point x2 y 2 r 2

LI
P on the ground. Maria spots a ⇒ 2+ 2 =

r r r2
parked car on the ground at an
N
2 2
angle of depression of 30°, then,  x  y
⇒  +  = 1
r r
O
the balloon rises 50 metres. If

the angle of depression to the car x y
is 35°. How far is the car from = But cos
= θ and sin θ .
r r
R
point P? Substituting the values for cos θ and sin θ

FO
2 2
11. If the shadow of a building x y
into   +   =
1 gives:
increases by 10 metres when the r r
angle of elevation of the sun rays
decreases from 70° to 60°, what 1
cos 2 θ + sin 2 θ = (7.1)
is the height of the building?
324
Form Five
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Two similar identities can be deduced from equation (7.1) as follows;

Divide by sin 2 θ both sides of equation (7.1) as follows:
cos 2 θ sin 2 θ 1
+ =
sin θ sin θ sin 2 θ
2 2
cos 2 θ
where as, = cot 2 θ
sin 2 θ
⇒ cot 2 θ + 1 =cosec 2θ (7.2)
Again, divide by cos 2 θ both sides of equation (7.1) as follows:
LY
cos 2 θ sin 2 θ 1
+ =
cos θ cos θ cos 2 θ
2 2
N
sin 2 θ
where as, = tan 2 θ
cos 2 θ
O
⇒ 1 + tan 2 θ =sec 2 θ (7.3)
SE
Equations (7.1), (7.2), and (7.3) are also known as Pythagorean identities as they
express the Pythagorean theorem in terms of trigonometric functions.
U
Example 7.4
E
Simplify sin θ + cos θ cot θ.

N
Solution
LI
 cos θ 
sin θ + cos θ cot θ =+sin θ cos θ  
 sin θ 
N
sin 2 θ + cos 2 θ
= , but
= sin 2 θ + cos 2 θ 1
O
sin θ
1
=
sin θ
R
= cosecθ
FO
Therefore, sin θ + cos θ cot θ =

cosecθ.
325
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Example 7.5 Factorizing the resulted quadratic

equation, gives;
If x = sin θ, then show that (−2 cos θ + 1) (cos θ + 1) =
0
x Hence
= tan θ .
1 − x2 1
cos θ = or cos θ = −1
2
Solution
1
Given x = sin θ If cos θ = , θ =60°,300° .
2
x sin θ
Thus, = cosθθ =
If cos −−1,1,θθ =
= =180°°
180
LY
1− x 2
1 − sin 2 θ
Therefore, the values of θ between
sin θ
= 1 − sin θ cos θ
, since = 2 2
0° and 360° are 60°,180°, and 300°.
cos 2 θ
N
sin θ
=
O
cos θ Example 7.7
= tan θ
Solve the equation
Therefore, if x = sin θ, then
SE
x 4 cos θ − 3sec θ =
2 tan θ , for
= tan θ.
1 − x2 0° ≤ θ ≤ 180°.
U
Solution
Example 7.6 Given 4 cos θ − 3sec θ = 2 tan θ
E
⇒ 2 tan θ − 4 cos θ + 3sec θ = 0

Solve the equation 2sin2 θ – 1= cosθ,
N
 sin θ  3
for values of θ between 0° and 360°. ⇒ 2  − 4 cos θ + 0
=
 cos θ  cos θ
LI
Multiplying both sides by cosθ gives;

Solution
N
2sinθ − 4 cos 2 θ + 3 =0
Given 2sin 2 θ − 1 = cos θ
But cos 2 θ = 1 − sin 2 θ
O
⇒ 2sin 2 θ − cos θ − 1 =0
⇒ 2sin θ − 4(1 − sin 2 θ ) + 3 =0
But sin 2 θ = 1 − cos 2 θ , thus,
R
⇒ 4sin 2 θ + 2sin θ − 1 =0.

⇒ 2(1 − cos θ ) − cos θ − 1 =0
2
The general formula of solving a
FO
⇒ 2 − 2 cos 2 θ − cos θ − 1 =0 quadratic equation in sin θ is

⇒ −2 cos 2 θ − cos θ + 1 =0 −b ± b2 − 4ac
sin θ = ,
2a
326
Form Five
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where a = 4, b = 2, and c = −1. Hence,

− 2 ± 4 + 16
sin θ =
8
So that, sin θ = 0.3090 or sin θ = − 0.8090
If sin θ = 0.3090 then θ = sin −1 (0.3090) = 18°or 162°.
Also, if sin θ = −0.8090 , then θ = sin −1 (−0.8090) = −54°or
or−–126°.
126°
Therefore, the values of θ are 18° and 162°.
LY
Example 7.8
Prove the identity cosec 4 x − cosec 2 x =cot 4 x + cot 2 x.
N
Solution
O
Given cosec 4 x − cosec 2 x = cot 4 x + cot 2 x
Proving from the right-hand side,
cot 4 x + cot 2
x cot 2 x(cot 2 x + 1)
=
SE
= (cosec 2 x − 1)(cosec 2 x − 1 + 1), since cosec 2 x = 1 + cot 2 x
= (cosec 2 x − 1)(cosec 2 x)
U
= cosec 4 x − cosec 2 x
Therefore, cot 4 x + cot 2 x = cosec 4 x − cosec 2 x.
E
Example 7.9
N
LI
Verify the identity tan x + cot x =

sec x cosec x.
N
Solution
O
Given tan x + cot x = sec x cosec x

From left hand-side,
sin x cos x
R
tan x + cot x = +
cos x sin x
FO
sin 2 x + cos 2 x
=
cos x sin x
1
= ,
cos x sin x
327
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Exercise 7.2
1 1
tan x + cot x = ×
cos x sin x 1. Simplify each of the following
= sec x cosec x.
expressions:
Therefore, tan x + cot x =
sec x cosec x. (a) (1 − sin y )(1 + sin y )
(b) sec θ − sec θ sin 2 θ
1 1
Example 7.10 (c) +
sec x cosec 2 x
2
cos θ
Eliminate θ from the following (d) tan θ +
LY
1 + sin θ
parametric equations.
x= 2 + 4 cos θ 2. Verify each of the following
trigonometric identities:
N
y= 3 + 5sin θ
sec x
= sin x
(a) cot x + tan x
O
Solution
Given sin x 1 − cos x
SE (b) =
x= 3 + 5sin θ .
2 + 4 cos θ and y = 1 + cos x sin x
sec x − tan x 1
Write the given equations in terms (c) =
sec x + tan x sec x + tan x
of cos θ and sin θ . That is,
U
x−2 y −3 3. If p 2sin
= = x and 3q cos x,
=cos θ = and sin θ
4 5 show that p2 + 36q2 = 4.
E
Square on both sides of each equation

4. Eliminate θ in each of the
to obtain:
N
2 following pair of equations:

 x − 2 =(a) x sin= θ , y cos θ
cos θ = 
LI
2
and
 4 
(b) x = 2 + sin θ , cos θ =
1+ y
2
 y − 3
N
sin 2 θ =  = (c) x 3sin

= θ , y cosecθ
 5 
O
5. Solve each of the following

Since, sin 2 θ + cos 2 θ = 1 then,
2 2
equations for all values of θ
 y −3  x −2
R
1. between 0° and 360° :

  +  =
 5   4  (a) 3cot θ = tan θ
FO
2 2
 y −3  x −2 (b) =
2 tan θ 5cosecθ + cot θ .
Therefore,   + 1.
 =
 5   4 
(c) cosec
= 2
θ 3cot θ − 1.
328
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6. Prove each of the following identities: R

(a) cos 4 x − sin 4 x + 1 =2 cos 2 x
(b) (1 + cot θ − cosecθ )(1 + tan θ + sec θ ) =
2 B
(c) tan x − sin x = sec x
sin 3 x 1 + cos x
(d) tan y + sec y=−1
tan y + sec y S Q
tan y − sec y + 1
(e) sec A (1 – sin A )( sec A + tan A ) =
1. A+B
A
7, show tan θ = ±1.
7. If cot 2 θ + 3cosec 2θ = B
LY
P
T U
1 − cos x Figure 7.3: Illustrative sketch for deriving com-
8. Show that, = cosec x − cot x. pound angle formulae
N
1 + cos x
9. If m = 4sec 2θ and n = 8 tan 2θ , show that From Figure 7.3, angles A and B are acute
O
4m=2
64 + n 2 . such that A + B < 90°.
SE Consider the right-angled triangle PRT,
x a (1 − cosec θ )=
10. If = an y a (sec θ + tan θ ), RT RS + ST RS + QU
2 2 sin(A + B) = = = ,
prove that xy + a (2a − x) =
0. PR PR PR
U
since ST = QU . Thus,
Compound angle formulae RS QU
Sin(A+B) = +
The compound angle formula can be PR PR
E
used to find the sine, cosine, and tangent QR RS PQ QU

= × + ×
of the sum and difference of angles.
N
QR PR PQ PR
The basic operations on sums and QR RS PQ QU
LI
differences of trigonometric functions = × + ×

PR QR PR PQ
can be computed using the concept of
N
compound angles. QR RS
But = sin A, = cos B,
Consider the triangle in Figure 7.3. PR QR
O
PQ QU
= cos
= A, and sin B
PR PQ
R
Thus, =sin(A+B) sin A cos B + cos A sin B

FO
Therefore, the compound angle formula

for finding the sine of the sum of two
angles is given by;
sin(A+B) sin A cos B + cos A sin B (7.4)

=
329
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Suppose B is replaced by –B. Then, substituting it into equation (7.4), gives;

sin(A +=(−B)) sin A cos(−B) + cos A sin(−B).
Note that, cos(− x) = cos x, sin(− x) = − sin x, and tan(− x) =− tan x because
cos x is an even function while sin x and tan x are odd functions.
Thus, sin ( A
= − B ) sin A cos B − cos A sin B.
Therefore, the compound angle formula for finding the sine of the difference of
two angles is given by;
sin(A
= − B) sin A cos B − cos A sin B.
From Figure 7.3, considering the right-angled triangle PRT
LY
PT PU − TU
cos(A + B) = = , since PU
= PT + TU
PR PR
N
PU − SQ PU SQ
cos(A + B)= = − , since TU =
SQ
O
PR PR PR
PQ PU QR SQ
= × − ×
PQ PR QR PR
SE
PQ PU QR SQ
= × − ×
PR PQ PR QR
U
PQ PU QR SQ
But
= cos
= A, cos
= B, sin A,=
and sin B .
PR PQ PR QR
E
Therefore, the compound angle formula for finding the cosine of the sum of two
N
angles is given by;

cos(A+B) cos A cos B − sin A sin B .
= (7.5)
LI
Suppose B is replaced by –B then substituting into equation (7.5), gives;

cos(A+(= −B)) cos A cos(−B) − sin A sin(−B).
N
Thus, cos ( A
= − B ) cos A cos B + sin A sin B.
O
Therefore, the compound angle formula for finding the cosine of the difference
of two angles is given by;
cos(A − B) = cos A cos B+ sin A sin B
R
The derivation of the compound angle formula for tan(A + B) can be done as
FO
follows;
sin(A + B)
From trigonometric identities tan(A + B) = . Substituting equations
cos(A + B)
(7.4) and (7.5) for sin ( A + B ) and cos ( A + B ) gives,
330
Form Five
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sin A cos B + cos A sin B

⇒ tan(A + B) = Example 7.11
cos A cos B − sin A sin B
Divide by cos A cos B both the Prove that
numerator and denominator to get; ) cos 2 x − sin 2 y.
cos( x + y ) cos( x − y=
sin A cos B cos A sin B
+ Solution
tan(A + B) = cos A cos B cos A cos B
sin A sin B Given
1−
cos A cos B ) cos 2 x − sin 2 y
sin A sin B Consider the left-hand side of the given
+
= cos A cos B identity,
LY
 sin A   sin B 
1−    ⇒ cos(x + y)cos(x − y)
 cos A   cos B 
tan A + tan B = (cos x cos y − sin x sin y ) ×
⇒
N
tan(A + B) =
1 − tan A tan B (cos x cos y + sin x sin y)
O
Therefore, the compound angle formula 2 2
= cos x cos y + cos x cos y sin x sin y −
⇒
for finding the tangent of the sum of two
cos x cos y sin x sin y − sin 2 x sin 2 y
SE
angles is written as;
tan A + tan B 2 2 2 2
= cos x cos y − sin x sin y
⇒
tan(A + B) = (7.6)
1 − tan A tan B 2 2 2 2
= cos x(1 − sin y ) − (1 − cos x) sin y
⇒
U
2 2 2
Similarly, if B is replaced by –B then ⇒= cos x − cos x sin y − sin2 y
substituting it into equation (7.6) results to; sin 2 y + cos 2 x sin
= 2
y cos 2 x − sin 2 y
E
tan A + tan(−B)
tan(A + (−B)) =
1 − tan A tan(−B) Therefore,
N
tan A − tan B ) cos 2 x − sin 2 y.

tan(A − B) =
LI
1 + tan A tan B
Therefore, the compound angle formula Example 7.12
N
for the tangent of the difference of two

angles is written as,
O
tan ( A + B ) − tan A
tan A − tan B Simplify .
Thus, tan(A − B) = . 1 + tan ( A + B ) tan A
1 + tan A tan B
R
In summary, the compound angle Solution

FO
formulae are written as; By using the compound angle formula,

(i) sin(A =± B) sin A cos B ± cos A sin B tan ( A + B ) − tan A
= tan ( (A + B) − A )
(ii) cos(A ± B) = cos A cos B  sin A sin B 1 + tan ( A + B ) tan A
tan A ± tan B
(iii) tan(A ± B) =
1  tan A tan B
331
Form Five
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tan A + tan B 0 − tanC

= tan ( A − A + B ) Þ = ,
1− tan A tan B 1+ 0 × tanC
= tan B since tan180° = 0
tan A + tan B
tan ( A + B ) − tan A = − tanC
Therefore, = tan B. 1− tan A tan B
1 + tan ( A + B ) tan A
Cross multiplication gives,
tan A + tan B = (1− tan A tan B)( − tanC)
Example 7.13 tan A++ tan
tanA
Thus, tanBB== −(1− tan+Atan
tanC tan−BtanC
tanAB)( tanC)
tan A + tan B = − tanC + tan A tan BtanC
LY
Simplify (sin x cos y − cos x sin y)2
Therefore,
+ (cos x cos y + sin x sin y ) 2 . tan A + tan B+ tan C =
tan A tan B tan C.
N
Solution
Example 7.15
O
(sin x cos y − cos x sin y)2
+ (cos x cos y + sin x sin y ) 2 x cos ( x + 60° )
Solve the equation 2sin=
= sin 2 (x − y) + cos 2 (x − y) = 1
SE
for values of x between 0° and 360°.
=1 Solution
Given 2sin x = cos ( x + 60° )
U
Therefore, (sin x cos y − cos x sin y)2
+ (cos x cos y + sin x sin y ) 2 =
1. = cos x cos60° − sin x sin60°
1 3
E
Example 7.14 Þ 2sin x = cos x − sin x

2 2
N
Divide by cos x on both sides to get;

If A + B + C = 180° , show that 1 3
LI
tan A tan B tan C. ⇒ 2 tan x =

tan A + tan B + tan C = −
2 2
tan x
N
Collecting like terms gives;

Solution
3 3 1 1
O
⇒⇒
Given A + B+ C = 180° .⇒ A + B = 180° − C 2 tan x +x + tantan
2 tan x=x=
2 2 2 2
+ C = 180° ⇒ A + B = 180° − C
  3 3  1 1
R
Applying tangent on both sides gives; ⇒⇒ 2 +2 +  tan x=

 tan x=
tan(A + B) = tan(180° − C)   2 2  2 2
FO
By A + tan
tanusing theB compound − tanCformula
tan180°angle  4+ 3  1
= ⇒   tan x =
tan+AB)
tan(A
1−
gives; tan=Btan(180° − C) tanC
1+ tan180°
 2  2
tan A + tan B tan180° − tanC
=
1− tan A tan B 1+ tan180° tanC (
⇒ 4 + 3 tan x =
1 )
332
Form Five
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1
⇒ tan x = 12 24
4+ 3 (b) cos x = − , cot y =
13 7
 1  where x lies in the second
⇒x= tan −1  
 4+ 3  quadrant and y lies in the
⇒ x = 9.9° and 189.9° third quadrant.
Therefore, the values of x are
9.9° and 189.9°. 2. Find the values of sin ( A − B) ,
cos (A–B), and tan (A–B) given:
Example 7.16 12 24
(a) cos A = − , cot B = ,
LY
13 7
If tan( x + 45°) =2, find the value of where A lies in the second
tan x. quadrant and B lies in the
N
first quadrant.
Solution
tan (xx++45
( 45°°))= 3 5
O
Given,tan
Given,
Given =2.2. (b) sin A = , sin B = − ,
tan x + tan 45° 5 13
⇒⇒ tan x + tan 45° = =22 where A lies in the first
1 − tan x tan 45 °
1 − tan x tan 45°
SE quadrant and B lies in the
tan xx++11 2, since
=
tan
= tan45
45°° 11
=1 − tan x 2, since
= tan fourth quadrant.
1 − tan x
tanxx++1=1= 22 1(1−−tan
tanxx )
U
⇒tan
⇒ ( ) 3. If tan x − tan y = m
tanxx++11== 22−−22tan
⇒tan
⇒ tanxx and cot y − cot x = n, prove
⇒33tan
⇒ tanxx==11 1 1
E
that cot( x − y ) = + .
11 .
tanxx=
⇒tan =
m n
N
⇒ .
33 4. Prove each of the following
1
LI
Therefore, tan x = . identities:

3 1 − tan θ
(a) tan ( 45° − θ ) =
N
1 + tan θ
Exercise 7.3
O
sin ( x + y ) tan x + tan y

(b) =
1. Find the values of sin ( x + y ) , cos ( x − y ) 1 + tan x tan y
R
cos ( x + y ) , and tan ( x + y ) for

each of the following: tan (α − β ) tan 2 α + tan 2 β
FO
(c) =
3 5 cot (α + β ) 1 − tan 2 α tan 2 β
(a)=sin x = , sin y where
5 13
x and y lie in the first cot α cot β − 1
(d) cot (α + β ) =
quadrant. cot α + cot β
333
Form Five
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5. Given that A, B, and C are angles of a triangle, prove that:

 B+C A
(a) cot   = tan
 2  2
(b) tan B tan C = 2, if cos A = cos Bcos C
(c) sin A sin ( A + 2C ) + sin Bsin ( B + 2A ) + sin Csin ( C + 2B ) = 0
6. Solve each of the following equations for values of x between 0° and 360°
(a) cos( x + 45°) =cos x
1
(b) sin( x − 30°) = cos x
2
LY
(c) 3sin( x +=10°) 4 cos ( x − 10° )
2 − tan β
7. Given that sin( x + β= ) 2 cos( x − β ) . Prove that, tan x = .
1 − 2 tan β
N
8. Evaluate each of the following expressions (Leave your answers in surd form).
O
(a) sin 47° cos13° + cos 47° sin13°
tan 75° − tan15°
(b) SE
1 + tan 75° tan15°
(c) sin 75° cos 300° + cos1470° sin(−1020°).
cos(A − B)
9. If cot A cot B = 2, show that = 3.
U
cos(A+B)
tan A − tan B
10. Given that tan(A − B) = . If B= 45°, show that,
E
1 + tan A tan B
tan 2 A − 2 tan A + 1
N
tan(A − B) = .
tan 2 A − 1
LI
Double angle formulae

N
Double angle formulae are trigonometric identities which express trigonometric

O
functions of 2θ in terms of trigonometric functions of θ. They are special cases of

compound angle formulae.
R
The compound angle formulae under addition of two angles can be used to deduce
FO
the double angle formula.

Considering equation (7.4), =sin(A+B) sin A cos B + cos A sin B
Replacing B by A, the double angle formula for sine of an angle is obtain as follows:
sin(A=+ A) sin A cos A + cos A sin A
334
Form Five
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Thus, sin 2A = 2sin A cos A

Therefore, the double angle formula for sine is sin 2A = 2sin A cos A .
From equation (7.5), cos(A

= + B) cos A cos B − sin A sin B.
Replacing B by A, gives the double angle formula for cosine of an angle, that is,
cos(A
= + A) cos A cos A − sin A sin A
cos 2 A − sin 2 A, where sin 2 A =
cos 2A = 1 − cos 2 A
= cos 2 A − (1 − cos 2 A)
LY
= 2cos 2 A − 1
Therefore, the double angle formula for cosine is,
N
cos 2A 2 cos 2 A − 1
=
O
But cos 2 A = 1 − sin 2 A , thus,
⇒ cos 2A = cos 2 A − sin 2 A
SE
=1 − sin 2 A − sin 2 A
=1 − 2sin 2 A
U
Therefore, the double angle formula for cosine involving sine is,
cos 2A = 1 − 2sin 2 A.
E
Considering equation (7.6),

tan A+ tan B .
N
tan(A + B) =
1 − tan A tan B
LI
Replacing B by A, gives the double angle formula for tangent of an angle is, that is.
tan A+ tan A
N
tan(A + A) =
1 − tan A tan A
O
2 tan A
=
1 − tan 2 A
R
Therefore, the double angle formula for tangent of an angle is,

2 tan A .
FO
tan 2A =
1 − tan 2 A
335
Form Five
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The double angle formulae can be summarized as follows;

(i) sin 2A = 2sin A cos A
(ii) cos 2A = 1 − 2sin 2 A = 2 cos 2 A − 1 = cos 2 A − sin 2 A
2 tan A
(iii) tan 2A =
1 − tan 2 A
Example 7.17
Express sin 3α in terms of sin α .
LY
Solution
Let sin
= 3α sin(2α + α )
N
= sin 2α cos α + cos 2α sin α
O
= (2sin α cos α ) cos α + (1 − 2sin 2 α ) sin α
= 2sin α cos 2 α + sin α − 2sin 3 α
SE
= 2sin α (1 − sin 2 α ) + sin α − 2sin 3 α
= 2sin α − 2sin 3 α + sin α − 2sin 3 α
U
= 3sin α − 4sin 3 α
Therefore, sin
= 3α 3sin α − 4sin 3 α .
E
Example 7.18
N
LI
Prove that cos

= 2 x cos 4 x − sin 4 x.
N
Solution
O
Proving from the right-hand side.

cos 4 x − sin 4 x = (cos 2 x − sin 2 x)(cos 2 x + sin 2 x), the difference of two squares
R
= cos 2 x − sin 2 x,since cos 2 x + sin 2 x = 1

= cos 2 x
FO
Therefore, cos
= 2 x cos 4 x − sin 4 x.
336
Form Five
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Example 7.19
cos x + sin x cos x − sin x

Prove that
= 2 tan 2 x − .
cos x − sin x cos x + sin x
Solution
Consider the right-hand side of the given equation;
cos x + sin x cos x − sin x (cos x + sin x)2 − (cos x − sin x)2
− =
cos x − sin x cos x + sin x (cos x + sin x)(cos x − sin x)
LY
(cos 2 x + 2cos x sin x + sin 2 x) − (cos 2 x − 2cos x sin x + sin 2 x)
=
cos 2 x − sin 2 x
N
4 cos x sin x
=
cos 2 x − sin 2 x
O
2(2 cos x sin x) 2sin 2 x
= =
cos 2 x cos 2 x SE
= 2 tan 2 x
cos x + sin x cos x − sin x
Therefore,
= 2 tan 2 x − .
cos x − sin x cos x + sin x
U
Example 7.20 cos 4λ = 1 − 2sin 2 2λ

E
Eliminate λ from the following = 1 − 2(2sin λ cos λ ) 2

N
equations: = 1 − 2(4sin 2 λ cos 2 λ )

LI
x= 3 + 4sin λ and y =
5cos 4λ 1 − 8sin 2 λ (1 − sin 2 λ )
=
5(1 − 8sin 2 λ (1 − sin 2 λ ))
N
Thus, y =
Solution x −3
But, sin λ = then,
O
Given, 4
x= 3 + 4sin λ and y =
5cos 4λ
  x − 3    x − 3  
2 2
R
Consider, x= 3 + 4sin λ 5 1 − 8 
y=  1 −    
  4   4  
Make sin λ the subject to obtain,  
FO
x −3 Therefore,
sin λ =
4  x −3
2
  x − 3 2 
5 − 40 
y=  1 −    .
From, y = 5cos 4λ , write cos 4λ in  4    4  
terms of sin λ , that is,
337
Form Five
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Example 7.21 The following sketch shows the values

1
sin 2θ of x satisfying sin x = − in the third
Simplify . 2
1 + cos 2θ and fourth quadrants.
Solution r
2
sin 2θ 2sin θ cos θ
=
1 + cos 2θ 1 + ( 2 cos 2 θ − 1)
2sin θ cos θ 0
= r
2 cos 2 θ
LY
r r 2r
6 6
sin θ
=
cos θ
N
= tan θ
3r
O
sin 2θ
Therefore, = tan θ . 2
1 + cos 2θ π 7π 11π
From the sketch, x = − , , ,...
SE 6 6 6
Example 7.22 The following sketch shows the values
1
Solve the equation of x satisfying cos x = − in the
2
U
2sin 2 x + 2sin x + 2 cos x + 1 =0 second and third quadrants.
for 0 ≤ x ≤ 2π .
r
E
Solution 2
N
Given,
2sin 2 x + 2sin x + 2 cos x + 1 =0, r
LI
3 0
r
but, sin 2 x = 2sin x cos x, r 2r
⇒ 2 ( 2sin x cos x ) + 2sin x +
N
2 cos x + 1 =0
O
⇒ 4sin x cos x + 2sin x + 3r

2
2 cos x + 1 =0
R
2π 2π 4π
⇒ 2sin x(2 cos x + 1) + 2 cos x + 1 =0 From the sketch, x = − , , ,...
FO
3 3 3
⇒ (2 cos x + 1)(2sin x + 1) = 0 Therefore, the values of
⇒ 2=cos x + 1 0 or 2sin
= x +1 0 2π 7π 4π 11π
x are , , , and , for
1 1 3 6 3 6
⇒ cos x = − or sin x = −
2 2 0 ≤ x ≤ 2π .
338
Form Five
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Half angle formulae

Half angle formulae are special trigonometric identities which are derived from
the double angle formulae. These are useful in evaluating trigonometrical ratios
of half angles and deriving other identities which involve half angles.
Consider the double angle formulae for sine and cosine of an angle.
sin 2A = 2sin A cos A and

cos 2A = 1− 2sin 2 A = 2cos 2 A − 1 = cos 2 A − sin 2 A
Then, the half angle formulae will be obtained by dividing the angle A by 2 to
obtain;
LY
2A A A A A
(i) sin= 2sin cos ⇒= sin A 2sin cos
2 2 2 2 2
N
2A A A
(ii) cos = 1 − 2sin 2 ⇒ cos A = 1 − 2sin 2
O
2 2 2
2A A A
= 2 cos 2 − 1 ⇒ =
(iii) cos cos A 2 cos 2 − 1
SE
2 2 2
2A A A A A
(iv) cos = cos 2 − sin 2 ⇒ cos A = cos 2 − sin 2
2 2 2 2 2
U
Similarly, the half angle formulae for tangent of an angle will be obtained from
its double angle formula as follows;
2 tan A
E
tan 2A =
1 − tan 2 A
N
Divide the angle A by 2 gives,

LI
A A
2 tan 2 tan
2A 2 ⇒ tan= 2
tan = A
N
2 1 − tan 2 A 1 − tan 2 A
2 2
O
Hence, the half angle formula can be summarized as follows;

A A
(i) sin A = 2sin cos
R
2 2
A A A A
FO
(ii) cos A = 1 − 2sin 2 = 2 cos 2 − 1 = cos 2 − sin 2

2 2 2 2
A
2 tan
(iii) tan A = 2
A
1 − tan 2
2
339
Form Five
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Example 7.23 θ θ
2sin cos
= 2 2
 45   45  2θ
Simplify cos   − sin 2   using half
2
2 cos
 2   2  2
angle formula leaving your answer in surd
θ
form. sin
= = 2 tan θ
θ 2
cos
Solution 2
 45   45  θ sin θ
Given cos 2   − sin 2  . Therefore, tan = .
 2   2  2 1 + cos θ
LY
A A
Using, =
cos A cos 2 − sin 2
2 2 Example 7.25
Comparing the two expressions, 1 + sin A + cos A A
N
A A Show that = cot .
 45   45  1 + sin A − cos A 2
cos 2 − sin 2 = cos 2   − sin 2  
O
2 2  2   2 
Solution
It can be noticed that, SE 1 + sin A + cos A A
A  45   45  To show that = cot .
=  ⇒ A =2 ×   =45 1 + sin A − cos A 2
2  2   2 
Consider the left-hand side of the equation.
U
 45   45  2
cos 2   − sin 2   = cos 45 = 1 + sin A + cos A (1 + cos A) + sin A
 2   2  2 =
1 + sin A − cos A (1 − cos A) + sin A
E
 45  2  45  2 A A A
Therefore, cos 2   − sin   = . 2 cos 2
+ 2sin cos
 2   2  2 2 2 2
N
=
A A A
2sin 2 + 2sin cos
LI
Example 7.24 2 2 2
θ sin θ A A A
2 cos
 cos + sin 
N
Prove that tan = . 2 2 2

2 1 + cos θ =
A A A
O
Solution 2sin  sin + cos 

2 2 2
θ sin θ A
To prove that tan = , cos
R
2 1 + cos θ
= = 2 cot A
Consider the right-hand side of the equation, A 2
FO
sin
θ θ 2
2sin cos
sin θ 2 2 1 + sin A + cos A A
⇒ = Therefore, = cot .
1 + cos θ  θ  1 + sin A − cos A 2
1 +  2 cos 2 − 1
 2 
340
Form Five
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Exercise 7.4
3. Simplify each of the following
1. Prove each of the following identies expressions:
1 + cos 2θ sin 3A cos 3A
(a) cot θ = (a) −
1 − cos 2θ sin A cos A
1 − tan 2θ 1 + cos 2θ
(b) cos 2θ = (b)
1 + tan 2θ sin 2θ
2
1 1
(c) cos 6θ = 1 − 2sin 2 3θ (c)  sin x − cos x 
 2 2 
1 1
LY
(d) sin 2 = θ (1 − cos θ ) (d) cosec 2 x + cot 2 x
2 2
4 tan θ (1 − tan θ )(1 + tan θ )
4. If 2A + B = 45° show that
N
(e) tan 4θ =
1 − 6 tan 2 θ + tan 4 θ
1 − 2 tan A − tan 2 A
tan B =
O
θ 1 + 2 tan A − tan 2 A
2 tan
(f) sin θ = 2
θ 5. Eliminate θ in each of the
SE
1 + tan 2
2 following pair of equations:
2+ 3 (a)= 2θ , y sin θ
x + 1 cos=
(g) cot15° =
U
2− 3 (b)
= x cos 2θ=
, y cos θ − 1
2. Prove each of the following (c) x tan

= = θ , y tan 4θ
E
identities:
(d) x =
4 − 3sin 2θ , y =
7 − 9 cos 2θ
N
1 sin 3 x + cos3 x
(a) 1 − sin 2 x =
2 sin x + cos x
LI
6. Solve each of the following

1 equations for 0° ≤ x ≤ 360°.
1 − tan 2 x
N
(b) cos x = 2
1 (a) 2sin x cos x = cos 2 x
1 + tan 2 x
O
2
(b) 3cot 2 x + cot x − 1 =0
1 + sin C + cos C C
(c) = cot
R
1 + sin C − cos C 2 (c) 2 cos 2 x + 13sin x =

5
FO
1 − sin 2A 1 − tan A (d) 4sin x(7 cos x − 3) =

5sin 2 x
(d) =
cos 2A 1 + tan A
341
Form Five
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7. In a triangle ABC , prove each of the following:

(a) tan A + tan B + tan C =tan A tan B tan C
A B C
(b) cos A + cos B + cos C − 1= 4sin sin sin
2 2 2
(c) If cos (A + B)= cos A + cos B , then cos ( A + B=
) cos A + cos B + cos C= 0.
8. Find the values of tan 2 β , sin 2β , and sec 2β , for each of the following cases
when β is in the fourth quadrant:
24 120
(a) sin β = − (b) cot β = −
25 119
LY
4t − 4t 3
9. If t = tan λ , show that tan 4λ = 4 . Hence verify that,
t − 6t 2 + 1
t 4 + 4t 3 − 6t 2 − 4t + 1 =0 when tan λ = 1.
N
10. Evaluate each of the following and leave your answers in surd form:
O
2 tan 75°
(a) (c) 2sin165° cos165°
1 − tan 2 75° SE
1 − tan 2 15°
(b) (d) sin 7.5°
1 + tan 2 15°
U
11. Without using mathematical tables or scientific calculators evaluate each of
the following:
2 tan 22.5°
E
(a) (b) 1 − 2sin 2 67.5° (c) sec 22.5°cosec 22.5°

1 − tan 2 22.5°
N
12. Prove each of the following trigonometric identities:

LI
1 + sin θ π θ  1 + cos θ θ
(a) = tan  +  (c) = cot
1 − sin θ  4 2 sin θ 2
N
2
 B B θ 1 − cos θ
(b)  cos + sin  = 1 + sin B (d) tan =
O
 2 2 2 1 + cos θ
R
Trigonometric equations of the form acosθ + bsinθ = c

Trigonometric equations of the form a cos θ + b sin θ =
FO
c where a, b, and c are

real numbers can be solved by using t-formulae or by expressing it in the form of
R cos(θ ± α ) =c or Rsin(θ ± α ) =c.
342
Form Five
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Using t-formulae in solving equations of
the form acosθ + bsinθ = c 2. Use the concept applied in the
Recall the double angle formulae, derivation of t − formula for sin θ
(i) sin
sin 22 xx =
= 2sin
2sin xx cos
cos xx to deduce the corresponding
2 2
(ii) cos
=
cos
= 22 xx cos − sin
cos 2 xx − sin 2 xx t-formulae for cos θ and tan θ .
Both equations for sin 2x and cos 2x can be 3. Give a suggestion for the t-formulae
expressed in terms of tan θ . for cos θ and tan θ .
From, 4. What have you observed in task
sin 2 x = 2sin x cos x 3? Give comments.
cos x
= 2sin x cos x ×
cos x
LY
The relationship between the tangent,
2sin x sine, and cosine of an angle in terms of
= cos 2 x
cos x tangent of half angle can be obtained
N
1 1 using a right-angled triangle as shown
2=tan x 2
, since sec x
sec x cos x in Figure 7.4.
O
2 tan x
= 2
since sec 2 x = 1 + tan 2 x
1 + tan x SE C
2 tan x
Therefore, sin 2 x = . (7.7)
1 + tan 2 x 1+t2
θ 2t
U
Now, let θ = 2x then x = , equation (7.7)
2
becomes,
θ
1 F
2 tan θ 1-t2 D
E
sin θ = 2
2 1
N
1 + tan θ Figure 7.4: A right-angled triangle DCF

2
2t 1
LI
⇒ sin θ =2 , where t = tan θ From Figure 7.4, the t-formulae of the

1+ t 2
trigonometric ratios are;
N
This is called the t − formula for sin θ.

2t
O
(a) sin θ =
1+ t 2
Activity 7.2: Deducing the t-formulae
1− t 2
R
for cosθ and tanθ (b) cos θ =

1+ t 2
FO
Individually or in a group, perform the 2t

following tasks: (c) tan θ =
1− t 2
1. Express cos 2x and tan 2x in terms
of tan x.
343
Form Five
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Example 7.26
θ
=−45°,135°,...
Solve the equation 5cos θ − 2sin θ = 2 for 2
1 θ= −90°, 270°,...
0° ≤ θ ≤ 360° by using the substitution t = tan θ .
2 1 3 1 3
Solution Now, tan θ = ⇒ θ =tan −1  
2 7 2 7
Solving 5cos θ − 2sin θ = 2. 1
1− t 2 Þ= θ 23.2°
From the t-formulae, cos θ = 2
and 2
2t 1 + t The following sketch illustrates the values
sin θ = , where t = tan 12 θ . 1 3
1+ t 2 of θ satisfying tan θ = in the first and
2 7
LY
 1 − t 2   2t  third quadrants:
Þ 
5 2 
− 2 2 
=2
 1 + t   1 + t  90º
⇒ 5 (1 − t ) − 4t = 2 (1 + t 2 )
2
N
⇒ 5 − 5t 2 − 4t = 2 + 2t 2
O
⇒ 7t 2 + 4t − 3 =0
23.2º 0º
3 180º
SE 23.2º 360º
⇒ t =−1 or t =
7
1 1 3
Hence, tan θ = −1 or tan θ =
2 2 7
U
1 1
Now, tan θ =−1 ⇒ θ =tan −1 (−1) 270º
2 2 θ
=−156.8°, 23.2°,...
E
= – 45°
2
The following sketch illustrates the values θ= −313.6°, 46.4°,...
N
1
of θ satisfying tan θ = −1 in the second Therefore, the required solutions are
LI
2 46.4° and 270°, for 0 ≤ θ ≤ 360°.

and fourth quadrants:
N
90º
Example 7.27
O
Solve the equation

R
180º
45º 0º 15cos 2 x + 2sin 2 x =
10 for
45º 360º −180° ≤ θ ≤ 180°.
FO
Solution
Given 15cos 2 x + 2sin 2 x =
10 .
270º
344
Form Five
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1− t2 The following sketch illustrates the

Substituting cos 2 x = and
1+ t2 values of x satisfying tan x = −0.3743
2t
sin 2 x = , where t = tan x gives; in the second and fourth quadrants:
1+ t2 90º
 1 − t 2   2t 
15  2 
+ 2 2 
10
=
 1+ t   1+ t 
2
Multiplying by 1 + t on both sides,
20.5º 0º
15(1 − t 2 ) + 4t = 10(1 + t 2 ) 180º 20.5º 360º
2 2
⇒ 15 − 15t + 4t = 10 + 10t
LY
Þ 25t 2 − 4t − 5 =0
Solving the quadratic equation to obtain,
t 0.5343 or − 0.3743.
N
270º
Hence,
−20.5°,159.5°,...
x=
O
tan x = 0.5343 or tan x = −0.3743.
Therefore, the solution are –151.90°,
Now, tan
= x 0.5343 ⇒
= x tan −1
( 0.5343) –20.5°, 28.1°, and 159.5°,
SE
= x 28.1° for –180° ≤ θ ≤ 180°.

The following sketch illustrates the values
Example 7.28
U
of x satisfying tan x = 0.5343 in the first
and third quadrants: Solve the equation 3cos θ + 5sin θ =
2
90º
for −360° ≤ θ ≤ 360°.
E
Solution
1
N
Substituting t = tan θ , where

2
1− t 2 2t
LI
cos θ = 2 and sin θ = to get;

28.1º 0º
1+ t 1+ t 2
180º
N
28.1º 360º  1 − t 2   2t 
3 2 
+ 5 2 
= 2
 1+ t   1+ t 
O
Multiply both sides by 1 + t 2 to get;

− t 2−) t+210
3(13(1 = t2(1
) +t10 + t 2+) t 2 )
= 2(1
R
270º 3 − 3t−2 3+t10

Þ 2
+ 22t+2 2t 2
=t2=
+t10
FO
−151.9°, 28.1°,...
x= Þ 5t 2 − 10t − 1 =0
Now, tan x =−0.3743 ⇒ x =tan −1 ( −0.3743) Solving the quadratic equation gives;
−20.5°
x= t = − 0.0954 or 2.0954

345
Form Five
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1 The following sketch illustrates the

Hence, tan θ = − 0.0954 or
2 1
1 values of θ satisfying tan θ = 2.0954
tan θ = 2.0954. 2
2
in the first and third quadrants:
Now, 1
1 1 = θ tan −1 ( 2.0954= ) 64.5°
tan θ = tan −1 ( − 0.0954)
− 0.0954 ⇒ θ = 2
2 2
90º
1
Þ θ= −5.4°
2
The following sketch illustrates the values
LY
64.5º
1 0º
of θ satisfying tan θ = − 0.0954 in the 180º
360º
2 64.5º
N
second and fourth quadrants:
O
θ=tan −1 (− 0.0954) =−5.4°
2 270º
90º
SE
1
θ=−115.5°, 64.5°,...
2
θ= −231°, 129°,...
U
Therefore, the required solutions are
5.4º 0º θ =−231°, − 10.8°, 129°, and 349.2°.
180º 5.4º 360º
E
Expressing a cosθ + b sinθ in the form

N
Rcos(θ ±α) or Rsin(θ ±α)

LI
The technique of expressing a cos θ + b sin θ

270º in the form of Rcos(θ ± α) or Rsin(θ ± α) is
N
useful in finding maximum and minimum

1 values of trigonometric equations of the
O
θ=−5.4°, 174.6°,...
2 form a cos θ + b sin θ = c.
θ= −10.8°, 349.2°,...
R

Now,
of Rcos (θ – α)
FO
1 1 Using the compound angle formula for

tan θ= 2.0954 ⇒ θ= tan −1 ( 2.0954 )
2 2 Rcos(θ – α) gives;
1
= θ 64.5° Rcos(θ – α)≡ a cosθ + bsin θ ≡ R cosθ cosα
2
+Rsinθsinα.
346
Form Five
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Comparing the coefficients of cos θ gives;

a = R cos α ………………………………………… (i)
Comparing the coefficients of sin θ gives;
b = R sin α ………………………………………… (ii)
Squaring and adding equations (i) and (ii), gives;
+ b 2 R 2 cos 2 α + R 2 sin 2 α
a 2=
= R 2 (cos 2 α + sin 2 α )
= R2
Now,= R a 2 + b 2 ; where the value of R is taken as being positive.
LY
The value of α is obtained by dividing equation (i) by (ii) as follows;
bα = b
R sin αR sin
=
N
RcosαRcos aα a
Thus, b = b ⇒ α−1= tan b  −1  b 
⇒ αa= tan    a  .
tan α =tan α
O
a a  
  b 
Therefore, a cos θ + b sin θ = a 2 + b 2 cos  θ − tan −1    .
SE
  a 
a b
Note that, both cos α = and sin α = give the same value of α . If they do
R R
U
not, use the value of α which is not between 0° and 90°.
Example 7.29
E
Express 3cos θ − 4sin θ in the form of R cos(θ − α ).

N
LI
Solution
Let 3cos θ − 4sin θ = R cos(θ − α )
N
= R cos θ cos α + R sin θ sin α

O
Compare the coefficients of sin θ and cos θ to obtain the following pair of
equations;
R
R cos α = 3

R sin α = −4
FO
But R
= a 2 + b=
2
32 + (−4)=
2
5
3 4
Thus, cos α = and sin α = −
5 5
347
Form Five
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Rsin(θ + α )
⇒α =53.1° and α =−53.1°
Using compound angle formula for
Hence, α = −53.1° as it is not Rsin(θ + α ) gives;
between 0° and 90° . a cos θ + b sin θ =
Rcosθ sin α +Rsinθ cos α
Therefore, Comparing the coefficients of sinθ
3cos θ − 4sin θ= 5cos(θ + 53.1°). gives:
b = R cos α .......................................(i)
LY
Example 7.30 Comparing the coefficients of cos θ
gives:
Show that 5cos θ − 12sin θ = 5
N
can be expressed in the form a = Rsinα ...................................... (ii)
13cos(θ + 67.4°) =5. Squaring and adding equations (i) and
O
(ii), gives;
Solution
Given 5cos θ − 12sin θ = 5.
SE+ b 2 R 2 sin 2 α + R 2 cos 2 α
a 2=
Consider the left-hand side, then using
5cos θ − 12sin θ = R cos (θ + α ) Þ a 2 + b2 = R 2 (sin 2 α + cos2 α ),
U
Thus, a 2 +ab22 +=
Thus,
2
bR2 = , R2,
Þ 5cosθ − 12sinθ 2 2
R =
= R a +ab2 + . b2 .
= R cosθ cos α − R sin θ sin α . Þ
E
Compare the coefficients of The value of α is obtained by dividing

sin θ and cos θ to obtain; equation (ii) by equation (i) as follows;
N
R cos α = 5 ................................... (i)

R sin α a
LI
R sin α = 12 ..................................(ii) =
Rcosα b
But,
N
a a
R
= a 2 + b=
2
52 + (−12)=
2
13 Thus, tan α = ⇒ α = tan −1   .
b b
O
Dividing equation (ii) by equation (i),

gives; Therefore, acosθ + bsin θ
R
12 ⎛ ⎛ a⎞⎞
tan α = ⇒ α = 67.4° = a 2 + b2 sin ⎜ θ + tan −1 ⎜ ⎟ ⎟ .
5 ⎝ ⎝ b⎠⎠
FO
Therefore,
5cos θ − 12sin
= θ 13cos(θ + 67.4
= °) 5.
348
Form Five
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Example 7.31 ⇒R 2 2 2 2
= ⇒ aR = + b=a 2 + b24
=2 + (24
−7)2= 25 2
+ (−7)= 25
b 7
Express 7 cos θ + 24sin θ in the form tan α= tan=α= b= 7
Thus, a 24a 24
of R sin(θ + α ).
 7 
α tan −1  =
=  16.3°
Solution  24 
Given 7 cos θ + 24sin θ , then Hence,
R= 2 2 2 2
a + b = 7 + 24 = 25 and θ 25sin(θ − 16.3°).
24sin θ − 7 cos=
a
tan α = , where
= a 7= and b 24. Note that; sin θ has maximum value
LY
b
7 of +1 and minimum value of –1,
tan α = ⇒ α = 16.3°
24 that is, −1 ≤ sin θ ≤ +1.
N
Therefore, Similarly, −1 ≤ sin(θ − 16.3°) ≤ +1
O
7 cos θ + 24sin=
θ 25sin(θ + 16.3°). multiplying throughout by 25 gives,
−25 ≤ 25sin(θ − 16.3°) ≤ +25
Note that, In order to avoid SE
At maximum value sin (θ–16.3°) = 1
the problem of obtaining two
and minimum value
different values of α , select the one
sin(θ − 16.3°) =−1, then
U
among, R sin(θ + α ), R sin(θ − α ), ⇒ sin(θ − 16.3°) =1 and
Rcos(
Rcos( and
θ +θα+)αor
) or
Rcos(θ −θα−)α ) that
Rcos(
sin(θ − 16.3°) =−1
the same sign as the expression
⇒ θ − 16.3° =sin −1 1
E
a cos θ + b sin θ .
= 90°
N
Example 7.32 Thus,

= θ 106.3°
LI
⇒ θ − 16.3
= ° sin −1 ( −1)
Find the maximum and minimum = 270°
N
values of 24sin θ − 7 cos θ , by stating

Thus,
= θ 286.3°
the values of θ for which the maximum
O
and minimum values are attained. Therefore, the maximum and

minimum values of 24sin θ − 7 cos θ
R
Solution are 25 and − 25 which occur at

FO
Given =θ 106.3° and 286.3°, respectively.

24sin θ − 7cosθ ⇒ 24sin θ − 7cosθ
= Rsin(θ − α ).
349
Form Five
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Example 7.33
Show that, 13cos λ + 7 sin λ can be expressed in the form 218 cos(λ − α ), where
7
tan α = . Hence, find the maximum and minimum values of the function,
13
giving the corresponding values of λ for which the maximum and minimum
values occur.
Solution
Given 13cos λ + 7 sin λ ⇒ 13cos λ + 7 sin λ = R cos(λ − α )
LY
cos λ + 7 sin λ ⇒ 13cos λ + 7 sin λ = R cos(λ − α )
13cos λ + 7 =
sin λ R (cos λ cos α + sin λ sin α )
N
Comparing the coefficients of sin λ gives;
7 = R sin α ……………………………………..…….. (i)
O
Comparing the coefficients of cos λ gives;
13 = R cos α ………………………………………….. (ii) SE
Squaring and adding equations (i) and (ii) gives;
R 2 cos 2 α + R 2 sin 2 α =
132 + 7 2
U
⇒ R 2 (cos 2 α + sin 2 α ) =
169 + 49
⇒ R 2 = 218 ⇒ R= 218
E
Diving equation (i) by equation (ii), gives;

7 7
N
tan α = ⇒ α = tan −1   = 28.3°

13  13 
LI
Hence, 13cos λ + 7=
sin λ 218 cos(λ − 28.3°)
At maximum and minimum values cos ( λ − 28.3° ) =1 and cos ( λ − 28.3° ) =−1,
N
respectively.
O
⇒ 218 cos(λ − 28.3°) = 218 and 218 cos(λ − 28.3°) =− 218

⇒ cos(λ − 28.3°) =1 and cos(λ − 28.3°) =−1
R
⇒ λ − 28.3
= ° cos −1 1 and λ − 28.3
= ° cos −1 (−1)
FO
⇒ λ − 28.3=° 0 and λ − 28.3= ° 180°

⇒ λ= 28.3° and λ= 208.3°
Therefore, the maximum and minimum values of the function are 218 and
− 218 and are attained at λ =
28.3° and 208.3° , respectively.
350
Form Five
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Example 7.34
5 2
Solve the equation 4 cos 2 x + 3sin 2 x = , for the values in the interval
2
−180° ≤ x ≤ 180°.
Solution
5 2
Solving 4 cos 2 x + 3sin 2 x = .
2
⇒ 4 cos 2 x + 3sin 2 x = R sin(2 x + α ), then
Let
LY
4 cos 2 x + 3sin
= 2 x R sin 2 x cos α + R cos 2 x sin α .
Comparing coefficients of sin 2x gives;
N
R cos α = 3 …………………………..………….. (i)
O
Comparing coefficients of cos 2x gives;
R sin α = 4 …………………………..………….. (ii) SE
Dividing equation (ii) by equation (i) results to;
4 4
tan α = ⇒ α = tan −1   = 53.1°
3 3
U
ÞR= a 2 + b2 = 42 + 32 = 5
5 2
Hence, 5sin(2 x + 53.1°) =
E
2
5 2
Hence, 5sin(2 x + 53.1°) =2
N
⇒ sin(2 x + 53.1°) = 2
2
LI
2
⇒ sin(2−x1 + 53.1°) =2 
Applying sin °on both
−1 sides, gives
2 x + 53.1 =sin  2
N
 22 
2 x + 53.1° =sin −1 
⇒ 2 x + 53.1°= 45° 2 
O
 
⇒ 2 x + 53.1°= 45°
R
⇒ 2 x= 45° − 53.1°, 135° − 53.1°, 405° − 53.1°, − 225° − 53.1°

⇒ 2 x =−8.1°, 81.9°, 351.9°, − 278.1°
FO
⇒x= −4.05°, 40.95°, 175.95°, and − 139.05°

Therefore, the required solution are x =− 4.1°, − 139.05°, 40.95°, and 175.75°,
for −180° ≤ x ≤ 180°.
351
Form Five
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Example 7.35 (d) 3cos x + 4sin x =

2
.
Solve the equation (e) 2 tan x + 2 = sec x
3cos x +=sin x 2 for 0° ≤ x ≤ 360°. (f) 2 cos x + 7 sin x = .
−3
.
(g) 32 cos x + 36sin x = 29
Solution .
(h) 7 cot x − 2cosecx = 6
x R cos ( x − α )
Let 3cos x + sin = .
(i) 12 cos x − 5sin x = −3
then,
(j) 1 + 7 tan x =.
5 sec x
⇒ R= a 2 + b 2 = 32 + 12 = 10
2. Find the values of each of the following
b 1
LY
⇒ tan α == equations for −180° ≤ θ ≤ 180°.
a 3
1 (a) 3 cos θ + sin θ = 1
⇒α = tan −1
3 (b) 3 tan θ= 4 + 2sec θ
N
⇒ α= 18.43° (c) 5 cosθ − 12sin θ = 6
O
The equation 3cos x + sin x =
2 can (d) 2sin2θ + 15cos 2θ = 10
be written as, SE (e) cos θ + sin θ =
.
0.5
10 cos( x − 18.43°) =2 (f) cos θ (cos θ + sin θ ) =
1
2 (g) cosθ= 2 + 7 sin θ
⇒ cos( x − 18.43°) =
10 (h) 3cos 4θ − 2sin 4θ = 3
U
2 (i) 2sin θ + 7 cos θ − 4 = 0
⇒ x − 18.43° =cos −1
10 (j) cosecθ − sin θ =.
0.5
E
⇒ x − 18.43
= 50.77° or 309.23° 3. Find the maximum and minimum values
⇒ x= 69.2° or 327.7° of the following expressions, stating
N
the values of angle θ from 0° to 360°

Therefore, the solutions are
LI
inclusive, for which the maximum and

x= 69.2° and 327.7°.
minimum values occur.
N
Exercise 7.5 (a) cos θ + sin θ

O
(b) cos(θ + 30°) − cos θ

1. Use the t-formulae to solve each (c) 4sin θ − 3cos θ
R
of the following equations for (d) 2 cos(θ + 60°) + 7 sin θ

0° ≤ x ≤ 360° :
FO
(e) 3sin θ + cos θ

(a) 2 cos x + 3sin x − 2 =0
(f) 3sin θ + 4 cos θ
(b) 7 cos x + sin x − 5 =0 (g) 8cos θ − 15sin θ
(c) 3cos x − 4sin x + 1 =0 (h) 3sin θ + 5cos θ
352
Form Five
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(i) 6sin θ − cos θ

1
(j)
cot θ + tan θ
4. Show that 3cos θ + 2sin θ can be expressed in the form 13 cos(θ − α ),
2
where tan α = . Hence, find the maximum and minimum values of
3
3cos θ + 2sin θ by calculating the corresponding values of θ in the range
−180° ≤ θ ≤ 180°.
5. Express cos θ + 2sin θ in the form R sin (θ + α ) , where α is an acute angle.
For what values of θ in the range −180° ≤ θ ≤ 180° does the expression
LY
cos θ + 2sin θ is at maximum and minimum? State the maximum and
minimum values of cos θ + 2sin θ .
N
General solutions
O
A general solution is a solution that contains all possible solutions of a given
trigonometric equation. SE
Consider the graph of the straight lines
= y a, where − 1 ≤ a ≤ 1 and
= (θ ) cos θ
y f=
as shown in Figure 7.5
U
y
2
E
1 y=cosi
a
N
A B C D
3 1 0 1r 3r i
-2r - r -r - r r 2r
2 2 2 2
LI
-a
-1
N
-2
O
Figure 7.5: Graph of f (θ ) = cos θ
The principal value of the equation α = cos θ is α = cos −1 a (which is the intercept
R
of the line y = a and the curve y = cos θ as shown in Figure 7.5). Since the cosine
FO
function is periodic with period of 360°, then other solutions of the equation
cos θ = a corresponding to the principal value are obtained by adding, or subtracting
a multiple of 360° to it (the points of intersection in the θ–axis, that is, A, B, C,
and D for −2π ≤ θ ≤ 2π as illustrated in Figure 7. 5). If α is the principal value
of θ for which cos θ = a , then −α is also a solution, and is not obtained by adding
353
Form Five
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or subtracting a multiple of 360° . All the remaining solutions are obtained by

adding or subtracting multiples of 360° to or from α . The general solution of the
equation cos θ = a where −1 ≤ a ≤ 1 is given as; θ= 360°n ± α where α = cos −1 a
is a principal value and n is an integer, positive or negative.
Activity 7.3: Finding the general solution of a trigonometric equation
Learning resources: Graph papers, ruler, pencil, and scientific calculator.

1. Draw the graph of y = sin θ and y = tan θ for −720° ≤ θ ≤ 720°.
LY
2. Use the graph of y = sin θ and y = tan θ to find the general solution for the
equations sin θ = a for −1 ≤ a ≤ 1 and tan θ = a for −∞ < a < ∞ . In each
N
case, assume α to be the principal value, and n to be an integer, then,
O
express the general solution in terms of radian.
3. Give a suggestion between the formulas obtained in task 2.
SE
Therefore, the general solutions for the equations of sine, cosine and tangent can
U
be summarized as follows:
In radians: In degrees:
E
(i) If sin θ = sin α , then θ= π n + (−1) n α (i) If sin θ = sin α , then θ= 180°n + (−1) n α
N
θ 2π n ± α
(ii) If cos θ = cos α , then= (ii) If tan θ = tan α , then θ= 180°n + α
θ πn +α
(iii) If tan θ = tan α , then = (iii) If cos θ = cos α , then θ= 360°n ± α
LI
where n = 0,1, 2,...

N
O
Example 7.36
Find the general solution of the equation cos x + sin x =

1 giving your answer
R
in terms of π .
FO
Solution
x R cos ( x − α )
Equate cos x + sin =
⇒R= a 2 + b2 = 12 + 12 = 2
354
Form Five
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−1 b π
But
= α tan = tan
= −1
1 . Multiplying by sin x both sides gives;
a 4
Then, ⇒ cos x + 1 = 3 sin x
 π
cos x + sin
= x 2 cos  x −=  1 Re-arranging the equation to obtain;
 4
⇒ 3 sin x − cos x =
1
 π Using3 sin x −−).αα).).
2 cos  x −  = 1 Using
Using 33sin
sin
x −xxcos cos
x= xx=R
−−cos Rsin(
= sin(
R sin(
x −xα
 4
π 1 Þ 3 sin 33sin
sin
x −xxcos cos
−−cos
x= xx =
=

⇒ cos  x −  = R cos
cos αα sin
sin Rsin αα cos
sincos cos
 4 2 R
R cos α sin x −xxR−−sin
R α x. xx..
LY
π 1 = a 2 + b=
But R 2
( 3) 2 + (−1)=
2
2
⇒ x− = cos −1
4 2 Comparing coefficients of sin x gives;
π π
N
⇒ x− = R cos α = 3 ………………….. (i)
4 4
Comparing coefficients of cos x gives;
O
Using the general solution of cosine,
Rsinα = 1 …………………….. (ii)
θ 2π n ± α
= SE
π π Dividing equation (ii) by equation (i)
But θ =x − and α = gives;
4 4
π π 1 1 π
⇒ x − = 2π n ± tan α = ⇒ α = tan −1 = .
U
4 4 3 3 6
π π Then,
⇒ x= 2π n ± +
4 4  π
E
π 3 sin x − cos=x 2sin  x − =  1

Therefore, x = 2π n + and x =
2π n.  6
2
N
where n is an integer.  π
⇒ 2sin  x −  = 1
 6
LI
Example 7.37  π 1
⇒ sin  x −  =
N
 6 2
Find the general solution of the π 1
O
⇒ x− =sin −1
equation cot x + cosec x = 3 6 2
giving the answer in terms of π . π π
⇒ x− =
R
6 6
FO
Solution By using the general solution for sine

Given cot x + cosec x =
3. θ= π n + (−1) n α
cos x 1 π π
⇒ + = 3 But θ= x − and α =
sin x sin x 6 6
355
Form Five
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π π Case 1:
Thus, x − = π n + (−1) n
6 6
n π π 1
⇒ x= π n + (−1) + tan x = −1
6 6 2
π
⇒ x = π n + ( (−1) n + 1) Þ
1
x= tan −1 (−1) =−
π
6 2 4
Therefore, the general solution is Using the general solution of tangent,
π
x = π n + ( (−1) n + 1) , where n is θ nπ + α
=
6 1 π
an integer. But, θ = x and α = −
LY
2 4
Example 7.38 1 π
Then, = x πn−
2 4
N
Use the t- formulae to find the π
⇒ x= 2π n −
general solution of the equation 2
O
2 cos x − sin x =
1 giving the answers Case 2:
in radians. SE 1 1
tan x =
Solution 2 3
Given 2 cos x − sin x =
1. 1 −1 1
Þ= x tan
= 0.32
From the t- formulae; 2 3
U
2t 1− t 2
sin x = , cos x = , The general solution of tangent, is
1+ t 2 1+ t 2 given by;
1
E
where t = tan x
2 θ πn +α
=
N
 1 − t  2t
2 1
Then, 2  − =1 But, θ = x and α = 0.32
2  2 2
1 + t 1 + t
LI
 
1
2
Multiplying both sides by 1 + t to Then, = x π n + 0.32
2
N
obtain;
⇒ x= 2π n + 0.64
O
2(1 − t 2 ) − 2t =1 + t 2
Therefore, the general solution of
⇒ 3t 2 + 2t − 1 =0 the equation 2 cos x − sin x =1 is
R
1 π
⇒ t =−1 or t = =x 2π n − and= x 2π n + 0.64
FO
3 2
1 1 1 where n is an integer.
Thus, tan x = −1 or tan x = ,
2 2 3
1
since t = tan x
2
356
Form Five
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Exercise 7.6
Find the general solution of each of the following equations (leave the answer
in radians):
1. 2sin 2θ = 1 6. 3sin 2 x + cos x sin x =
3cos 2 x + 2
2. tan 5θ = 1 7. cos 2θ + sin θ =
0
3. sec θ = 2 8. 8sin θ + 15cos θ =
6
4. 3cos θ + 5sin θ =
2 9. 3cos 2θ + 5sin θ cos θ =
2
LY
5. 2sin 2θ + 7 cos 2θ =
− 7.23 10. sec θ − tan θ =
3
Factor formulae
N
In algebra, factors are commonly used to solve equations and simplify expressions.
O
Similarly, in trigonometry, factors are used to factorize the sum and difference of
two terms. Moreover, factors are used to express a product as a sum or difference
of two terms. The factor formulae are applied in solving equations, simplifying
SE
expressions, and in proving trigonometry identities. Factor formulae are deduced
from the compound angle formulae as follows:
U
From compound angle formulae for sine,
sin(A
= + B) sin A cos B + cos A sin B

sin(A
= − B) sin A cos B − cos A sin B
E
Adding the two equations gives;

N
sin(A + B) + sin(A − B) =2sin A cos B …………………………. (i)

Subtracting the two equations gives;
LI
sin(A + B) − sin(A − B) =2 cos A sin B …………………………. (ii)

N
Again, from the compound angle formulae for cosine,

O
cos(A
= + B) cos A cos B − sin A sin B

cos(A
= − B) cos A cos B + sin A sin B
R
Adding the two equations gives;

FO
2 cos A cos B …………………………......(iii)

cos(A + B) + cos(A − B) =
Subtracting the two equations gives;
cos(A + B) − cos(A − B) = −2sin A sin B ………………………........(iv)
The left-hand side of the identities (i) to (iv) are the factors.
357
Form Five
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Let P= A + B and Q= A − B
Adding P and Q gives, Subtracting Q from P gives,
P + Q = 2A P − Q =
2B
P+Q P−Q
Thus, A = Thus, B =
2 2
P+Q P−Q
Hence, substituting A = and B = in the equations (i), (ii), (iii), and (iv);
2 2
P + Q  P−Q
sin P + sin Q =
2sin   cos   (7.8)
LY
 2   2 
 P + Q  P−Q
sin P − sin Q =
2 cos   sin 
N
 (7.9)
 2   2 
O
P + Q  P−Q
cos P + cos Q =
2 cos   cos   (7.10)
 2   2  SE
 P + Q  P−Q 
cos P − cos Q =
−2sin   sin   (7.11)
 2   2 
U
Equations (7.8) to (7.11) are known as factor formulae. They express the sum or
difference as a product.
E
Example 7.39
N
LI
sin 3θ sin 2θ ( 2 cos θ + 1).

Prove that sin θ + sin 2θ + =
N
Solution
O
Consider the left-hand side;

sin θ + sin 2θ + sin 3θ = sin 2θ + (sin 3θ + sin θ )
R
 3θ + θ   3θ − θ 
= sin 2θ + 2sin   cos  
 2   2 
FO
= sin 2θ + 2sin 2θ cos θ

= sin 2θ (1 + 2 cos θ )
Therefore, sin θ + sin 2θ + sin
= 3θ sin 2θ (2 cos θ + 1).
358
Form Five
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Example 7.40
A B C
In any triangle ABC, prove that, sin A + sin B + sin C =
4 cos cos cos .
2 2 2
Solution
Consider the left-hand side;
A+B A−B C C
sin
= A + sin B + sin C 2sin   cos   + 2sin cos
 2   2  2 2
A+B C
LY
But A + B= 180° − C ⇒ = 90° −
2 2
 C A−B C C
N
⇒ sin A + sin B =
+ sin C 2sin  90° −  cos   + 2sin cos
 2  2  2 2
O
C  A−B C C
sin A=
+ sin B + sin C 2 cos   cos   + 2sin cos
2  2 
SE 2 2
 C  A−B C
= 2 cos   cos   + sin 
 2   2  2
U
 C  A−B  A+B  
= 2 cos   cos   + sin  90° − 
 2   2   2  
E
 C  A−B  A+B  

= 2 cos   cos   + cos  
 2   2   2 
N
  A+B A − B   A+B A − B  
LI
 C  2 + 2   2 − 2 
= 2 cos    2 cos   cos  
 2  2 2
N
   
     
O
 C A  B 
= 2 cos    2 cos   cos   
 2  2  2 
R
A B C

= 4 cos   cos   cos   .
FO
2 2 2

A B C
Therefore, sin A + sin B + sin C =
4 cos cos cos .
2 2 2
359
Form Five
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Example 7.41
1 1
If sin x + sin y =
a and cos x + cos y =
b , show that cos 2 ( x − y=) ( a 2 + b 2 ) .
2 4
Solution
Given sin x + sin y = a and cos x + cos y =
b.
1 1
sin x + sin=
y 2sin ( x + y ) cos ( x − y )
2 2
1 1
LY
a ………………………………. (i)
⇒ 2sin ( x + y ) cos ( x − y ) =
2 2
1 1
cos x + cos=
y 2 cos ( x + y ) cos ( x − y )
N
2 2
1 1
O
b …………………………..…….. (ii)
⇒ 2 cos ( x + y ) cos ( x − y ) =
2 2
Squaring equations (i) and (ii) gives; SE
1 1
4sin 2 a 2 ……………………………… (iii)
( x + y ) cos 2 ( x − y ) =
2 2
U
1 1
4 cos 2 b 2 ………………………….….…. (iv)
( x + y ) cos 2 ( x − y ) =
2 2
E
Adding equations (iii) and (iv) result to,

N
1 1 1 1
4sin 2 ( x + y ) cos 2 ( x − y ) + 4 cos 2 ( x + y ) cos 2 ( x − y ) = a 2 + b 2
2 2 2 2
LI
1  1 1 
⇒ 4 cos 2 ( x − y ) sin 2 ( x + y ) + cos 2 ( x + y )  = a 2 + b 2
2 2 2
N
 
1 1
O
But sin 2 ( x + y ) + cos 2 ( x + y ) =

1
2 2
1 1 1
Thus, 4 cos 2 ( x − y ) = a 2 + b 2 ⇒ cos 2 ( x − y ) = ( a 2 + b 2 ) .
R
2 2 4
1 1 2
FO
Therefore, cos 2 ( x − y=
) (a + b 2 ).
2 4
360
Form Five
FOR ONLINE USE ONLY
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Example 7.42
sin θ + sin 3θ + sin 5θ

Simplify .
cos θ + cos 3θ + cos 5θ
Solution
=
( sin θ + sin 5θ ) + sin 3θ
cos θ + cos 3θ + cos 5θ ( cos θ + cos 5θ ) + cos 3θ
 θ + 5θ   θ − 5θ 
2sin   cos   + sin 3θ
 2   2 
LY
=
 θ + 5θ   θ − 5θ 
2 cos   cos   + cos 3θ
 2   2 
N
2sin 3θ cos(−2θ ) + sin 3θ
= , but cos(−2θ ) =
cos 2θ
2 cos 3θ cos(−2θ ) + cos 3θ
O
sin 3θ ( 2 cos 2θ + 1) sin 3θ
= =
cos 3θ ( 2 cos 2θ + 1) cos 3θ
SE
= tan 3θ
= tan 3θ .
U
Therefore,
cos θ + cos 3θ + cos 5θ
Example 7.43
E
N
1 1
Simplify tan ( A − B ) + tan ( A + B ).
2 2
LI
Solution
N
1 1
tan ( A − B ) + tan ( A + B )
2 2
O
1 1
sin ( A − B ) sin ( A + B )
2 2
R
= +
1 1
cos ( A − B ) cos ( A + B )
2 2
FO
1 1 1 1
sin ( A − B ) cos ( A + B ) + sin ( A + B ) cos ( A − B )
= 2 2 2 2
1 1
cos ( A + B ) cos ( A − B )
2 2
361
Form Five
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1 1
( sin A − sin B ) + ( sin A+ sin B )
=2 2
1
( cosA+cosB )
2
sin A − s in B + sin A+ sin B
=
cosA+cosB
2sin A
=
cosA+cosB
1 1 2sin A
Therefore, tan (A − B) + tan (A + B) = .
2 2 cosA + cosB
LY
Example 7.44
N
cos 3 x for 0 ≤ x ≤ π giving the answer in
Solve the equation cos 5 x + cos x =
O
terms of π .
Solution SE P + Q  P−Q
Given cos 5 x + cos x = cos 3 x . Using cos P + cos Q =
2 cos   cos  
 2   2 
 5x + x   5x − x 
⇒ 2 cos 
That is,  cos  = cos 3 x
 2   2 
U
⇒ 2 cos 3 x cos 2 x = cos 3 x
⇒ 2 cos 3 x cos 2 x − cos 3 x =
0
E
⇒ cos 3 x(2 cos 2 x − 1) = 0

N
Thus,
LI
cos 3 x = 0 or 2 cos 2 x = 1
N
Applying cos –1 on both Applying cos –1 on both sides,

sides, gives; gives;
O
1
3 x = cos −1 0 2 x = cos −1
2
R
1 3 5 1 5
⇒ 3 x =π , π , π ,... ⇒ 2x = π , π ,...
2 2 2 3 3
FO
1 1 5 1 5
Thus, x = π , π , π ,... Thus, x = π , π ,...
6 2 6 6 6
1 1 5
Therefore, the values of x are π , π , and π .
6 2 6
362
Form Five
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Exercise 7.7
1. Express each of the following as the product:

(a) sin 50° + sin 40°
(b) sin 70° − sin 20°
(c) cos 55° + cos 25°
(d) cos 35° − cos 75°
2. Express each of the following as sums or differences:
(a) sin 55° sin 40°
LY
(b) cos110° sin 55°
(c) sin 40° cos 30°
(d) cos 50° cos 35°
N
3. Find the general solution of each of the following equations, expressing
O
the answer in multiples of π .
(a) sin 4θ + sin 2θ + sin 6θ = 0 (d) cos 7θ − cos θ =
SE 2sin 3θ
(b) cos x + cos 2 x + cos 3 x =0 (e) sin 3 x + sin 5 x =
sin 4 x
(c) sin 7 x + sin x + sin 4 x =
0 (f) sin 7 x − sin 5 x =
2 cos 6 x
U
4. Prove each of the following identities:
(a) cos130° + cos110° + cos10° = 0
E
1
(b) cos3 x sin 2=
x ( 2 cos x − cos 3x − cos 5 x )
16
N
cos α + cos β
(c) = cot 12 (α − β ) cot 12 (α + β )
LI
cos α − cos β
1
tan ( A − B )
N
2 sin A − sin B
(d) =
1
tan ( A + B ) sin A + sin B
O
2
5. In each of the following expressions, show that:
R
sin 75° − sin15° 3 6

(a) = (c) cos 465° + cos165° = −
FO
cos 75° + cos15° 3 2
3+ 2 3 +1
(b) 2sin 82 12 ° cos 37 12 ° = (d) 2sin 45° cos15° =
2 2
363
Form Five
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sin 2 p + sin 2q
6. If tan ( p + q ) = a and tan ( p − q ) =
b, express in terms of a and b
sin 2 p − sin 2q
a −b
. Hence, show that tan 2q = and use this result to obtain an expression for
1 + ab
tan ( p + 3q ) in terms of a and b.
1
7. By expressing 2sin 3θ sin θ and other similar expressions as the difference
2 1 7
of two sines, prove the identity ( 2 cos 3θ + 2 cos 2θ + 2 cos θ + 1) sin θ = sin θ .
2 2
Express cos3θ and cos 2θ in terms of cos θ and deduce the identity
1 7
LY
(8cos3 θ + 4 cos 2 θ − 4 cos θ − 1) sin θ =
sin θ , hence show that
2 2
2 4 6 3 2
cos π , cos π and cos π , are roots of the equation 8 x + 4 x − 4 x − 1 =0.
7 7
N
7
8. Solve each of the following equations for 0° ≤ θ ≤ 180°.
O
(a) cos 4θ + cos 6θ + cos 2θ = 0 (c) cos 4θ + cos 2θ = cos θ
(b) cos(2θ + 40°) + cos(2θ − 60°) =0 (d) sin 5θ + sin 3θ =
sin(−4θ )
SE
9. If p =cos x + cos 2 x + cos 3 x and q =sin x + sin 2 x + sin 3 x, prove that:
2 2
(a) p = q cot 2 x (b) p + q =3 + 4 cos x + 2 cos 2 x
10. Solve the equation sin 2 y + cos 2 y =sin y + cos y for 0 ≤ y ≤ 2π .
U
sin 4λ + sin 3λ + sin 2λ + sin λ
11. If f (λ ) = , then;
cos 4λ + cos 3λ + cos 2λ + cos λ
(a) Simplify f (λ )
E
(b) Solve the equation if f (λ ) = 1 for −180° ≤ λ ≤ 180°.

N
12. Simplify each of the following expressions:

LI
 2π   2π 
sin  x +  − sin  − x
sin10A + sin 9A + sin 8A + sin 7A
N
(a) (b)  3   3 
cos10A + cos 9A + cos8A + cos 7A  π π 
cos  x +  − cos  − x 
O
 4 4 
R
Radians and small angles

Radian is a unit of an angle which is defined as the size of the central angle subtended
FO
by an arc of length l equal in length to the radius r of a circle.
Converting degrees to radians

Consider Figure 7.6
364
Form Five
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Note that; the radian measure has no

A dimension. It is a dimensionless number.
Radians can be converted into degrees
180°
r by multiplying by the factor , also,
π
θ l degrees can be converted into radians by
O
π
multiplying by the factor .
180°
B
Example 7.45
LY
Figure 7.6: Sketch describing an arc of a
circle. Convert each of the following
into radians giving the answers in
N
From Figure 7.6, an arc of length equal to multiples of π:
O
the circumference of a circle subtends a (a) 60° (b) 2970° (c) 1°
central angle of one complete revolution. SE
Solution
Since the circumference, C = 2π r πθ
(a) From s = .
subtends an angle of 360° , while the 180°
U
arc of length l subtends a central angle But θ= 60° , thus,
θ , where θ is an angle in degrees, then ⇒s
=
π × 60° π .
=
180° 3
E
Length of an arc AB
Circumference of a circle π
Therefore, 60° = radians.
N
3
Measure of the central angle
= πθ
LI
Total measurement in a circle (b) From s =

180°
l θ
N
⇒ = But
= θ 2970° , thus,
2π r 360°
O
θ π rθ π × 2970°
Thus, l = × 2π r = . ⇒s
= = 16.5π .
360° 180° 180°
R
l πθ
Again, = . Therefore, 2970° =16.5π radians.
r 180°
FO
l πθ
But = s where s is an angle in radian. (c) From s = .
r 180°
πθ
Therefore, s = . But θ = 1°
180°
365
Form Five
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π ×1° Example 7.47

⇒s=
180°
1 Find in radians an interior angle of a
⇒s= π regular nonagon.
180
1 Solution
Therefore, 1° = π radians.
180 = 360° .
The sum of the 9 exterior angles
Each exterior angle= 360°= 40°
9
Example 7.46
Each interior angle= 180° − 40=
° 140°
LY
Convert each of the following into
πθ π ×140° 7π
degrees: From,
= s = = radians.
180° 180° 9
2π
N
(a) radians (c) 1 radian Therefore, the interior angle of a regular
3
O
37π 7π
nonagon is radians.
(b) radians 9
5 SE
πθ 180° Find the angle between the minute- hand
(a) From s = , then θ = s.
180° π
U
and the hour-hand of a clock, when time
180° 2π is 5:45 p.m. Give your answers
⇒θ =
Thus, × = 120° .
π 3 (a) in degrees
E
2π (b) in radians
Therefore, radians
= 120°.
3
N
πθ 180° Solution
(b) From s = , then θ = s
LI
180° π (a) In the following figure, the hour-hand

180° 37π and the minute - hand are along the
N
⇒ θ=
Thus, × = 1332° . arcs RP and RQ, respectively.
π 5
37π
O
Therefore, radians
= 1332°.
5 R
πθ 180° 12
R
(c) From s = , then θ = s

180° π
FO
O
Q 9 3
180° × 1
Thus, θ = ≈ 57.296°
π
Therefore, 1 radian ≈ 57.296° . 6
366
Form Five
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Angle POQ = (angle subtended by the minute-hand in 45 minutes) – (angle

subtended by the hour- hand in 45 minutes)
° °
 360   360 23 
=  × 45  −  × 
 60   12 4 
= 270° − 172.5°
= 97.5°
Therefore, the required angle is 97.5°.
Altenatively,
 Position of a minute-hand – Position of an hour-hand 
LY
Angle POQ =   × 360°
 12 
 9 − 5.75 
=   × 360°
N
 12 
= 97.5°
O
πθ π × 97.5° 13π
(b) Let,
= s = = radians
180° 180° 24 SE
πθ π × 97.5° 13π
=s = = radians
180° 180° 24
13π
Therefore, the required angle is radians.
U
24
Exercise 7.8
E
1. Convert each of the following angles into radians, giving the answer in terms
N
of π .
LI
(a) 30° (c) 90° (e) 40° (g) 315°

(b) 240° (d) −135° (f) 270° (h) 405°
N
2. Convert each of the following angles into degrees.

O
π 5π 7π −2π
(a) (b) (c) (d)
3 3 6 3
7π
R
17π
(e) 3π (f) (g) (h) 2π
5 8
FO
3. Solve each the following for 0 ≤ x ≤ 2π , giving the answer in multiple of π.

3 1 1
(a) cos x = (c) sin x = (e) cos x = −
2 2 2
1
(b) tan x = 1 (d) sin x = − (f) tan x = 3
2
367
Form Five
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4. Convert each of the following 8. Find the interior angles in radian

agles into degrees, giving the of a regular:
answer correct to 2 decimal places: (a) heptagon
(a) 0.49 radians (b) hexagon
(b) 1.72 radians (c) octagon
(c) −2.36 radians 9. The difference between two

5π
(d) −0.85 radians angles is and their sum is
4
LY
11π
(e) 4.39 radians . Find the value of each
4
angle in degrees.
N
(f) −5.08 radians
10. Find the degree measures
O
5. Convert each of the following
corresponding to each of the
angles into radians, giving the following radians:
answer into 3 significant figures:
SE (a) −
5π
(a) 65.4° 14
21π
(b)
U
(b) 32°45′ 14
(c) − 2
(c) 84°32′25′′
E
2
(d) 7
6. The difference between two angle 3
N
5π
is 60° and their sum is radians.
LI
6
Find the value of each angle,
Approximating small angles
N
giving the answer in radians.

If the measured angle is small and is
O
7. Find the angle in radians between measured in radians, the concept of

the minute- hand and the hour- small-angle approximations can be
used to approximate the values of the
R
hand of the clock at:

principal trigonometric functions. The
FO
(a) 3:45 p.m geometry of small angles has some

(b) 7:20 a.m unique properties.
(c) 11:50 p.m
368
Form Five
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Activity 7.4: Recognizing geometrical properties of small angles
Learning resources: Graph papers, scientific calculator, ruler, and pencil.

1. Construct a table of values
= for y sin
= θ , y θ ,=
and y cos θ for convenient
values of θ in radians.
for y sin
2. Draw on the same plane the graphs= = θ , y θ ,=
and y cos θ
3. State the possible conclusions suggested by the graphs drawn in task 2.
LY
4. What have you observed in task 1 about the values of θ (radians) for
sin θ and cos θ ? Give comments.
N
5. Deduce the relationship between cos θ and θ versus sinθ and θ.
O
6. Share your findings with your fellow students for more inputs.
SE
In Figure 7.7, the chord AB subtends an angle θ in radians at the centre O of a
circle with radius r and the tangent at A meets OB at C.
U
A
E
r
N
θ
O r C
LI
B
N
O
Figure 7.7: Sketch for small angle formula derivation

R
Figure 7.7, shows a sector of a circle, AOB centred at O with radius r. OB is

FO
extended to C where CA is a tangent to circle at A . From Figure 7.7 it can be

deduced that:
Area of triangle AOB < Area of sector AOB < Area of right-angled triangle AOC
1 1
But area of triangle AOB =OA × OBsin θ =r 2 sin θ .
2 2
369
Form Five
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1 2 1
Area of sector AOB = r θ and area of right-angled triangle AOC
= AC × r ,
2 2
but AC = r tan θ .
1 2
Area of right-angled triangle AOC = r tan θ , thus,
2
1 2 1 1
⇒ r sin θ < r 2θ < r 2 tan θ
2 2 2
1 2
Dividing each term by r , gives;
2
π
⇒ sin θ < θ < tan θ where 0 < θ < , dividing each term by sin θ , gives;
2
sin θ θ tan θ .
LY
⇒ < <
sin θ sin θ sin θ
θ 1 sin θ .
⇒1< < since, tan θ =
N
sin θ cos θ cos θ
1
O
Then, as θ → 0, cos θ → 1 and → 1 , thus,
cos θ
θ
⇒1< <1 SE
sin θ
θ
Thus, → 1 as θ → 0 .
sin θ
U
Therefore, for small values of θ , sin θ ≈ θ .
An approximation for cos θ is obtained from the identity

E
1 1 1
cos θ = 1 − 2sin 2 θ where for small angles sin θ ≈ θ . Thus,
2 2 2
N
2
1 
LI
⇒ cos θ ≈ 1 − 2  θ 
2 
N
1 2  1 2
⇒ cos θ ≈ 12−θ 2  θ 
⇒ cos θ ≈ 1 −
2 
O
Therefore, 1 2 angles cos θ ≈ 1 − 1 θ 2 .

⇒ cos θ ≈ 1for
− small
θ 2
2
R
The approximation of tan θ in terms of θ is derived from the fact that

FO
sin θ
tan θ= as θ → 0, cos θ → 1, and sin θ → θ
cos θ
Therefore, for small values of θ , tan θ ≈ θ .
370
Form Five
FOR ONLINE USE ONLY
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Example 7.49
Approximate the value of each of the following functions when θ is small:
sin 4θ − tan 2θ 1 − cos 2θ 3 tan θ − θ

(a) (b) (c) .
3θ tan 2θ sin θ sin 2θ
Solution
(a) Given sin 4θ − tan 2θ .
3θ
LY
As θ → 0, sin 4θ ≈ 4θ , tan 2θ ≈ 2θ .
sin 4θ − tan 2θ 4θ − 2θ 2 .
Hence, ≈ ≈
N
3θ 3θ 3
sin 4θ − tan 2θ 2
O
Therefore, for small values of θ , ≈ .
3θ 3
1 − cos 2θ
(b) Given
tan 2θ sin θ
.
SE
1
U
As θ → 0, cos 2θ ≈ 1 − (2θ ) 2 ≈ 1 − 2θ 2 , sin θ ≈ θ , and tan 2θ ≈ 2θ .
2
Hence,
1 − cos 2θ
≈
(
1 − 1 − 2θ 2 )
E
tan 2θ sin θ 2θ × θ
2θ 2
N
≈ 2
2θ
LI
≈1
1 − cos 2θ
Therefore, for small values of θ , ≈ 1.
N
tan 2θ sin θ
3 tan θ − θ
(c) .
O
sin 2θ
As θ → 0, sin 2θ ≈ 2θ , and tan θ ≈ θ .
3 tan θ − θ 3θ − θ
R
Hence, ≈ ≈1
sin 2θ 2θ
FO
3 tan θ − θ
Therefore, for small values of θ , ≈ 1.
sin 2θ
371
Form Five
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Example 7.50
cos(α + θ ) − cos α
Find an approximation of , when θ is small.
θ
Solution
Given .
θ
By using the factor formula,
 α +θ +α   α +θ −α 
−2sin   sin  
LY
cos(α + θ ) − cos α  2   2 
=
θ θ
 θ  θ 
N
−2sin  α +  sin  
 2 2
=
O
θ
θ  θ  θ
As θ → 0, sin   ≈ , and sin  α +  ≈ sin α . SE
2 2  2
cos(α + θ ) − cos α −2sin α θ
⇒ ≈ ×
θ θ 2
U
≈ − sin α
Therefore, ≈ − sin α , when θ is small.
E
θ
N
Example 7.51
LI
N
 π 1 3 1
Show that, if θ is small sin  θ +  ≈ + θ − θ 2.
 6 2 2 4
O
Solution
 π 1 3 1
Required to show that sin  θ +  ≈ + θ − θ 2 , thus,
R
 6 2 2 4
FO
 π π π
sin  θ =
+  sin cos θ + sin θ cos
 6 6 6
1 3
= cos θ + sin θ
2 2
372
Form Five
FOR ONLINE USE ONLY
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1 3. If θ is small, show that tan 3θ cos 2θ

Thus, as θ → 0, sin θ ≈ θ , and cos θ ≈ 1 − θ 2 can be approximated by 3θ − 6θ 3
2
1 hence, approximate the value of
0, sin θ ≈ θ , and cos θ ≈ 1 − θ 2 . Then,
2 tan 0.3cos 0.2 .
 π 1 1 3
sin  θ +  ≈ (1 − θ 2 ) + θ 4. If θ is small, prove that
 6 2 2 2 tan(α + θ ) − tan α
≈ 1 + tan 2 α .
 π 1 1 3 . θ
⇒ sin  θ +  ≈ − θ 2 + θ
 6 2 4 2 5. If θ is small, show that
Therefore,  2π  1
cos  − θ  ≈ (θ 2 + 2 3θ − 2).
LY
 π 1 3 1  3  4
sin  θ +  ≈ + θ − θ 2.
 6 2 2 4 6. Find an approximate value of
N
1 − cos 4θ + sin θ − sin θ cos 4θ
Exercise 7.9 1 + sin θ
O
when θ is small.
1. Approximate each of the following 7. Simplify the expression,
SE
expressions for small values of θ : sin(3α + 2θ ) sin 2θ
when θ is
21 + 7 tan θ − 20 cos θ 3θ
(a) small.
1 + sin 2θ
U
sin 3θ + tan 5θ 8. Use the identity sin 2 x + cos 2 x =
1,
(b)
2θ the binomial theorem, and the
1 + sin θ approximation sin x ≈ x to verify
E
(c) 1 2
5 + 3 tan θ − 4 cos θ that cos x ≈ 1 − x where x
N
2
(d) sin 3θ + tan θ is small. Hence, deduce that
cos 2θ
LI
cos 4° ≈ 0.9976.
(e) sin (θ + 45° )
N
cos θ − 1 9. If θ is a small angle in radians,

(f)
sin θ sin 3θ + tan 6θ
O
find the limit of as

2. Suppose that x is small, use cot 2θ + 1 + 3θ
θ tends to zero.
the small angle approximation
R
formulae to show that 10. Evaluate each of the following when

θ is small:
FO
4 cos 4 x + cos 2 2 x ≈ 5 − 36 x 2 + 4 x 4
hence, find the approximation 1 − sin θ − 7 sin 2 θ + 3sin 3 θ
(a)
of 4 cos 4 x + cos 2 2 x when 1 − 3sin θ
x = 3 radians. (b) tan(α + θ )
373
Form Five
FOR ONLINE USE ONLY
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Domain and range of trigonometric all real numbers, since the sine function is
functions always defined over the entire set of real
The domain of a given function is the numbers. Thus, domain= { x : x ∈ } .
set of all possible inputs (x-values) to
The range of f ( x) = 2sin x is determined
the functions, while the range is the set
by using the following procedures:
of all possible outputs (y-values) of the
Since, −1 ≤ sin x ≤ 1, multiplying by
function.
2 throughout gives −2 ≤ 2sin x ≤ 2
The graph of sine and cosine functions thus, the range of f ( x) = 2sin x is
behave like waves which oscillate { f ( x) : −2 ≤ f ( x) ≤ 2}.
between the amplitudes −1 and 1,
LY
inclusive with periodic unit of 2π . = { x : x ∈ } and
Therefore, the domain
Thus, the domain of f ( x) = sin x is the = { f ( x) : −2 ≤ f ( x) ≤ 2} .
range
N
set of all real numbers, that is { x : x ∈ } ,
O
while the range is { f ( x) : −1 ≤ f ( x) ≤ 1} . Example 7.53
Similarly, the domain of f ( x) = cos x is SE

Determine the domain and range of
the set of all real numbers, while the range 2 x
g ( x)
is { f ( x) : −1 ≤ f ( x) ≤ 1} . Moreover, for = cos , for − 2π ≤ x ≤ 2π .
3 2
U
sin x
the function f= ( x) tan
= x , then Solution
cos x
the domain of f ( x) = tan x is the set of 2 x
Given
= g ( x) cos , for − 2π ≤ x ≤ 2π .
E
all real values except the values where 3 2

cos x is zero. Therefore, the domain of The domain is the set from, −2π ≤ x ≤ 2π
N
 π  Range: Since, –1≤ cos x ≤ 1, thus

f ( x) = tan x is  x : x ∈ , x ≠ + π n  ,
LI
2
 2  2
for all integer numbers n, and the range multiplying throughout the inequalities
3
N
is { f ( x) : f ( x) ∈ }. 2 2 x 2
gives, − ≤ cos ≤ , thus,
3 3 2 3
O
Example 7.52  2 2
=  g ( x) : − ≤ g ( x) ≤ 
Range
3 3
R

Give the domain and range of
Therefore, the domain= { x : −2π ≤ x ≤ 2π }
f ( x) = 2sin x.
FO
 2 2
=  g ( x) : − ≤ g ( x) ≤  .
and the range
Solution  3 3
Given f ( x) = 2sin x
Domain of f ( x) = 2sin x is a set of
374
Form Five
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Exercise 7.10
Give the domain and range of each of the following functions:

1. f ( x) = sec x 6. f ( x) =−2 cos x, for − π ≤ x ≤ π
2. f ( x) = tan 2 x 7. g ( x) = −4 tan 2 x
1
3. g ( x) = cot x 8. h( x) = sec x
2
x
4. h( x) = cosec x 9.
= f ( x) 6sin , for 0 ≤ x ≤ π
4
LY
x
5. g ( x) = sec f ( x) tan x, for − 2π ≤ x ≤ 2π
10.=
2
N
The graphs of sine and cosine functions
The sine and cosine functions are periodic functions with a period of 2π and are
O
defined for all real values of θ . For θ ≥ 0 , the first period of the function y = sin θ
is between 0 and 2π radians, and the second period is between 2π and 4π radians
SE
and so on. In general the n th period is between 2 ( n − 1) π and 2π n radians.
π π
Similarly, for y = cos θ the n period is between
th
+ 2(n − 1)π and + 2π n .
U
2 2
Activity 7.5: Drawing graphs of f (θ) = sin θ

E
N
Learning resources: Graph paper, pencil, scientific calculator, and ruler.

LI
1. Construct a table of values of f (θ ) = sin θ for −2π ≤ θ ≤ 2π .

N
2. Draw the graph of f (θ ) = sin θ on the graph paper.

3. Identify the properties of the graph drawn in task 2.
O
4. Share your results with your fellow students.

R
Example 7.54
FO
f (θ ) cos θ for − 2π ≤ θ ≤ 2π .
Draw the graph of=
375
Form Five
FOR ONLINE USE ONLY
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Solution
In order to draw the graph of f (θ ) prepare a table of values as follows;
3 1 1 3
θ −2π − π −π − π 0 π π π 2π
2 2 2 2
f (θ ) = cos θ 1 0 –1 0 1 0 –1 0 1
Then, use the values in the table to draw the following graph
LY
N
O
SE
U
From the graphs in Example 7.54, the properties of the cosine function are
summarized as:
1. The minimum and maximum values are −1 and 1, respectively.
E
2. The cosine function has a period of 2π radians.

N
3. The cosine is an even function, that is f (− x)= cos(− x)= f ( x).

LI
4. The amplitudes of the function is are –1 and 1.

N
Graph of the tangent function

The graph of f (θ ) = tan θ is symmetrical about the origin (0, 0), since it is an
O
odd function. The function f (θ ) = tan θ is a periodic function with a period of π

π
and it is defined at all points except where θ = + nπ , n is any integer. The lines
R
2
π π
θ= + nπ are vertical asymptotes since f (θ ) = tan θ tends to ± ∞ as θ → + nπ .
FO
2 2
376
Form Five
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Example 7. 55
Draw the graph of f (θ ) = tan θ .
Solution
In order to draw the graph of f (θ ) prepare a table of values as follows;
3 1 1 3
θ − 2π − π −π − π 0 π π π 2π
2 2 2 2
LY
f (θ ) = tan θ 0 −∞ 0 −∞ 0 ∞ 0 ∞ 0
N
Then, use the table of values to draw the following graph.
y
O
4
3
SE
y=tanθ
U
2
1
E
N
−2π − 3π −π − 1π 0 1π π 3π 2π θ
LI
2 2 2 2
-1
N
O
-2
R
-3
FO
-4
377
Form Five
FOR ONLINE USE ONLY
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Inverse trigonometric functions

The inverse trigonometric functions are inverses of sine, cosine, tangent, cotangent,
secant, and cosecant. In trigonometry, inverse functions are used to find the angle
of any trigonometric ratios. The inverse of sine, cosine, and tangent are defined
as follows;
π π
(i) θ sin x or θ arcsin x if and only
−1
= = = if x sin θ and − ≤θ ≤ .
2 2
(ii) θ cos
= = −1
x or θ arccos x if and only
= if x cos θ and 0 ≤ θ ≤ π .
π π
(iii) θ = tan −1 x or θ = arctan x if and only
= if x tan θ and − < θ < .
2 2
LY
The inverses of other trigonometric functions can be defined using the inverse
of sine, cosine and tangent. For instance, if y = sec θ then θ = sec −1 y can be
N
expressed in terms cos −1 y as follows,
O
Given y = sec θ
⇒θ = sec −1 y ............................................................................. (i)
SE
1
Also, y =
cos θ
1
U
⇒ cos θ =
y
 1
θ = cos −1   .............................................................................(ii)
E
 y
N
Equate equations (i) and (ii) to obtain;

LI
1
θ = sec −1 y = cos −1 , for y ≥ 1 or y ≤ 1
y
N
1
Therefore, sec −1 y = cos −1 .
O
y
Using a similar approach the following results can be derived;
1
R
(i) If y = cosecθ then θ= cosec −1 y= sin −1 , for y ≥ 1 or y ≤ 1.

y
FO
1
(ii) If y = cotθ then=θ cot −= 1
y tan −1 , for 0 < y < π .
y
378
Form Five
FOR ONLINE USE ONLY
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Example 7.56
(
Show that sin −1 2 x 1 − x 2 =
2sin −1 x )
Solution
From the left-hand side,
Let x = sin θ then
(
sin −1 2 x=
1 − x2 ) (
sin −1 2sin θ 1 − sin 2 θ )
LY
= sin −1 ( 2sin θ cos 2 θ )
N
= sin −1 (2sin θ cos θ )
1
= sin −= (sin 2θ ) 2=
θ , but θ sin −1 x
O
= 2sin −1 x
(
Therefore, sin −1 2 x 1 − x 2 =
2sin −1 x. )
SE
Example 7.57
U
 1− 4x  −1  1 + 2 x  π
If tan −1   − tan  = , then find the positive value of x
E
 1+ 6x   1 − 3x  4
correct to four significant figures.
N
LI
Solution
 1− 4x  −1  1 + 2 x  π
N
Given tan −1   − tan  = .

 1+ 6x   1 − 3x  4
O
  1− 4x  −1  1 + 2 x   π
Applying tangent on both sides gives, tan  tan −1   − tan   =tan
  1+ 6x   1 − 3x   4
R
−1  1 − 4 x  −1  1 + 2 x 
let A tan
=   and B tan   , and using
FO
 1+ 6x   1 − 3x 
tan A − tan B
tan(A − B) = .
1 + tan A tan B
379
Form Five
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  1− 4x    −1  1 + 2 x  
tan  tan −1    − tan  tan  
  1+ 6x     1 − 3x  
⇒ 1
=
 −1  1 − 4 x    −1  1 + 2 x  
1 + tan  tan    tan  tan  
  1+ 6x     1 − 3x  
 1− 4x   1+ 2x 
 − 
 1 + 6 x   1 − 3x 
1 , since tan ( tan B ) = B.
−1
⇒ =
 1 − 4 x  1 + 2 x 
1+   
 1 + 6 x   1 − 3x 
LY
1 − 7 x + 12 x 2 − 1 − 8 x − 12 x 2
⇒ 1
=
1 + 3 x − 18 x 2 + 1 − 2 x − 8 x 2
⇒ 26 x 2 − 16 x − 2 =0
N
Either x = 0.7219 or x = − 0.1066
O
Therefore, the positive value of x is 0.7219.
Example 7.58
SE
 cos x 
Express tan −1   in its simplest form.
U
 1 − sin x 
Solution
 cos x 
E
To simplify tan −1  .
 1 − sin x 
From,
N
x x x x ,

cos x cos 2   − sin 2   , cos 2   + sin 2   =
= 1
LI
2 2 2 2

x x
N
and sin x = 2sin   cos   the given expression can be written as,
2 2
O
 x x 
 cos 2 − sin 2 
−1  cos x  −1 2 2
tan   = tan  x x x x
R
 1 − sin x   cos 2 + sin 2 − 2sin cos 

 2 2 2 2
FO
 x x  x x 
  cos + sin   cos − sin  
2 2  2 2 
= tan −1   2
  x x 
  cos − sin  
  2 2 
380
Form Five
FOR ONLINE USE ONLY
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 x x
 cos + sin 
= tan −1  2 2
x x
 cos − sin 
 2 2
x
Dividing by cos to both the numerator and denominator to obtain;
2
 x
 1 + tan 
 cos x  2
tan −1  −1
 = tan 
 1 − sin x  x
 1 − tan 
 2
LY
π x 
= tan −1 tan  + 
 4 2
π x
N
= +
4 2
O
 cos x  π x
Therefore, tan −1  =
 + .
 1 − sin x  4 2 SE
Example 7.59
U
π
If sin −1 x + sin −1 y + sin −1 z = , prove that, x 2 + y 2 + z 2 + 2 xyz =
1.
2
E
Solution
N
π
Given sin −1 x + sin −1 y + sin −1 z = .
2
LI
A sin −1 x ⇒=
Let,= x sin A
B sin −1 y ⇒=
= y sin B
N
C sin −1 z ⇒=
= z si n C
O
π π
But A + B + C = ⇒ A+B = −C
2 2
R
π
Applying cosine on both sides of the equation, A + B = − C gives;
FO
2
π
cos ( A + B
= ) cos  − C 
2 
Using compound angle formula gives,
381
Form Five
FOR ONLINE USE ONLY
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cosAcosB − sin A sin B =

sin C
1 − x 2 and cos B =
But cos A = 1− y2
2 2
Thus, 1 − x × 1 − y − xy =
z
Þ 1 − x 2 × 1 − y 2 =z + xy
Squaring both sides,
( ) = ( z + xy )
2
2
1 − x2 × 1 − y 2
LY
Þ (1 − x 2 )(1 − y 2 ) =( z + xy )( z + xy )
⇒ 1 − x 2 − y 2 + x 2 y 2 = z 2 + 2 xyz + x 2 y 2
N
Simplify the equation to obtain,
O
⇒ x 2 + y 2 + z 2 + 2 xyz =
1
Therefore, x 2 + y 2 + z 2 + 2 xyz =
1. SE
Example 7.60
U
π
Solve the equation cos −1 x + cos −1 x 3 =
2
. ( )
E
Solution
π
( )
N
Given cos −1 x + cos −1 x 3 = .

2
LI
Let A = cos −1 x ⇒ cos A = x and

= B cos −1 x 3 ⇒ cos
= B ( ) ( x 3)
N
But sin A
= 1 − cos 2 A
O
Þ sin A= 1 − x2
Also, sin B
= 1 − cos 2 B
R
Þ sin B
= 1 − 3x 2
FO
π
Now, A + B =
2
π
Apply cosine on both sides of the equation A + B = ,to obtain:
2
382
Form Five
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π π
⇒ cos(A + B) =
⇒ cos(A +cos
B) =cos
2 2
Thus, cos A cos B −sin
cos A cos B − sin A sinBA= 0 B=
sin 0
Substituting the values gives;
( x 3) − (
2
1 − x2 )( )
1 − 3x 2 =
0
Þ 1 − 4 x 2 + 3x 4 =
x2 3
Squaring both sides, gives;
LY
1 − 4 x 2 + 3x 4 =
3x 4
Simplify the equation to obtain;
4 x 2 − 1 =0
N
1
Hence, x = ±
2
O
1
But x = − does not satisfy the given equation.
2 1
Therefore, the value of x is .
2
SE
Exercise 7.11
U
1. Evaluate each of the following expressions without using a non-programmable

E
N
  2  3  π 
(a) sin  cos −1   + sin −1
 −   (c) cot  − 2 cot −1 3 
     2 
 2   2 
LI

 −1 1 2  3  4 
N
(b) cos  sin − sin −1  (d) cos  cos −1   − sin −1   

 2 2   5  5 
O
2. Without using a scientific calculator, find the value of each of the following:
3 7 24 15
, if x tan −1 + tan −1 (c) cos=x, if x cos −1 + sin −1
R
(a) tan x=
4 24 25 17
FO
4 8 3 5
(b) sin x=
, if x sin −1 − cos −1 , if x sin −1 + sin −1
(d) sin x=
5 17 5 13
383
Form Five
FOR ONLINE USE ONLY
DO NOT DUPLICATE
3. Prove each of the following trigonometric equations:
1 2 1
(a) π − tan −1 = tan −1 (d) 3 tan −1 2 − tan −1 2 = π
4 3 5 11
−1 −1  p+q  1
(b) tan p + tan q = tan −1  −1 −1
 (e) 2 tan 2 + tan 3 = π + tan −1
 1 − pq  3
1 − x2 π 1+ x 
(c) cos ( 2 tan −1 x ) = (f) + tan −1 x =
tan −1  
1 + x2 4 1− x 
 1 + sin θ − 1 − sin θ  π 1
(g) cot −1  =
 − cos −1 θ
LY
 1 + sin θ + 1 − sin θ 4 2
 
 cos α  π α
(h) tan −1  =
 −
N
 1 + sin α  4 2
O
(
(a) cos sin −1 x ) (
SE −1
(b) sin tan x )
5. Solve each of the following equations:
π π
(a) arcsin x + arctan x = (f) 2sin −1 x 6 + sin −1 ( 4 x ) = ( )
U
2 2
−1  z − 2  −1  z + 2  π
(b) sin ( 2 cos x=) 1− x
−1 2
(g) tan   + tan  =
 z−4  z+4 4
π π
E
(c) arctan 2 x + arctan x = (h) arccos x + arctan x =

4 2
N
−1  1 − y 
2
x π  2 y 
−1  
(d) 2sin   + sin x 2 =
2
−1
( 2
) 1
(i) tan 
−
 1− y 
= π − cot 
2 
 2y 

LI
π  −1 3 
(
(e) cos −1 x + cos −1 x 8 =
2
) (j) cos ( tan x ) = sin  cot
−1
 4

N
=
6. If sin −1 y = 2 cos −1 x, show that y 2 4x2 1 − x2 . ( )
O
2 2 2
π , prove that x + y + z + 2 xyz =
7. If cos −1 x + cos −1 y + cos −1 z = 1.
8. For each of the following expressions, show that:
R
 63  1 3
(a) cos −1   + 2 tan −1   =
sin −1  
FO
 65  5 5
(b) 2sin −1 ( x − a=
+ 12)cos −1 (2a − 2 x)
−1 −1 π
(c) sin y + cos y = cot −1 y + tan −1 y
=
2
384
Form Five
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9. If U, V, and W are such that (U − W)(V − W) = 1 + W 2 , then verify that,
1 1  1 
tan −1   + tan −1   = tan −1   .
U V W
3 1  13 
10. Evaluate tan −1   + tan −1   − tan −1   without using a non-
4 3 9
programmable scientific calculator.
Graphs of inverse trigonometric functions

The graphs of inverse trigonometric functions differ from those of trigonometric
functions, the roles of y and θ are interchanged. For example, the graph of
y = sin −1 θ is a sine curve drawn on the y-axis instead of the x-axis. The domains
LY
of the inverse of trigonometric functions are restricted.
N
Activity 7.6: Drawing the graph of y = sin–1 x
O
Learning resources: Graph papers, pencil, scientific calculator, and ruler.
SE
1. Construct a table of values of y = sin −1 x for −1 ≤ x ≤ 1.
2. Draw the graph of y = sin −1 x on the xy -plane.
U
3. Identify the domain and range of y = sin −1 x from the graph drawn in task 2.
π π
4. On a different xy -plane draw the graph of y = sin x for − ≤ x ≤ .
E
2 2
5. Give the suggestions on the graphs drawn in tasks 2 and 4.
N
6. What have you observed from the tasks? Give comments.

LI
Example 7.61
N
π π
Draw the graph of θ = tan −1 x for − < x < and identify its domain and
O
2 2
range.
Solution
R
In order to draw the graph of θ = tan −1 x prepare a table of values as follows;

FO
x −∞ −1 0 1 ∞
π π π π
θ = tan −1 x − 2 − 4 0 4 2
385
Form Five
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Use the table of values to draw the following graph.

i
r
2
r
4 i=tan-1x
-3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 x
LY
r
4
N
r
2
O
From the graph, SE
Domain
= { x : x ∈ }
 π π
Range= θ : − < θ < 
U
 2 2
E
Example 7.62
N
Draw the graph of θ = cos −1 x for −1 < x < 1 and identify its domain and range.
LI
Solution
In order to draw the graph of θ = cos −1 x prepare a table of values as follows;
N
x −1 0 1
O
π
θ = cos −1 x π 0
2
R
Use the table of values to draw the following graph of θ = cos–1 x.

FO
386
Form Five
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i
r
3.(a) To define an arccotangent function,
first restrict cotangent to an
7r
4 interval on which it is one to one
3r
4 and takes on all real numbers.
5r
8
What is the interval for such
r restrictions?
2
3r (b) Using the interval found in
part (a) define cot x and cot −1 x
8
r i=cos-1x
4 functions, hence draw the graphs
LY
r
8 of both functions on the same
x
axes.
-1.5 -1 -0.5 0 0.5 1 1.5
4. Simplify
N
sin ( y + π ) + sin ( y − π )
O
From the graph x= and
π
sin
Domain = { x ∈  : −1 ≤ x ≤ 1} SE 6
draw the graph of the simplified
Range = {θ ∈  : 0 ≤ θ ≤ π } equation.
5. Given
= x 2 cos 2 y − 1 , express y
U
Exercise 7.12 in terms of x and draw the graph
of the resulting function.
E
following functions:
(
(a) h( x) = sin cos −1 x ) Chapter summary
N
(b) f ( x) = cos −1 (tan x)

LI
−1
(c) g ( x) = cot x 1. The trigonometric ratios are
−1 sin θ , cos θ , and tan θ ., Their
(d) g ( x) = sec x
N
−1 corresponding reciprocals
(e) g ( x) = cosec x
are cosecθ , sec θ , and cot θ ,
O
 x
(f) h( x) = cos  sin −1  respectively.
 2
R
2. State the domain and range of

2. The trigonometric identities
each of the following functions:
FO
−1
(Pythagorean identities) are:
(a) y = sin x (a) cos 2 θ + sin 2 θ = 1
−1
(b) y = cot x (b) 1 + cot θ =
2
cosec 2θ
−1
(c) y = tan 2 x (c) 1 + tan θ =
2
sec 2 θ
(d) y = cos −1 x
387
Form Five
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3. The compound angle formulae are:

(a) sin(A=± B) sin A cos B ± cos A sin B
(b) cos(A ± B) = cos A cos B  sin A sin B
tan A ± tan B
(c) tan(A ± B) =
1  tan A tan B
4. The double angle formulae are:
2
(a) sin 2A = 2sin A cos A (d) cos 2A = 1 − 2sin A
2 tan A
(b) cos
= 2A cos 2 A − sin 2 A (e) tan 2A =
LY
1 − tan 2 A
(c) cos 2A 2 cos 2 A − 1
=
N
5. The t-formulae are:
2t 2t 1
O
(a) sin θ = 2 (c)
tan θ = 2 where t = tan θ.
1+ t 1− t 2
1− t2 SE
(b) cosθ =
1+ t2
6. The factor formulae are given by:
U
P + Q P−Q
(a) sin P + sin Q =
2sin   cos  
 2   2 
 P + Q  P−Q
E
(b) sin P − sin Q =

2 cos   sin  
 2   2 
N
(c) P + Q P−Q
cos P + cos Q =
2cos   cos  
 2   2 
LI
 P + Q  P−Q 
(d) cos P − cos Q =
−2sin   sin  .
N
 2   2 
O
7. For a small angle θ the approximation of sine, cosine, and tangent are:
(a) sin θ ≈ θ
R
1 2
(b) cos θ ≈ 1 − θ
FO
2
(c) tan θ ≈ θ
388
Form Five
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Revision exercise 7
21 8
1. If cos A = and sin B = − , where A and B are angles in the fourth and
24 17
third quadrants, respectively, evaluate each of the following:
(a) tan (A − B) (b) cos (A − B) (c) sin (A + B)
2. Eliminate θ in each of the following pairs of equations:
(a) x =9 + 4 cos θ , y =
7 + 15sin θ
(b) x =5 + 3 tan θ , y =
4 + tan 2θ
(c) x =1 + cos 2θ , y =sin θ
LY
= (d) x 4sec
= θ , y cos 3θ
N
cos 5 x − cos 3 x
(a) tan(45° + θ ) − tan(45° − θ ) (c)
sin 5 x + sin 3 x
O
sin 5 y − sin y
(b) sin θ + sin (120° + θ ) + sin (240° + θ )
3 3 3
(d)
SE sin10 y − sin 6 y
4. Verify each of the following identities:
sin 4 x − sin 2 x sin x − sin 3 x
(a) = tan x (b) = 2sin x
cos 4 x + cos 2 x sin 2 x − cos 2 x
U
5. Convert each of the following radian angles into degrees:
23π 51π 5π
(a) (b) (c) 7.5 (d) −
E
9 29 6
N
6. Find in radians the angle between the minute-hand and the hour-hand of
a clock at:
LI
(a) 4:55 p.m (b) 5:48 p.m

7. Convert each of the following into radians:
N
(a) −540° (b) −1050° (c) 120°30′45′′

O
8. For each of the following expressions find its approximation when θ is a

small angle
sin 2 (3θ ) + 2θ 1 − cos 4θ cos 3θ − 1
R
(a) (b) (c) (d) tan 3θ sin 2θ

tan θ 2θ sin 3θ θ sin 4θ
FO

sin θ − cos θ + 1 1 1 − sec x sin 2 x
(a) = (b) =
sin θ + cos θ − 1 sec θ − tan θ sec x 1 − cos x
389
Form Five
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tan θ cot θ
(c) + = 1 + sec θ cosecθ
1 − cot θ 1 − tan θ
tan θ + tan 7θ cos 3θ cos 5θ
(d) =
tan 3θ + tan 5θ cos θ cos 7θ
 cos θ − cos 3θ   sin 8θ + sin 2θ 
(e)    =1
 sin 5θ − sin θ   cos 4θ − cos 6θ 
1  1  1
(f) cos  π + θ  cos  π + θ  =cos 2θ
4  4  2
LY
1 + sin x
(g) = sec x + tan x
1 − sin x
1
N
(h) ( cos ec x − sin x )( sec x − cos x ) =
tan x + cot x
O
sin x − 2sin 3 x
(i) = tan x
2 cos3 x − cos x
(j) 1 + sin θ
+
1 − sin θ
2sec θ
=
SE
1 − sin θ 1 + sin θ
10. Use t-formula to solve the following equations for −180° ≤ θ ≤ 180°.
U
(a) 5sin 2θ − 12 cos 2θ = 1 (b) 2sin θ + 7 cos θ = −4
11. Find the general solution of each of the following equations:
E
(a) sin x − sin 2 x = sin 4 x − sin 3 x

N
(b) cos θ + sin θ = 1

(c) cos θ − sin 4θ = 0
LI
(d) 3cos θ + sin θ = 2

(e) cos ax + cos bx = 0, where a and b are constants
N
(f) 6 cos θ − 4sin θ = 7

O
(g) sin θ + sin 3θ + sin 5θ = 0

(h) tan=3θ cot θ + cot 2θ
R
12. Find the solution of each of the following equations for the angle 0° and
360°, inclusive.
FO
 7π
 tan x + tan y = 4 cos x + cos y =cos
12
(a)  tan 2 x + tan 2 y =0 (b) 
 sin x + sin y = 7π
sin
 12
390
Form Five
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4 5sec θ + 4 cos ecθ + 3 tan θ

13. If sin θ = , find the value of .
5 4 cot θ + 3sec θ + 5sin θ
14. Prove the identity cos 4θ + 4 cos 2θ = 8cos 4 θ − 3 , hence, solve the
equation cos 4θ + 4 cos 2θ = 2 for θ between 0° and 360°.
15. Show that cosec2θ + cot 2θ = cot θ , hence solve the equation
cosec2θ + cot 2θ =2, for 0° ≤ θ ≤ 360°.
16. Solve each of the following equations by using t − formulae for
0° ≤ x ≤ 360°:
LY
2 (d) 4 cos x sin x + 15cos 2 x =
(a) 3sin x + 4 cos x = 10
1 (e) 3 tan x − 2sec x =
(b) 2 cos x − sin x = 4
N
(c) 2 cos x + 3sin x =
2 (f) 3 cos x + sin x =
1
O
17. Find the values of R and α in each of the following equation:
SE
(a) 5cos θ + 12sin θ = R cos(θ − α ) (c) 6sin 3θ + 8cos 3θ = R sin(3θ + α )
(b) 3sin θ − 4 cos θ = R sin(θ − α ) (d) cos 2θ + sin 2θ= R cos(2θ − α )
U
18. Find the maximum and minimum values of each of the following expressions,
and their corresponding values of θ for 0° ≤ θ ≤ 360°, hence give the values
of θ for which the maximum and minimum occur.
E
(a) cos θ + sin θ (c) 8cos θ − 15sin θ

N
(b) 3 2 cos(θ + 45°) + 7 sin θ (d) sin θ − 6 cos θ

LI
19. Express 3cos x + 4sin x in the form R sin( x + α ) where α is an acute angle.
N
Hence, find the maximum and minimum values of the expression and their
corresponding values of x for −180° ≤ x ≤ 180° at which the maximum
O
and minimum occur.

20. If θ is small, simplify each of the following:
R
cos(θ + α ) − cos(θ − α ) (1 − cos 2θ )(1 + tan θ ) π 

(a) (b) (c) tan  + θ 
4θ 3 tan θ sin θ 3 
FO
21. Express 5sin 2 x − 3sin x cos x + cos 2 x in the form a + b cos ( 2 x − α ) where
a, b, α are independent of x. Hence or otherwise, find the maximum and
minimum value of 5sin 2 x − 3sin x cos x + cos 2 x as x varies.
391
Form Five
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22. Express tan(45° + x) − tan x = 2 it in the form tan 2 x + 2 tan x − 1 =0. Hence,
solve the equation tan(45° + x) − tan x = 2 , giving all solutions in the interval
0° < x < 180°.
c−a 1
c, show that tan 2 x =
23. If a cos 2 x + b sin 2 x = . Hence, deduce that tan 2 x =
b−c 3
given that 6 cos 2 x + 2sin 2 x = 5.
1
24. If t = tan θ , find the values of t which satisfy the equation
2
( p + 2 ) sin θ + ( 2 p − 1) cos θ =+
2 p 1 where p is a non-zero constant. Hence,
find the angles which satisfy the equation when p = 3, for −180° < θ < 180°.
LY
25. Express each of the following in factor form:
 27   16 
(a) sin16θ − sin 7θ (c) cos  − θ  − cos  θ 
N
 5  5 
O
 5θ   9θ 
(b) sin13θ − sin(−9θ ) (d) cos   + cos  
 2   2 
26. If sin x + sin 2x = a and cos x + cos 2x = b, prove that ( a 2 + b 2 )( a 2 + b 2 − 3) =
SE 2b
27. Prove each of the following:
−1
(a) sin x + sin = −1
(
y sin −1 x 1 − y 2 + y 1 − x 2 )
U
−1 1 1 π
(b) 4 tan − tan −1 =
5 239 4
E
 x2 + 1  2
(c) cos tan −1
( −1
)
sin cot x =  2
 x + 2 
N
1 −1  2 ( x + y )(1 − xy ) 
LI
−1 −1
(d) tan x + tan y = sin  
2 ( )(
 1 + x 2 1 + y 2  )
N
1 1 3
(e) cot −= − cot −1 3 + cos −1
O
3 5
28. Find the values of x which satisfy the equation
 1− x  −1  1 − 6 x  5π
R
tan −1   − tan  = .
 1+ x   1+ 6x  4
FO
p has θ1 and θ 2 as its root, prove that

29. If the equation m cos 2θ + n sin 2θ =
2n
tan θ1 + tan θ 2 = .
p+m
392
Form Five
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30. =
If p′ p cos θ + q sin θ and
= q′ p sin θ − q cos θ , show that
p′ + q′ = p + q .
2 2 2 2
1 + sin x − cos x 1 + sin x + cos x 2

31. Show that + = .
1 + sin x + cos x 1 + sin x − cos x sin x
sin ( x + 3 y ) + sin ( 3x + y )
32. Prove that = 2 cos ( x + y ) .
sin 2 x + sin 2 y
1− y
33. Show that tan ( 1
4
π − 12 θ ) =y given that sin θ =
1+ y
.
( 4n + 1) π ,
LY
 π
34. Show that the general solution of tan  3 x −  = tan x is x =
 4 8
where n is an integer.
 π  π
N
35. Prove that cos x − sin x = 2 cos  x +  = − 2 sin  x −  . Hence,
 4  4
O
evaluate cos x − sin x = 1, for −2π ≤ x ≤ 2π .
36. Express 3sin 6θ + 5cos 6θ in the form R cos(6θ − α ). Hence, or

SE
otherwise solve the equation 3sin 6θ + 5cos 6θ =5, for 0° ≤ θ ≤ 360°.
37. Given that t = tan x , write an expression for tan 2x in terms of t .

U
Hence, or otherwise, find the general solution in radians, of the equation
tan x + tan 2 x =0.

E
1 + sin θ − cos θ θ
= tan
N
(a)
1 + sin θ + cos θ 2
cos θ + cos 2θ + cos 3θ + cos 4θ 5
LI
(b) = cot θ
sin θ + sin 2θ + sin 3θ + sin 4θ 2
N
1
39. If sin x = and x is in the second quadrant, find each of the following
4
O
equations (leaving the answers in surd form):

x x x
(a) sin (b) cos (c) tan
R
2 2 2
40. Use the compound angle formula to show that
FO
1 + cot λ cot β
cot(λ − β ) = . Hence, deduce that, if cot λ = 0.5, cot β = 2,
cot β − cot λ
and cot γ = 3, then cot(λ + β + γ ) =
3.
393
Form Five
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Chapter
Eight Linear programming
Introduction
Most of the production companies and industries focus on optimization of profit
LY
in such a way that operational cost are minimized in order to maximize profit.
Linear programming is a mathematical technique for finding optimal solutions
N
to problems that can be expressed as linear equations and inequalities. In this
chapter, you will learn about formulation of linear programming problems,
O
graphical solutions, and transportation problems. The competencies developed
will help you to decide, allocate, select, schedule, and evaluate resources in the
SE
possible way for the purpose of optimizing the available resources especially
in the fields of agriculture, business, engineering, energy, manufacturing, and
U
transportation.
E
Formulation of linear programming are set of quantities that need to be

problems determined in order to solve the problem.
N
Formulation of a linear programming They represent the ultimate solution.

LI
problem involves the interpretation of To solve any linear programming

the verbal description of the problem problem, the decision variables need
N
into algebraic equations or inequalities to be identified. Decision variables are

aiming at optimizing the scarce presented by letters. For instance, let x
O
resources available. Formulation of a represents the number of products of

linear programming problem requires the type A manufactured per month, and
R
decision variables, objective function, y represents the number of products of

and constraints. type B manufactured per month.
FO
Decision variables Objective function

The decision variables are unknown An objective function is a linear function
quantities that decide the output. They whose value is to be either minimized
394
Form Five
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or maximized subject to the constraints 2.5 machine hours and 1.5 labour
defined over the set of feasible solutions. hours. The available machine hours
For instance, in maximization problems, is 300 and labour hours is 240 per
the objective function is written as: month. The profit for P1 is 1,600
Maximize z = ax + by, while for Tanzanian shillings and for P2 is
minimization problems it is written as: 1,280 Tanzanian shillings per month.
Minimize z = ax + by. Formulate a linear programming
problem for maximization of profit.
Constraints
Constraints are inequalities or equations Solution
LY
which connect the decision variables The given information are summarized
under certain restrictions or limitations. as shown in the following table:
N
Usually, constraints limit the values of the Resources
decision variables due to availability of Products
O
resources. For instance, ax + by ≤ c for Machine Labour
a maximization problem and ax + by ≥ c SE P1 1.5 2.5
for a minimization problem. The constants
P2 2.5 1.5
a and b are proportional contributions
of each decision variable to both the Available 300 240
U
objective function and constraints. hours
Non-negativity constraints
E
The decision variables should always Identify the decision variables as

follows:
N
take non-negative values for all linear

programming problems. That is, values Let: x represents the number
LI
of products of type P1
for decision variables should be greater
manufactured per month,
than or equal to zero.
N
y represents the number

of products of type P2
O
Example 8.1
manufactured per month.
Two products, P1 and P2 require
R
machines and labours in order to But the profit on the production of the
FO
be produced from a manufacturing two products has to be maximized.

industry. Product P1 requires 1.5 Thus, the objective function is given
machine hours and 2.5 labour by;
hours, while product P2 requires
Maximize z = 1,600x + 1,280y
395
Form Five
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The constraints are:

1.5 x + 2.5 y ≤ 300
2.5 x + 1.5 y ≤ 240
x ≥ 0, y ≥ 0
Therefore, the linear programming problem is;
Maximize z = 1,600x + 1,280y
Subject to: 1.5 x + 2.5 y ≤ 300
2.5 x + 1.5 y ≤ 240
x ≥ 0, y ≥ 0
LY
Example 8.2
N
The labour cost for two professional tailors, A and B are Tshs 80,000 and Tshs
O
100,000 per day, respectively. Tailor A can stitch 6 shirts and 4 pairs of trousers
per day, while tailor B can stitch 10 shirts and 4 pairs of trousers per day. The
SE
tailors intend to produce at least 60 shirts and 32 pairs of trousers. Formulate
a linear programming problem which minimizes the labour cost involved.
U
Solution
The given information are summarized as shown in the following table:
E
Tailor A Tailor B Minimum requirements

Shirts 6 10 60
N
Pair of trousers 4 4 32
LI
Labour cost per day (Tshs) 80,000 100,000

Let: x be the number of days tailor A works,
N
y be the number of days tailor B works.

O
Thus, the objective function is given by;

R
Minimize
= z 80, 000 x + 100, 000 y
FO
6 x + 10 y ≥ 60
4 x + 4 y ≥ 32
x ≥ 0, y ≥ 0
396
Form Five
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Therefore, the linear programming problem is;

Minimize
= z 80, 000 x + 100, 000 y
Subject to: 6 x + 10 y ≥ 60
4 x + 4 y ≥ 32
x ≥ 0, y ≥ 0
Example 8.3
LY
Antonia wishes to mix two types of drinks, D1 and D2 in such a way that the
vitamin contents of the mixture contain at least 8 units of vitamin A and 11
units of vitamin B. Drink D1 costs Tshs 8,880 per litre and drink D2 costs Tshs
N
11,840 per litre. Drink D1 contains 3 units of vitamin A per kilogram and 5
O
units of vitamin B per kilogram, while drink D2 contains 4 units of vitamin
A per kilogram and 2 units of vitamin B per kilogram. Formulate a linear
SE
programming problem to minimize the cost of the mixture.
Solution
U
The given information are summarized as shown in the following table:
Units of Vitamin per kg Minimum
Vitamin requirements (Units)
E
D1 D2
N
A 3 4 8
LI
B 5 2 11
N
Cost (Tshs) per litre 8,880 11,840

O
Let: x be the number of units of mixture of drink D1,

y be the number of units of mixture of drink D2.
R

Minimize z = 8,880x + 11,840y
FO

3x + 4 y ≥ 8
5 x + 2 y ≥ 11
x ≥ 0, y ≥ 0
397
Form Five
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Therefore, the linear programming week, 140 hours of construction
problem is; time and 100 hours of finishing
Minimize z = 8,880x + 11,840y time are available. Each table
Subject to: 3 x + 4 y ≥ 8 produced gives a profit of Tshs
5 x + 2 y ≥ 11 3,250 and each chair gives a profit
of Tshs 3,165. Formulate this
x ≥ 0, y ≥ 0
problem as a linear programming
problem to maximize the profit.
Exercise 8.1
3. A workshop prints two circuits of
types C1 and C2. Type C1 requires
1. A paint factory makes two
LY
20 resistors, 10 transistors, and
varieties of paints with standard
20 capacitors. Circuit of type
quality P1 and one of high quality
C2 requires 10 resistors, 10
N
P2. In order to manufacture these
transistors, and 30 capacitors.
paints only two ingredients,
O
The workshop has a stock of
namely; dye and pitch are needed.
200 resistors, 120 transistors,
P1 requires 2 units of dye and 3 SE and 150 capacitors. The profit
units of pitch for each unit made,
on each type C1 circuit is Tshs
and it is sold at a profit of Tshs
4,450 and Tshs 3,570 on each
2,000 per unit. P2 requires 4 units
type C2 circuit. Formulate the
U
of dye and 2 units of pitch for
linear programming problem for
each unit made, and it is sold at maximizing profit.
a profit of Tshs 2,500 per unit.
E
The factory has stocks of 12 4. A small company manufactures

N
units of dye and 10 units of pitch. two types of garden chairs. Type
Formulate a linear programming A requires 2 hours of machine
LI
problem to maximize the profit. time and 5 hours of craftsman

time. Type B requires 3 hours
N
2. A company workshop
of machine time and 5 hours of
manufactures chairs and tables.
O
craftsman time. Each day there

Each table requires 4 hours of
are 30 hours of machine time
labour from the construction and 60 hours of craftsman time.
R
department and 2 hours of labour The profit on each type A chair

FO
from the finishing department. is Tshs 2,330 and on each type B

Each chair requires 3 hours of chair is Tshs 1,890. Formulate an
construction and one hour of appropriate linear programming
finishing. During the current problem for maximizing profit.
398
Form Five
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5. Mr. Juma produces two packages C. An orange has 1 mg of vitamin

of fruit. Package A contains 20 A, 2 mg of vitamin B, and 3
peaches, 15 apples, and 10 pears. mg vitamin C. The costs of the
Package B contains 10 peaches, mango and the orange are Tshs
30 apples, and 12 pears. He has 400 and Tshs 150, respectively.
40,000 peaches, 60,000 apples, Formulate a cost minimization
and 27,000 pears available linear programming problem.
for packaging. He earns the 8. A dietitian wants to combine
profit of Tshs 5,000 for selling two types of ingredients, I1 and
package A and Tshs 7,000 for I2, so that the mixture’s vitamin
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selling package B. Formulate content includes at least 6 units of
a profit maximization linear vitamin A and 8 units of vitamin
programming problem.
N
B. Ingredient I1 contains 2 units/
6. A chef wishes to mix type I and kg of vitamin A and 3 units/kg
O
type II foods, in such a way that of vitamin B, while ingredient
the mixture contains at least 10 I2 contains 3 units/kg of vitamin
units of vitamin A, 12 units of
SE A and 4 units/kg of vitamin B.
vitamin B, and 8 units of vitamin Ingredient I1 and I2 cost Tshs
C. The vitamin contents of one 8,000 per kilogram and Tshs
U
kilogram for each type of food 7,500 per kilogram, respectively.
is given in the following table: Formulate a linear programming
Vitamin in kilograms problem to minimize the cost of
Food
E
A B C mixture.
Type I 1 2 3
N
9. A manufacturer has 90, 80, and

Type II 2 2 1 60 running metres of plywood,
LI
pine, and birch, respectively.

If one kilogram of type I food Product A requires 2, 2, and
N
costs Tshs 2,500 and one kilogram 4 running metres of plywood,

of type II food costs Tshs 2,850,
O
pine, and birch, respectively, and

formulate a linear programming product B requires 4, 5, and 1
problem to minimize the cost. running metres of plywood, pine,
R
7. A patient needs 5 mg, 20 mg, and birch, respectively. If product

FO
and 15 mg of vitamins A, B, and A is sold at Tshs 10,000 and

C per day, respectively from a product B is sold at Tshs 13,000.
mango and an orange. A mango Formulate a linear programming
has 0.5 mg of vitamin A, 2 mg of problem for finding the optimal
vitamin B, and 3 mg of vitamin growth of the product.
399
Form Five
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Graphical solution value for a maximization problem and

The constraints of the problem can smallest objective function value for a
be solved graphically. The solution is minimization problem.
obtained by treating the inequalities as
linear equations but the set of inequalities Optimal value
will be satisfied by the obtained region. The An optimal value is the quantity from
following terminologies are useful when the optimal solution that maximizes or
graphing linear programming problems. minimizes the objective function of the
linear programming problem.
Optimal problem
Optimal problem is a problem where Optimal point
LY
a particular objective function is An optimal point is a point where the
maximized or minimized subject to objective function attains its optimal
N
constraints over the set of feasible value.
solutions. It is the problem of finding
O
the most desirable solution from the Steps for solving linear programming
feasible solutions. An optimal problem problems graphically
may involve maximization of profit of SE
The following are steps of graphing
production, or minimization of cost from linear programming problems:
the available resources.
1. Formulate the linear programming
U
problem.
Feasible region
2. Replace an inequality symbol with
A feasible region is the set of all possible
feasible solutions. The feasible region an equal sign to form an equation of
E
includes also the boundary lines. If the the boundary line of the graph.
3. Draw the straight line that is the
N
feasible region is enclosed by a polygon,

it is said to be bounded otherwise, it is boundary line. Use dotted lines if
LI
unbounded. an inequality sign < or > is included.

Use a solid line if an inequality sign
N
Feasible solution ≤ or ≥ is included.

A feasible solution is a solution that
O
4. Identify the feasible region by testing

satisfies all constraints. Points within any convenient point (coordinates)
and on the boundary of the feasible which does not lie on the boundary.
R
region represent feasible solutions of Substitute the coordinates of the point

the constraints.
FO
in the inequality. If the inequality

is satisfied at the tested point, then
Optimal solution
the point lies in the feasible region,
An optimal solution is any solution in
otherwise the point does not lie in
the feasible region that gives the optimal
value. It is the largest objective function the feasible region.
400
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5. Identify the coordinates of an optimum or

Corner
corner points.
points
6. Evaluate the objective function at the Value of objective
of the
optimum points to obtain the optimal value function =z 4x + 3y
feasible
which may either be maximum or minimum
region
as per required linear programming problem.
A(0, 0) z = 4(0) + 3(0) = 0
Example 8.4
B(0, 24) z =4(0) + 3(24) =72
Determine the maximum value of =
z 4x + 3y
LY
of the feasible region represented by the C(16, 16) z = 4(16) + 3(16) = 112
linear programming problem shown in the D(26.7, 0) =
z 4(26.7) + 3(0)
= 106.8
following figure.
N
O
Therefore, the maximum value of z is
112 and it is obtained at point (16, 16).
SE
Example 8.5
U
Solve graphically the following linear
E
Minimize z = 2x + 5y
Subject to: 3 x + 2 y ≤ 6
N
2x + 4 y ≤ 8
LI
x + y ≥1
x ≥ 0, y ≥ 0
N
Solution
O
The graph of the given constraints

is as follows:
Solution
R
The shaded region ABCD represents the

FO
feasible region. Hence, the maximum of z

must occur at the corner points of the feasible
region. The following table shows corner
points and their corresponding values of the
objective function:
401
Form Five
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x+
C(0,2)
2
y=
D(1, 3 )
1
2
Fe
as
1
ib
B(0,1) 2x+
le
4y=
re
gi
8
on
E(2,0)
-2 -1 0 A(1,0)1 2 3 4 x
3x
+
LY
-1
2y
=
6
-2
N
The value of objective function at each of the extreme points is shown in the following
O
table:
Corner points of
Value of the
SE
of wood, plastic, and steel, respectively.
If product A is sold for Tshs 400,000
objective function
the feasible region z 2x + 5 y
= and product B for Tshs 600,000, how
U
many products of each type should be
A(1, 0) 2
manufactured to obtain the maximum
B(0, 1) 5
gross income?
E
C(0, 2) 10
Solution
⎛ 3⎞ 1
N
D ⎜ 1, ⎟ 9 The given information are summarized

⎝ 2⎠ 2 as shown in the following table:
LI
E(2, 0) 4 Wood Plastic Steel Profit

N
Since, at point A (1, 0) the objective (Tshs)

Product A 1 3 2 400,0000
function has the smallest value of 2.
O
Product B 3 4 1 600,0000
Therefore, the minimum value is 2.
Maximum 24 36 18
requirements
R
Example 8.6
Let: x be the number of units of product A
FO
A manufacturer has 24, 36, and 18 tonnes y be the number of units of product B.
of wood, plastics, and steel, respectively.
Product A requires 1, 3, and 2 tonnes Thus, the objective function is given
of wood, plastic, and steel, respectively. by;
Product B requires 3, 4, and 1 tonnes Maximize z = 400,000x + 600,000y
402
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Subject to:
x + 3 y ≤ 24
3 x + 4 y ≤ 36
2 x + y ≤ 18
x ≥ 0, y ≥ 0
The graph of the constraints is shown in the following figure.
LY
N
O
SE
U
Corner points and values of the objective function are shown in the following
E
table:
N
Corner points Value of the objective function z = 400,000x + 600000y

LI
A (0, 0) z = 400,000(0) + 600,000(0) = 0

N
B (9, 0) z = 400,000(9) + 600,000(0) =3,600,000

C (7.2, 3.6) z = 400,000(7.2) + 600,000(3.6) = 5,040,000
O
D (2.4, 7.2) z = 400,000(2.4) + 600,000(7.2) = 5,280,000

R
E (0, 8) z = 400,000(0) + 600,000(8) = 4,800,000

FO
The maximum value of the objective function is at point D(2.4, 7.2) which is
Tshs 5,280,000.
Therefore, in order to obtain maximum gross income the manufacturer should
make 2 units of product A and 7 units of product B.
403
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Example 8.7
The graph of the constraints is shown in the
John requires 10, 12, and 12 units following figure:
of chemicals of types A, B, and C,
respectively for his farm. A liquid
product contains 5, 2, and 1 units of A,
B, and C, respectively per litre, while a
powder product contains 1, 2, and 4 units
of A, B, and C, respectively per carton. If
a litre costs Tshs 3,000 and a carton costs
LY
Tshs 2,000, how many of each should
he purchase so as to minimize the cost
N
but meet the requirements?
O
Solution
The given information are interpreted
and summarized as shown in the The corner points and values of the objective
SE
following table: function are shown in the following table:
Product Chemicals
Corner
U
A B C
points of Value of the objective function
Liquid 5 2 1
the feasible z = 3,000x + 2,000y
Powder 1 2 4
region
E
Minimum 10 12 12
requirements A(0, 10) z = 3,000(0) + 2,000(10) = 20,000
N
LI
Let x be the number of litres of liquid B(1, 5) z = 3,000(1) + 2,000(5) = 13,000

product and y be the number of cartons
N
of powder product to be purchased. C(4, 2) z = 3,000(4) + 2,000(2) = 16,000

Thus, the objective function is given by,
O
D(12, 0) z = 3,000(12) + 2,000(0) = 36,000

Minimize z = 3,000x + 2,000y
R
Subject to: The minimum value of the objective function is

5 x + y ≥ 10 at point B(1, 5) which is Tshs 13,000.
FO
2 x + 2 y ≥ 12 Therefore, in order to minimize the cost while

x + 4 y ≥ 12 meeting the requirements, John requires to
x ≥ 0, y ≥ 0 purchase 1 litre of liquid product and 5 cartons
of powder product.
404
Form Five
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Exercise 8.2
(g) Maximize z = 3 x + 5 y
1. Find the solution of each of the Subject to: x + y ≤ 30
following linear programming
2 x + y ≤ 36
problems graphically:
x ≥ 0, y ≥ 0
(a) Maximize z = 2 x + 3 y
(h) Minimize z = 5 x + 10 y
Subject to: x + 2 y ≤ 10
3 x + y ≤ 15
x+ y ≥6
x ≥ 0, y ≥ 0
LY
x − 2y ≥ 0
(b) Minimize z = 4 x + 5 y x ≥ 0, y ≥ 0
Subject to: 4 x + y ≥ 8
N
2. A lightweight mountain tents
2x + 3y ≥ 6 manufacturing company produces
O
x ≥ 0, y ≥ 0 a standard and an expedition
SE model. Each standard tent requires
(c) Maximize z = 5 x + 3 y
1 hour of cutting and 3 hours of
Subject to: 5 x + 3 y ≤ 15 assembling. Each expedition tent
2 x + 5 y ≤ 10 requires 2 hours of cutting and 4
U
x ≥ 0, y ≥ 0 hours assembling. The maximum
labour hours available per day in
(d) Minimize z = x + 2 y
E
the cutting department and the

Subject to: 2 x + y ≥ 4 assembling departments are 32 and
N
x + 2y ≥ 6 84, respectively. If the company

LI
x ≥ 0, y ≥ 0 makes a profit of Tshs 10,950 on

each standard tent and Tshs 12,750
N
(e) Maximize z = 4 x + 9 y on each expedition tent, use the

Subject to: x + 5 y ≤ 20 graphical method to determine the
O
2 x + 3 y ≤ 14 number of tents of each type that

x ≥ 0, y ≥ 0 should be manufactured each day
R
to maximize the daily profit.

(f) Minimize z = x + 2 y
FO
3. A firm makes two products, P1 and

Subject to: x + 2 y ≥ 10 P2, and has production capacity
2x − y ≤ 0 of 18 tonnes per day. Product P1
2 x + y ≥ 20 requires a production capacity of 2
x ≥ 0, y ≥ 0 tonnes per day, while product P2
405
Form Five
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requires a production capacity Tshs 1,500 for P and Tshs 850 for
of 1 tonne per day. Each tonne Q. Find an optimal solution for
of P1 and P2 requires 60 hours the linear programming problem.
of machine work. The maximum 6. A carpenter makes two products,
hours available are 720. If the tables and chairs. Processing of
profit per tonne for P1 is Tshs these products is done on machines
14,670 and for P2 is Tshs 13,280,
A and B. A chair requires 2 hours
find optimal solution by graphical
on machine A and 4 hours on
method.
machine B. A table requires 4
LY
4. A farmer can buy two types
hours on machine A and 5 hours
of plant food, F1 and F2. Each
cubic metre of F1 contains 30 on machine B. There are 16 hours
N
kg of phosphoric acid, 20 kg of per day available on machine A and
O
nitrogen, and 15 kg of potash. 23 hours per day on machine B.
Each cubic metre of F2 contains Profits gained by the carpenter from
6 kg of phosphoric acid, 18 kg of
SE a chair and a table are Tshs 1,570
nitrogen, and 24 kg of potash. The and Tshs 1,860, respectively. What
minimum monthly requirements should be the daily production of
U
are 120 kg of phosphoric acid,
each of the two products in order
180 kg of nitrogen, and 288 kg
to maximize the profit?
of potash. If food F1 costs Tshs
E
55,000 per cubic metre and food 7. An agricultural company has 180
tonnes of Nitrogen fertilizers,
N
F2 costs Tshs 70,000 per cubic

metre. Use the graphical method 160 tonnes of phosphate, and
LI
to solve the linear programming 220 tonnes of potash. It will be

problem to minimize the cost.
N
able to sell 3:2:4 mixtures of

5. A firm produces two products, P these substances at a profit of
O
and Q. The daily total production Tshs 8,980 per tonne and 2:2:2
limit is 600 units. The firm requires mixtures at a profit of Tshs 9,880
R
at least 300 total units that must per tonne respectively. Use the
be produced every day. Machine
FO
graphical method to determine

hours consumption per unit is 6
the number of units of these two
for P and 2 for Q. At least 1,200
machine hours must be used daily. mixtures that should be prepared
Manufacturing costs per unit are so as to maximize profit.
406
Form Five
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Transportation problems
8. A company manufactures two
In most cases, products or goods
products, X and Y. Each product has
produced are transported from the
to be processed in three departments: storage location (source) to the
Welding, assembling, and painting consumer (destination) at a minimum
departments. Each unit of X takes cost in order to attain the desired profit.
2 hours in the welding department, Since transportation costs are not
3 hours in assembling, and 1 hour controllable, then minimizing total cost
in painting. The corresponding requires making the best product routing
processing hours for a unit of Y decisions in distribution processes. The
LY
are 3, 2, and 1 hours, respectively. transportation problem is a type of
The labour hours available in a linear programming problem designed
N
to minimize the cost of distributing a
month are 1,500 for the welding
product from sources to the destinations.
O
department, 1,500 in assembling and
550 in painting. The contribution
Note that, a transportation problem
to profit and fixed overheads are SE
is considered as a balanced one, that
Tshs 19,660 for product X and Tshs is, the total supply from the sources to
21,430 for product Y. Solve this each destination is equal to the total
U
problem graphically to obtain the demands, otherwise the transportation
optimal solution for the maximum problem is unbalanced. Unbalanced
contribution for each product. transportation has no feasible region.
E
9. A wheat and barley farmer has 168

N
There are several kinds of transportation

hectare of ploughed land, and a
methods which all serve the purpose of
LI
capital of Tshs 4,000,000. It costs

minimization of cost. In this section,
Tshs 28,000 to sow one hectare of the transportation problems which
N
wheat and Tshs 20,000 to sow one involve two sources (S1 and S2) and two
O
hectare of barley. Suppose that his destinations (D1 and D2) are studied.
profit is Tshs 160,000 per hectare Also, transportation problems which
R
of wheat and Tshs 110,000 per involve two sources (S1 and S2) and
hectare of barley. Use the graphical three destinations (D1, D2 , and D3) are
FO
method to find the optimal number studied as illustrated in Figure 8.1(a)

of hectares of wheat and barley and Figure 8.1(b), respectively.
that must be ploughed in order to
maximize profit.
407
Form Five
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D1
S1 S2
D2
Figure 8.1 (a): Two sources and two

destinations Figure 8.2: Two sources and two destinations
LY
From Figure 8.2, the decision variables
D1
will be defined as follows:
Let: x be the number of products to
N
be transported from source P to
O
S1 D2 S2
destination A.
y be the number of products to
D3
SE be transported from source P to
destination B.
Figure 8.1 (b): Two sources and three Since, there are already products
U
destinations
transported from source P to destinations
A and B, the decision variables will
Formulation of transportation deduct the products transported before
E
problems as follows:
Formulation of a transportation problem
N
Let: ( a − x ) be the number of products

depends on the number of destinations to be transported from source Q to
LI
from the given sources. Consider the destination A,

transportation problem which involves ( b − y ) be the number of products
N
two sources having k products in source to be transported from source Q to

P and h products in source Q and two destination B.
O
destinations which require a products

in destination A and b products in Similarly, if the transportation problem
R
destination B as shown in Figure 8.2. involves two sources which has k

products in source P and h products in
FO
source Q and three destinations which

require a products in destination A, b
products in destination B, and c products
in destination C as shown in Figure 8.3.
408
Form Five
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a
A
Example 8.8
A manufacturer of certain products

k b h
has two warehouses H1 and H2 for
P B Q
storing her products. She stores 80
units of the products in H1 and 70 units
C
in H2. The customers C1 and C2 placed
c
orders for 35 and 60 units in H1 and
Figure 8.3: Two sources and three H2, respectively. The transportation
destinations cost in Tanzanian shillings for each
LY
unit is as shown in the following table:
From Figure 8.3, the decision variables
will be as follows: To
Let: x be the number of products to Transport Costs
N
From
be transported from source P to
destination A,
O
Warehouses C1 C2
y be the number of products to
be transported from source P to H1 80 120
destination B,
z be the number of products to
SE H2 100 130
be transported from source P to Formulate a linear programming

destination C.
U
problem for minimizing the total
Since there are already products transported transportation cost.
from source P to destinations A, B, and
C, the decision variables will deduct the
E
Solution
products transported before as follows; The given transportation problem
N
Let: ( a − x ) be the number of products involves two sources and two

to be transported from source Q to
LI
destinations as illustrated pictorially

destination A,
in the following figure:
( b − y ) be the number of products
N

destination B,
O
( c − z ) be the number of products

R
destination C.
FO
After deciding the variables, other

procedures of writing objective functions
and constraints on the Cartesian
coordinate system is the same as that
of linear programming problems.
409
Form Five
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The decision variables are as follows:

Let: x be the number of products to be transported from warehouse H1 to customer C1,
y be the number of products to be transported from warehouse H1 to customer C2,
(35 − x) be the number of products to be transported from warehouse H2 to customer C1,
(60 − y ) be the number of products to be transported from warehouse H2 to customer C2,
Thus, the objective function is formulated as;
Minimize z = 80 x + 120 y + 100(35 − x) + 130(60 − y )
z= −20 x − 10 y + 11,300
LY
The constraints are formulated as P, Q, and R. The monthly requirements of the
follows: agencies are 5, 5, and 4 packets of medicine,
N
x ≤ 35 respectively. While the production capacities
O
y ≤ 60 of the factories A and B are 8 and 6 units per
x + y ≤ 80 month, respectively. The transportation cost
35 − x + 60 − y ≤ 70 ⇒ x + y ≥ 25
SE
per packet from the factories is shown in the
35 − x ≤ 35 ⇒ x ≥ 0 following table
60 − y ≤ 60 ⇒ y ≥ 0
U
From
Therefore, the formulated linear A B
To
programming problem is to;
E
P 15 10
Minimize z = – 20x – 10y + 11,300
N
Subject to : x ≤ 35 Q 10 12
R 15 10
LI
y ≤ 60
x + y ≤ 80 Formulate a linear programming problem for
N
minimizing the transportation cost.

x + y ≥ 25
x ≥ 0, y ≥ 0
O
Solution
The transportation problem involves two
R
Example 8.9 sources and three destinations as illustrated

pictorially in the following figure:
FO
A medical company has factories at

two locations, A and B. From these
locations, the supply is assigned to
each of the three agencies situated at
410
Form Five
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P
x
5-x
8 5 6
y 5-y
A Q B
z
4 4-z
LY
R
N
The decision variables will be as follows;
Let x be the number of packets to be transported from factory A to agency P,
O
y be the number of packets to be transported from factory A to agency Q,
z be the number of packets to be transported from factory A to agency R,
SE
(5 − x) be the number of packets to be transported from factory B to agency P,
(5 − y ) be the number of packets to be transported from factory B to agency Q,
(4 − z ) be the number of packets to be transported from factory B to agency R.
U
Thus, the objective function is given by,

E
Minimize
Min f =15 x + 10 y + 15 z + 10(5 − x) + 12(5 − y ) + 10(4 − z )
= 5 x − 2 y + 5 z + 150
N
Also, 4Also,
− z ≥40− z ≥ 0
Thus, Thus,
The constraints are formulated as Simplification 4 − (8 −4 (− + −y ))
x(8
gives, ( x≥+0y )) ≥ 0
LI
follows: −4 + x −+4y+≥x0+ y ≥ 0
N
x≤5 x + y ≥x4+ y ≥ 4
Thus,
y≤5
Also, 5 – x ≤ 5 Þ x ≥ 0
O
z ≥ 0 and 4 − z ≥ 0
5–y≥5Þy≥0
but x + y + z = 8
R
z =8 − ( x + y ) Therefore, the formulated linear

FO
8 − ( x + y) ≥ 0 ⇒ 8 ≥ x + y programming problem is to:

Thus, x + y ≤ 8 Minimize
Also, 4 − z ≥ 0 f = 5 x − 2 y + 5 [8 − ( x + y ) ] + 150
= 190 − 7 y
Thus, 4 − (8 − ( x + y )) ≥ 0
−4 + x + y ≥ 0
x+ y ≥4 411
Form Five
FOR ONLINE USE ONLY
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Subject to : x ≤ 5 The costs of transportation in

Tanzanian shillings are given in
y≤5
the following table:
x+ y ≥4
x+ y ≤8
From
x ≥ 0, y ≥ 0 X Y
To
Exercise 8.3 L 3,000 2,000
M 2,000 3,000
N 4,000 4,000
LY
1. Two timber production centres,
A and B, are capable of Formulate a linear programming
manufacturing 120 and 100 pieces problem to minimize the cost of
N
of timber each week, respectively. transportation.
3. Two suppliers of sweets, F and
O
Three customers U, V, and W
placed weekly orders of 90, 70, G, are capable of supplying not
and 60 pieces of timber from SE more than 40 kg and 35 kg of
the timber production centres, sweets, respectively. The supplier
respectively. The transportation is required to supply sweets to
costs in Tanzanian shillings are three day care school, X, Y, and
U
shown in the following table: Z. The daily school requirements
are 30 kg, 25 kg, and 20 kg for
From schools X, Y, and Z, respectively.
E
A B
To The distance in kilometres from
N
U 5,000 3,500 the suppliers to the respective

hotels are tabulated in the
LI
V 4,500 3,000
W 4,000 5,000 following table:
N
Formulate a linear programming From

F G
O
problem for minimization of the To

cost of transportation. X 6,000 5,000
R
2. The daily meat requirements of Y 8,500 7,000

three hotels L, M, and N is 70 kg, Z 9,000 5,500
FO
40 kg, and 60 kg, respectively. If the transportation costs are

Two meat suppliers, X and Y have proportional to the distance
the capacities of supplying 90 kg travelled per each kilometre,
and 80 kg of meat, respectively. formulate a linear programming
412
Form Five
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problem to minimize the

From
transportation cost for the sweet Nana Nina
supplier. To
4. Two strawberry producers, A and STAR 7,500 7,500
B, with 50 tonnes and 45 tonnes MOON 9,000 9,500
of strawberries, respectively, are CLOUD 12,000 12,500
requested to supply strawberries to Prepare a linear programming
three food processing industries, problem representing the given
namely; P, Q, and R, demanding 30 information.
LY
tonnes, 25 tonnes, and 40 tonnes 6. A certain electric bulb manufacturing
of strawberries, respectively. The company has two factories located
transportation costs in Tanzanian at cities, F1 and F2, and three retail
N
shillings from the sources to the centres located at C1, C2, and C3.
O
demanding sites are tabulated as The monthly demand at the retail
follows: centres are 8, 5, and 2, electric bulbs,
SE respectively, while the monthly
From supply at the factories are 6 and
A B
To 9, electric bulbs respectively. The
cost of transportation in Tanzanian
U
P 30,000 25,000
shillings of one electrical bulb
Q 45,000 30,000
between each factory and each retail
R 20,000 40,000
centre is shown in the following
E
Formulate a linear programming table.

N
problem representing the given

To
transportation problem. C1 C2 C3
LI
From
5. Nana and Nina are poultry farmers F1 50 50 30
N
who can supply a maximum of 80

F2 60 40 10
and 65 trays of eggs every month,
O
respectively. Three hotels, STAR, Formulate a linear programming

MOON, and CLOUD, each places problem from the given information.
R
a monthly order of 40, 55, and 7. A sand dealer has two quarries
50 trays of eggs, respectively.
FO
Q1 and Q2 which produce 3,000

The transportation costs of eggs tonnes and 1,500 tonnes of sand
in Tanzanian shillings from the per day, respectively. Three
poultry farms to the hotels are road constructors, A, B, and C
tabulated in the following table: require each day 2,000 tonnes,
413
Form Five
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1,500 tonnes, and 1,000 tonnes of 9. Mr. Bakari has two warehouses,
sand, respectively. The distances W1 and W2 that contain 900
in kilometres from the quarries to tonnes and 600 tonnes of
each site of the road constructors grained maize, respectively.
are shown in the following table. He is planning to supply flour
to three customers, T1, T2, and
To
A B C T3, which are in need of 500
From
tonnes, 600 tonnes, and 400
Q1 7 4 2 tonnes respectively. Formulate
Q2 3 2 2 a linear programming problem
LY
given that the transportation
If the transportation costs are costs in Tanzanian shillings per
proportional to the distance
N
tonne of wheat flour from each
travelled per each kilometre warehouse to each customer are
O
formulate a linear programming as shown in the following table:
problem for minimization of the
cost.
SE To
8. Two sugar production factories T1 T2 T3
From
located in Morogoro and Kagera W1 600 300 400
U
have production capacities of 8
W2 400 200 600
and 6 tonnes, respectively. The
products from the factories are
E
delivered to depots situated in Solving transportation problems

N
Mwanza, Dodoma, and Arusha. graphically

The weekly requirements of the
LI
Transportation problems can be solved

depots are 5, 5, and 4 tonnes, graphically similar to the way linear
N
respectively. Formulate a linear programming problems are solved.

programming problem to minimize After a transportation problem is
O
costs if the transportation cost in formulated, a graph is drawn to

Tanzanian shillings per tonne is identify the feasible region and corner
R
as shown in the following table: points. The corner points are then used
to obtain the optimal solution of the
FO
To
Mwanza Dodoma Arusha given transportation problem.
From
Morogoro 16,000 10,000 15,000
Kagera 10,000 12,000 10,000
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Example 8.10
Mariam has two warehouses, one in Kigoma and one in Mtwara. She wants to transport
tonnes of goods to Singida and Moshi. She needs to transport 60 tonnes and 40 tonnes
of goods to Singida and Moshi, respectively. The warehouses at Kigoma and Mtwara
contain 80 and 60 tonnes of goods, respectively. The transportation costs in Tanzanian
shillings per tonne of goods are shown in the following table:
From
Kigoma Mtwara
To
LY
Singida 180,000 240,000
Moshi 120,000 100,000
N
How should the transportation of tonnes of goods be done at a minimum cost?
O
Solution
The transportation problem involves two sources and two destinations as illustrated
SE
pictorially in the following figure:
U
E
N
LI
N
O
The decision variables are defined as follows;

R
Let: x be the number of tonnes of goods to be transported from Kigoma to Singida, and
y be the number of tonnes of goods to be transported from Kigoma to Moshi, then
FO
( 60 − x ) is the number of tonnes of goods to be transported from Mtwara to Singida,

( 40 − y ) is the number of tonnes of goods to be transported from Mtwara to Moshi.
415
Form Five
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Thus, the objective function is formulated as:

Minimize
= z 180, 000 x + 120, 000 y + 240, 000(60 − x) + 100, 000(40 − y )
z 18, 400, 000 − 60, 000 x + 20, 000 y
=
The constraints are formulated as follows:

x ≤ 60
y ≤ 40
x + y ≤ 80
60 − x + 40 − y ≤ 60 ⇒ x + y ≥ 40
LY
60 − x ≤ 60 ⇒ x ≥ 0
40 − y ≤ 40 ⇒ y ≥ 0
N
The graph of the constraints is as shown in the following figure:
O
SE
U
E
N
LI
N
O
R
FO
The corner points and values of the objective function are shown in the
following table:
416
Form Five
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Value of the objective function

Corner points z = 18, 400, 000 − 60, 000 x + 20, 000 y
A(0, 40) z = 18, 400, 000 − 60, 000(0) + 20, 000(40) = 19, 200, 000/ =
B(40, 40) z = 18, 400,000 − 60,000(40) + 20,000(40) = 16,800,000/ =
C(60, 20) z = 18, 400,000 − 60,000(60) + 20,000(20) = 15, 200,000/ =
D(60, 0) z = 18, 400,000 − 60,000(60) + 20,000(0) = 14,800,000/ =
E(40, 0) z = 18, 400,000 − 60,000(40) + 20,000(0) = 16,000,000/ =
LY
The minimum cost is at point D(60, 0) which is 14,800,000 Tanzanian shillings.
N
Therefore, in order for Mariam to minimize cost, the transportation should be
as follows:
O
60 tonnes of goods to be transported from Kigoma to Singida,
0 tonnes of goods to be transported from Kigoma to Moshi,
SE
0 tonnes of goods to be transported from Mtwara to Singida, and
40 tonnes of goods to be transported from Mtwara to Moshi.
U
Example 8.11 From
Mbagala Ubungo
To
A supplier of rice has stores at
E
Mbezi 160 100

Mbagala and Ubungo. Three
N
customers located at Mbezi, Manzese 100 120

Manzese, and Kinyerezi order Kinyerezi 150 100
LI
sacks of rice weekly. The customers How many sacks should be transported
N
weekly requirements are 15, 15, from each store to each customer at
and 12 sacks of rice, respectively. the minimum cost? Find the minimum
O
The stores' output capacities at transportation cost.

Mbagala and Ubungo are 40 and
R
36 sacks of rice, respectively. The Solution

cost of transportation per kilogram The transportation problem involves
FO
in Tanzanian shillings are shown in two sources and three destinations as

the following table: illustrated pictorially in the following
figure:
417
Form Five
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LY
N
The decision variables are defined as follows;
O
Let: x be the number of sacks of rice to be transported from Mbagala to Mbezi,
y be the number of sacks of rice to be transported from Mbagala to Manzese,
z be the number of sacks of rice to be transported from Mbagala to Kinyerezi,
SE
( 15 − x ) is the number of sacks of rice to be transported from Ubungo to Mbezi,
( 15 − y ) is the number of sacks of rice to be transported from Ubungo to Manzese,
U
( 12 − z ) is the number of sacks of rice to be transported from Ubungo to
Kinyerezi.
E
Minimize w = 160 x + 100 y + 150 z + 100(15 − x) + 120(15 − y ) + 100(12 − z )

N
= 60 x − 20 y + 50 z + 4,500
Subject to the following constraints:
LI
x ≤ 15
N
y ≤ 15
z ≤ 12
O
15 − x + 15 − y + 12 − z ≤ 36
15 − x ≤ 15
R
15 − y ≤ 15
FO
12 − z ≤ 12
x ≥ 0, y ≥ 0
But x + y + z = 40 ⇒ z = 40 − ( x + y )
418
Form Five
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Therefore, the linear programming problem is:

Minimize w = 60 x − 20 y + 50(40 − ( x + y )) + 4,500
w =10 x − 70 y + 6,500
Subject to : x ≤ 15
y ≤ 15
x + y ≥ 28
x + y ≤ 40
x ≥ 0, y ≥ 0
LY
The graph of the formulated linear programming problem is as shown in the
following figure:
N
O
SE
U
E
N
LI
N
The corner points and values of the objective function are shown in following
O
table:
Corner points of the feasi- Value of the objective function

R
ble region w =10 x − 70 y + 6,500

FO
A(13, 15) w = 10(13) − 70(15) + 6,500 = 5,580/ =

B(15, 15) w = 10(15) − 70(15) + 6,500 = 5, 600/ =
C(15, 13) w = 10(15) − 70(13) + 6,500 = 5, 740/ =
The minimum value is at point A(13, 15), which is Tshs 5, 580.
419
Form Five
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Therefore, in order for the supplier should the cement dealer

to minimize cost, the transportation supply the cement to the two
should be as follows; customers to minimize the total
13 sacks of rice to be transported transportation cost?
from Mbagala to Mbezi,
15 sacks of rice to be transported 2. A manufacturer has a warehouse
from Mbagala to Manzese, at Misungwi which contains 25
12 sacks of rice to be transported units of his products. She has
from Mbagala to Kinyerezi, another warehouse at Ngudu
2 sacks of rice to be transported from which contains 30 units. She has
LY
Ubungo to Mbezi, to supply to the shops in Mabuki
0 sacks of rice to be transported from and Misasi with 20 and 15 units,
Ubungo to Manzese, and respectively. The transportation
N
0 sacks of rice to be transported from costs in Tanzanian shillings per
O
Ubungo to Kinyerezi. each unit are tabulated as follows;
The minimum transportation cost is
Tshs 5,580.
SE From
Misungwi Ngudu
To
Exercise 8.4 Mabuki 150 220
U
Misasi 130 180
1. A cement dealer has two depots
D1 and D2 which hold 120 and
How should the manufacturer
E
40 tonnes, respectively. He has

supply her products to minimize
two customers, C1 and C2 who
N
the transportation costs?

have ordered 80 and 50 tonnes
LI
of cement, respectively. Their

distances in kilometres are shown 3. Almasi has made 900 and 600
N
in the following table: bricks at his houses H1 and H2,

respectively. He plans to build
O
From new houses at three sites P, Q, and

D1 D2 R. He expects to use 500 bricks
To
R
at P, 600 bricks at Q, and 400

C1 20 40
bricks at R. The transportation
FO
C2 15 30 costs in Tanzanian shilling per

If the transportation costs are brick from each of his house to
proportional to the distance each of the three sites are shown
travelled per kilometre, how in the following table:
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Form Five
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From (b) What will be the minimum

H1 H2 transportation cost?.
To 5. Mrs. Mlunda has two depots,
P 60 40 A and B with a stock of 30,000
Q 30 20 and 20,000 bricks, respectively.
R 40 60 She receives orders from three
(a) Determine the number of bricks customers. Mr. Malaga requires
that he will transport to each site 15,000 bricks, Mr. Falulu
at a minimum cost. requires 20,000 bricks and Ms.
LY
(b) What will be the overall Tina requires 15,000 bricks.
minimum cost? The costs of transportation per
brick in Tanzanian shillings are
N
4. Two factories are located at two
tabulated in the following table:
places M1 and M2. From these
O
locations, a certain product is
From
to be delivered to each of the SE A B
three destinations, A, B, and C. To
The weekly requirements of the Mr. Malaga 40 20
destinations are respectively 5, Mr. Falulu 20 60
U
5, and 4 units of the products,
Ms. Tina 30 40
while the production capacities
of the factories at M1 and M 2 How should Mrs. Mlunda fulfil
E
are respectively 8 and 6 units. the orders so as to minimize the

The costs of transportation in cost of transportation?
N
Tanzanian shillings per packet 6. A soft drink dealer has two

LI
are given in the following table: sources, C 1 and C 2 with

capacities of 50,000 and 30,000
From
N
M1 M2 crates, respectively. The dealer

To wishes to supply drinks to three
O
A 160 100 shops, S1, S2, and S3, whose

B 100 120 requirements are 35,000, 20,000,
R
C 150 100 and 25,000 crates, respectively.

The costs of transportation per
FO
(a) How many units of products crate in Tanzanian shillings from

should be transported from each the sources to the shops are as
factory to each destination in order summarized in the following
to minimize transportation cost? table:
421
Form Five
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From 8. Three jogging clubs, C1, C2, and

C1 C2 C3 need 20, 15, and 20 sets of
To equipments, respectively. The
S1 70 30 clubs are sponsored by two
S2 60 40 benefactors B1 and B2 who have
S3 30 20 only 25 and 30 set of equipments,
respectively. The transportation
How should the delivery be
costs per set of equipments in
scheduled at a minimum cost
Tanzania shillings are shown in
of transportation? Find the
the following table:
LY
minimum cost.
Jogging clubs
7. A business person has maize Benefactors
C1 C2 C3
N
storages in two wards, W1 and
B1 300 200 100
W2 with capacities of 100 tonnes
O
and 50 tonnes, respectively. The B2 250 100 150
storages supply maize to three SE
(a) Determine how the benefactors
centres, C1, C2, and C3 whose
should supply the equipments
requirements are 60, 50, and to each of the jogging clubs at a
40 tonnes, respectively. The
U
minimum cost.
transportation costs in Tanzanian
(b) Find the minimum cost.
shillings per tonne from each
E
ward to each centre are shown

9. A packaging company has two
in the following table:
N
market locations, L1 and L2 to

sell coconuts. The company
LI
To can supply 80,000 bags from L1

C1 C2 C3
N
From and 70,000 bags from L2. The

retail traders, Msigwa and Asha
W1 60,000 30,000 25,000
O
can place orders for 35,000 and

W2 40,000 20,000 30,000 60,000 bags, respectively. The
R
transportation costs in Tanzania

(a) How should the supply be
shillings per bag from each
FO
made to minimize the cost of

market location to each of the
transportation?
retail traders are as shown in the
(b) Determine the minimum cost of
following table:
each supply. What is the overall
minimum cost?
422
Form Five
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To
Msigwa Asha
From
L1 8,000 12,000
L2 10,000 13,000
How many bags of coconuts should the entrepreneur deliver to each retail trader
from each market location in order to minimize the total cost of transportation?
LY
Chapter summary
N
1. Linear programming is a mathematical technique for finding optimal solutions
O
to problems that can be expressed as linear equations and inequalities.
2. The transportation problem is a type of linear programming problem
SE
designed to minimize the cost of distributing products from different sources
to different destinations.
3. Decision variables are the unknown quantities that decide the output of the
U
linear programming problem.
4. An objective function is a linear function whose value is to be either
E
minimized or maximized subject to some constraints defined over the set

of feasible solutions.
N
5. Constraints are inequalities or equations which connect the decision variables

LI
under certain restrictions or limitations on the decision variables.

6. A feasible region is a set of all possible solutions of the linear programming
N
problem.
O
7. An optimal solution is the value at a point where the objective function

reaches its optimal value.
R
8. A feasible solution is solution that satisfies all constraints of the linear

FO
9. An optimal value is the quantity from the optimal solution that maximizes
or minimizes the objective function of the linear programming problem.
423
Form Five
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Revision exercise 8
Tshs 30,000 per unit toward
1. Two departments of inspection the total profit. Raw materials
and evaluation produce two r1 and r2 are required for
products, Alpha and Beta. Alpha production. At least 18 kg of r1
requires 2 hours per unit in the and 12 kg of r2 must be used
inspection department and 4 daily. Also, at most 34 hours
hours per unit in the evaluation of labour are to be utilized. A
department. Beta requires 3 quantity of 2 kg of r1 are needed
hours per unit in the inspection
LY
for model X and 1 kg of r1 for
department and 2 hours per unit
model Y. For each X and Y, 1 kg
in the department evaluation.
of r2 is required. It takes 3 hours
N
There are 60 and 80 hours per
to manufacture model X and 2
week available in the inspection
O
hours to manufacture model Y.
and evaluation departments,
How many units of each model
respectively. The profit per unit
for Alpha and Beta are Tshs 4,000
SE should be produced to maximize
and Tshs 6,000, respectively. the profit? What is the overall
(a) Formulate the linear maximum profit?
U
programming problem 3. A metal company plans to
which maximizes the total purchase at least 200 kg of scrap
profit of the product. containing high and low quality
E
(b) Use the graphical method to metals, X and Y. The scrap to be

N
determine the recommended purchased must contain at least

product mix. 100 quintals of type X and not
LI
(c) Find the greatest number of more than 35 kg of type Y. The

the Beta product that can be company can purchase the scrap
N
produced if the company from two supplies, A and B. The

O
wants to spend the time percentage of X and Y metals in

available in the inspection terms of the weight in the scrap
supplied by A and B is given in
R
and evaluation departments.

2. A manufacturer produces two the following table:
FO
different models, X and Y of

the same product. Model X Metals A B
contributes Tshs 50,000 per X 20% 75%
unit, while model Y contributes Y 10% 20%
424
Form Five
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The price of the type A scrap 3, 4, and 1 tonnes of wood, plastic

is Tshs 20,000 per kg and Tshs and steel, respectively. If product
40,000 per kg of type B scrap. A is sold at Tshs 400,000 and
Find the number of scraps from B is sold at Tshs 600,000, how
each supplier the company should many products of each should the
buy to minimize cost. What is the manufacturer make to obtain the
minimum cost? maximum gross income?
4. A factory manufactures two 6. For each cup of coffee a student
types of machines, A and B. drinks before examination, he
To manufacture a machine of will answer two extra questions
LY
type A requires 20 kg of alloy correctly. For each cup of tea
metal, and type B requires 50 he drinks, he will answer one
kg of alloy metal. Machines, A
question correctly. A cup of
N
and B require 40 minutes and
coffee has 10 grams of sugar
50 minutes in the assembling
O
and 100 grams of caffeine and a
department, respectively and
cup of tea has 20 grams of sugar
the assembling department has SE
only 600 minutes. Furthermore, and 25 grams of caffeine. If the
machines A and B require student drinks more than 100
18 minutes and 15 minutes, grams of sugar, he will suffer
U
respectively to be painted. The from diabetes and shocks, and
painting department is restricted will fail his examinations. If
not to use more than 240 minutes the student drinks more than
E
in a day. The company earns 300 grams of caffeine, he will

a profit of Tshs 10,000 and
N
suffer heart palpitation and fail

Tshs 20,000 for types A and B his examinations. How many
LI
machines, respectively. cups of tea and coffee should

(a) How many of each machine the student drink to maximize
N
should be produced for his correct answers?

maximum profit?
O
7. Mr. Makungu plans to sow

(b) Find the maximum profit.
maize and beans in his farm.
5. A manufacturer has 24, 37, and
He estimates to use 4 and 6
R
18 tonnes of wood, plastics, and

men per hectare of maize and
steel, respectively for making
FO
beans, respectively from 26 men

two products, A and B. Product available. Sowing maize and
A requires 1, 3, and 2 tonnes beans costs Tshs 1,200 and Tshs
of wood, plastic, and steel, 800 per hectare, respectively. If
respectively. Product B requires he is prepared to spend up to Tshs
425
Form Five
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4,800, find the greatest possible (c) Find the number of toys the
area he can sow. company can produce, if the
8. A carpenter's workshop in a company wants to spent all
certain college makes tables the time available.
and chairs which are processed (d) Find the number of toys of
through assembling and finishing each type the company should
sections. The college uses 48 make to maximize the profit if
hours available in assembling the cheetah and cat toys make
and 36 hours in finishing a profit of Tshs 12,000 and
sections. A table requires 3 hours
LY
Tshs 16,000, respectively.
in assembling and 3 hours in 10. Two friends are planning an
finishing sections, while a chair exercise program to keep their
N
requires 4 hours in assembling bodies fit. They would want to
and 2 hours in finishing sections. spend up to 1.5 hours per day on
O
If a chair makes a profit of Tshs aerobics and flexibility exercises.
4,000 and Tshs 5,000 for a table, SE They would prefer to do more
how many chairs and tables can aerobics than flexibility, but could
be made to maximize the profit? not manage more than 60 minutes
9. A company makes two types of of aerobics. They discovered
U
that aerobics use 8 calories per
toys, a cheetah toy and a cat toy.
minute and flexibility exercises
The cheetah toy requires Tshs 2,000
use 3 calories per minute. They
E
for materials and 4 hours of work.

wish to lose the maximum
The cat toy requires Tshs 2,500
N
number of calories. How should

for materials and 3 hours of work. the planning program be done in
LI
The company has Tshs 40,000 for order to have maximum loss of
materials and has to spend 64 hours calories? What is the maximum
N
of work to make at least 7 toys of losses of calories?

O
each type. 11. A special diet for laboratory

(a) Determine the number animals is to contain at least
of ways the company can 300 units of vitamins, 110 units
R
produce the toys. of minerals, and 560 calories.

FO
There are two mixtures, A and

(b) Which among the ways in
B of diet available. One gram
(a) gives the greatest balance
of mixture A contains 3 units of
in purchasing materials for
vitamins, 1 unit of minerals, and
the toys. 4 calories. One gram of mixture
426
Form Five
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B contains 2 units of vitamins, 1 unit of minerals, and 7 calories. Mixture

A costs Tshs 40 per gram and mixture B costs Tshs 60 per gram.
(a) How many grams of each mixture should be used to satisfy the
requirement of the diet at a minimum cost?
(b) Find the cost of the cheapest diet.
12. A poultry farmer wishes to produce a chicken feed which is a blend of two
inputs labelled P and Q. Each unit of input P and Q costs Tshs 400 and Tshs
100, respectively. The following table shows the percentage of ingredients
in each blend input and the minimum daily requirements:
LY
Proportion of input Minimum
Ingredients per unit of blend (%) requirements
N
P Q (grams)
O
Protein 15 60 180
Carbohydrates 10 SE 10 50
Salt 15 30 120
How can the farmer produce a chicken feed which meets the minimum
U
requirements at the least cost?
13. An oil company has two depots, N and Q with capacities, 7,000 litres and
E
4,000 litres of oil, respectively. The company is to supply oil to three petrol
pumps, D, E, and F whose requirements are 4,500 litres, 3,000 litres, and
N
3,500 litres, respectively. The distances between the depots and the petrol
LI
pumps in kilometres are given in the following table:
From N Q
N
O
To
D 7 3
R
E 6 4
F 3 2
FO
Assuming the transportation cost is 1 Tanzanian shilling per kilometre, how

should the delivery be scheduled in order to minimize the cost? Determine
the minimum cost of the delivery.
427
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14. A certain factory has two the soil condition, a farmer finds
warehouses, W1 and W2 each that she needs at least 14 kg of
containing shilling 900 crates of Nitrogen and 14 kg of phosphoric
soda to be supplied to three regions, acid for her crop. If F1 costs Tshs
R1, R2, and R3. There are 600 crates 6 per kg and F2 costs Tshs 5 per
of soda to be transported to R1, 500 kg, how much of each type of
crates of soda to be transported to fertilizer should be used so that
R2 and 700 crates to be transported nutrient requirements are met at
to R3. The transport costs per crate minimum cost?
to each region are shown in the
LY
17. Ms. Matlida has three machines I,
following table:
II, and III installed in her factory.
Machines, I and II are capable
To R1 R2 R3
N
of being operated for at least 5
From
hours a day, while machine III
O
W1 60/= 30/= 40/=
can operate for not more than 14
W2 40/= 20/= 60/= SE hours a day. She produces only
two items M and N each requiring
How should the factory supply
the use of all three machines. The
crates of soda to the three regions
number of hours required for
U
at a minimum cost?
producing 1 unit of items M and
15. One kind of cake requires 100 g of N on the three machines are given
flour and 30 g of fat, and another in the following table:
E
kind of cake requires 300 g of flour

Items Number of hours
N
and 20 g of fat. Find the maximum

required on machines
number of cakes to be made from
LI
6 kg of flour and 0.75 kg of fat I II III

N
assuming that there is no shortage M 1 2 1

of the other ingredients used in
O
making the cakes. N 2 1 1
16. There are two types of fertilizers, She makes a profit of Tshs 600 and Tshs
R
F1 and F2 . Fertilizer F1 consists 400 on items M and N, respectively.

FO
of 10% nitrogen and phosphoric (a) How many of each item should
acid each and F2 consists of
she produce so as to maximize her
10% of nitrogen and 5% of
profit, assuming that she can sell
phosphoric acid. After testing
all the items that she produced?
428
Form Five
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(b) Determine the maximum profit. How many tonnes of rice should
18. Bangulo company have factories be sent from the deposits to each
at towns A and B, which supply marketing centre so that the
at warehouses, P1 and P2 . The transportation cost is minimum?
weekly factory capacities are 160
20. Kisarawe company has factories
and 140 units, respectively and
at P and Q which supply tonnes
warehouses requirements are 70
and 120 units, respectively. The of cement to regions A and B.
cost of transportation of 1 unit The weekly factory capacities are
from A to P1 is Tshs 160 and from 160 and 140 tonnes of cement,
LY
A to P2 is Tshs 240. Similarly, respectively and the regions
the cost of transportation from require 70 and 120 tonnes of
B to P1 is Tshs 200 and from B
N
cement, respectively. The cost
to P2 is Tshs 260. How should
of transportation of one tonne of
O
the company make supplies to
cement from factory P to region
the warehouses at the minimum
cost?
SE A is Tshs 160 and the cost from
19. Mr. Nyahuye have two storage factory P to region B is Tshs 240.
deposits. He stores 200 tonnes of Similarly, the transportation cost
U
rice at deposit 1 and 300 tonnes of from factory Q to region A is
rice at deposit 2. The rice has to Tshs 200 and from factory Q to
be sent to three marketing centres region B is Tshs 260.
E
A, B, and C. The demands at A,

(a) Find the objective function
B, and C are 150, 150, and 200
N
to be minimized by the
tonnes of rice, respectively. The
company so as to supply
LI
transportation costs in Tanzanian

tonnes of cement to each
shillings per tonne from the
N
region.
deposit to each market centre are
shown in the following table: (b) Find the constraints
O
associated with the

Market centres
Deposits transportation problem.
R
A B C
(c) Does the problem balance or
Deposit 1 50
FO
100 70
not and why?
Deposit 2 80 150 40
429
Form Five
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Chapter
Nine Differentiation
Introduction
The concept of differentiation refers to the method of finding the derivative of

a continuous function. It is equivalent to finding the slope or gradient of the
LY
continuous function. For a straight line, the slope remains the same all the way
along the line. The slope of a curve changes continuously along the curve.
N
In this case, the gradient of the curve is considered at the point of tangent to
the curve. In this chapter, you will learn about derivatives, differentiation of
O
functions, applications of differentiation in real life problems, Taylor’s and
Maclaurin’s series, and introduction to partial derivatives of functions. The
SE
competencies developed are applicable in various real life situations such
as in business, science, engineering, economics, building and constructions,
U
population modeling, dynamical systems, among many other applications.
Derivatives
E
The derivative of a function is defined

N
as the rate of change of a function with

respect to a given variable. Given the
LI
graph of the function, the derivative can

N
be interpreted as the slope of the graph of

the function, or more precisely as the
O
slope of the tangent line at a point. In

the coordinate plane, slope of a straight
R
line is given by the ratio of the change

in the y coordinate to the change in
FO
Figure 9.1: Graph of a straight line

the x coordinate. In Figure 9.1, if
( x0 , y0 ) and ( x1 , y1 ) are two points on
Let h be a small increase in x0, and
the line, then the slope is given by the
Δy y1 − y0 x=
1 x0 + h , then h = x1 − x0 .
ratio = .
Δx x1 − x0
430
Form Five
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If y = f (x), then y0 = f(x0) and y1= f(x1) = change of y with respect to z. The second
f (x0+h). derivative of a function of y = f ( x)
Thus, in terms of function notation, slope is obtained by differentiating the first
derivative, and it is denoted either by y ′′
f ( x1 ) − f ( x0 )
is given by . This change d2y
x1 − x0 or f ′′( x) or 2 .
dx
in notation is useful for advancing from
the idea of the slope of the line to the That is,
more general concept of the derivative d 2 y d  dy  d
of a function.
= 2
=   or f ′′( x) ( f ′( x) ) .
dx dx  dx  dx
LY
Given a point ( x, y ) on the graph of f, The third derivative is denoted either by
the process of finding a function f ′ (read
d3y
as “f prime”) whose expression is f ′ ( x ) y ′′′ or f ′′′( x ) or . That is,
dx3
N
gives the slope of the graph at the point
( x, y ). The expression f ′ ( x ) is called the d y3 = d ⎛⎜ d y2 ⎞⎟ or f ′′′( x) = d ( f ′′( x) ) .
3 2
O
derivative of the function, f at a point x. dx dx ⎝ dx ⎠ dx
The process of finding the derivative of a SE
function is called differentiation. Note that, the derivative of a constant
function is zero. That is, d (c) = 0 , where
Notations of the derivative dx
U
The derivative of a function y = f ( x) c is any constant. This is because, in a
with respect to the variable x is denoted constant function there is no change in the
values of the function.
E
dy
either by y′ or f ′( x) or , and is known
dx
N
dy
as the first derivative. The notation is Differentiation of a function from first
LI
dx principles
read as “ Dy Dx ”. The slope of a secant line is used to derive
N
the formula for differentiation of functions

Generally, dy means the rate at which y
from first principles. Figure 9.2 shows a
O
dx
changes when x changes. It defines the curve of the function y = f ( x ) with a
gradient of y = f (x). secant line passing through the points Q
R
and P, where h is a small increase in the

FO
Note that, derivative is the rate of change value of x coordinate at point Q.

of one quantity with respect to another
dy
quantity. For example, is the rate of
dz
431
Form Five
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1. Sketch the graph of the curve f ( x )

of your choice on the xy-plane.
2. Locate a point Q (x0 , f (x0)) of your
choice on the curve.
3. Draw a tangent line to the curve
at point Q.
Figure 9.2: Illustration of the gradient of
4. Pick a point P(x0+ h, f(x0+h), near
a curve y = f ( x ) between the
Q ( x, f ( x) ) , where h is a small
LY
points P ( x + h, f ( x + h) ) and
Q ( x, f ( x ) ) change in x. Then, draw a secant
The slope of the secant line line to join the points Q and P.
N
PR f ( x + h) − f ( x) f ( x + h ) 5. ( x ) the gradient of the secant line
− f Find
PQ = = =
O
RQ ( x + h) − x h PQ in task 4.
f ( x + h) − f ( x) f ( x + h) − f ( x) 6. Discuss how you can use the
SE
= =
( x + h) − x h gradient of a secant line to
The concept of limit as applied in approximate the slope of the
U
derivatives tangent line.
The limit of a function f(x) is the value
7. What did you observe from the tasks?
of f (x) as x approaches a certain value.
E
For example, lim f ( x) = L means that, In Figure 9.2, if h is small, the gradient of
N
x→ a
as x approaches a, the value of f(x) is L. the secant line is an approximation of the
The notation of limit is used to describe
LI
gradient of the tangent line. Therefore, it

the behaviour of graphs as the variable can be concluded that the gradient of the
approaches a certain point. The slope
N
tangent line is the limit of the gradient of

of a tangent line to the function can be the secant line as h becomes smaller and
O
defined using the concept of limits. The smaller (means as h approaches zero).
following activity illustrates the concept If point P is moved nearer to Q, say
R
of limits. to points S, U, V,…, then the chords

FO
QS, QU, QV,… will be getting closer and

Activity 9.1: Application of limits
closer to the tangent line drawn at point
in derivatives of functions
Q. The action of moving point P towards
Individually or in a group, perform point Q decreases the value of h. Thus, as
the following tasks: h approaches zero, (that is, h → 0 ), the line
432
Form Five
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PQ approaches the tangent line at point Activity 9.2: Recognizing the derivative
Q. Hence, the gradient of the chord PQ of a function from first principles
approaches the gradient of the tangent
at point Q. The gradient of the tangent Individually or in a group, write
line at point Q can then be said to be the down any two polynomial functions
limiting value of the gradient of the chord f ( x) and g ( x) of degrees 2 and 3,
PQ as h → 0 . respectively. Then, perform the
following tasks:
This can be written as, gradient of the
f ( x0 + h ) − f ( x0 ) 1. Write the general formula for
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curve at Q = lim . differentiating a function from
h →0 h
Thus, the gradient of the curve at any first principles.
point Q(x, f (x)) on the curve is the 2. Use the formula in task 1 to find
N
gradient of the tangent line at the same the derivative of each of the
polynomial functions.
O
point Q. Therefore, the gradient of
3. Use the results in task 2 to deduce the
f ( x + h) − f ( x )
the curve is lim ., general formula for differentiating
h→ 0 h
provided that this limit exists.
SE the polynomial f ( x) = x n ,. where
n is a positive integer
The gradient of the curve is called 4. What have you observed from
U
the gradient function or derivative task 3?
function because it is derived from the 5. Share your findings with other
students through discussion.
E
original function. Thus, the formula for

differentiation from first pricniples of
N
f ( x) is given by: Example 9.1

LI
f ( x + h) − f ( x)
f ′ ( x) = lim . This Differentiate from first principles the
h→0 h
N
means that the function is differentiated function f ( x ) = 7 x + 6 .

O
Solution
with respect to x.
Given f ( x ) = 7 x + 6 , then from first
R
The formula principles;

f ( x + h) − f ( x ) f ( x + h) − f ( x)
FO
f ′( x) = lim
h→0 is used f ′ ( x ) = lim
h h→ 0 h
for differentiation of a function from But f ( x + h ) = 7 ( x + h ) + 6.
dy
first principles, and or f ′ ( x ) is Thus,
dx
called the derivative of y = f ( x) .
433
Form Five
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7 ( x + h ) + 6 − (7 x + 6)
f ′ ( x ) = lim
h→ 0 h
7 x + 7h + 6 − 7 x − 6
= lim
h →0
7h h
= lim
h→ 0 h
= lim 7 = 7
h→ 0
Therefore, f ′ ( x ) = 7 .
LY
Example 9.2
N
Find f ′( x) from first principles if, f ( x ) = x − 6 x + 1.
2
O
Solution
Given f ( x ) = x 2 − 6 x + 1, then from first principles; SE
f ( x + h) − f ( x)
f ′ ( x ) = lim
h→ 0 h
U
But f ( x + h ) = ( x + h ) − 6 ( x + h ) + 1.
2
Thus, f ′ ( x ) = lim
( x + h)
2
( )
− 6 ( x + h ) + 1 − x2 − 6x + 1
E
h→ 0 h
x 2 + 2 xh + h2 − 6 x − 6h + 1 − x 2 + 6 x − 1
N
⇒ f ′ ( x ) = lim
h→ 0 h
LI
2 xh + h2 − 6h
⇒ f ′ ( x ) = lim
h→ 0 h
N
⇒ f ′( x) = lim ( 2 x + h − 6 ) = 2 x − 6
O
h →0
Therefore, f ′ ( x ) = 2 x − 6 .
R
Example 9.3
FO
Find the gradient function of the function f ( x=

) x 3 + 7 using first principles,
hence evaluate the gradient at the point x = 2.
434
Form Five
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Solution
Given f ( x ) = x3 + 7 , then from first principles;
f ( x + h) − f ( x)
f ′ ( x ) = lim
h→ 0 h
⇒ f ( x + h) = ( x + h) + 7
3
⇒ f ′ ( x ) = lim
( x + h)
3
(
+ 7 − x3 + 7 )
h→ 0 h
x + 3 x h + 3 xh 2 + h3 + 7 − x3 − 7
3 2
= lim
LY
h →0 h
3x 2 h + 3xh 2 + h3
⇒ f ′ ( x ) = lim
h
N
h→ 0
= lim ( 3 x 2 + 3 xh + h 2 )
O
h →0
⇒ f ′ ( x ) = 3x 2
Thus, f ′ ( 2) = 3 ( 2) = 12 .
2
SE
Therefore, f ′ ( x ) = 3x 2 and f ′(2) = 12.
U
Example 9.4
E
1
N
Differentiate from first principles the function f ( x) = .

x
LI
Solution
N
1 1
1 −
Given f ( x ) = , then from first ⇒ f ′ ( x ) = lim x+h x
O
Therefore,
x h→ 0 h
principles;
f ( x + h) − f ( x)
R
⎛ ⎞
f ′ ( x ) = lim ⎜ x − x+h ⎟ 1
h ⇒ f ′ ( x ) = lim ×
( )
h→ 0
h→ 0 ⎜
x x+h ⎟ h
FO
1 ⎝ ⎠
⇒ f ( x + h) =
But
x+h Rationalizing the numerator of the
expression gives
435
Form Five
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f ′ ( x ) = lim ⎜
⎛ x − x+h ( )
x + x+h ⎞ 1
⎟×
h→ 0 ⎜
⎝
x x+h( )( x + x+h ⎟
⎠ )h
(
 x − x+h × x + x+h

) ( )  × 1
⇒ f ′( x) =
lim 
h →0

x x+h × x + x+h ( ) ( )  h

 x − ( x + h) 
lim  × 1
h→0 

x ( x+h )( )
x + x+h  h

LY
⎛ ⎞
−h ⎟× 1
⇒ f ′ ( x ) = lim ⎜
h→ 0 ⎜
x ( x+h )( )
x + x+h ⎟ h
N
⎝ ⎠
⎛ ⎞
O
−1
⇒ f ′ ( x ) = lim ⎜ ⎟
h→ 0 ⎜
⎝
x ( x+h )( )
x + x+h ⎟
⎠ SE
Now, as h → 0 gives,
⎛ ⎞
⎜ −1 ⎟
f ( x) =
′
U
⎜ x x
⎝ ( )( x+ x ⎟
⎠ )
−1
⇒ f ′( x) =
E
2x x
N
−1
Therefore, f ′ ( x ) = .
2x x
LI
Exercise 9.1
N
1. From first principles of differentiation, find the derivative of each of the

O
(a) f ( x=
) 5 x + 6 (b) f (t ) = t 3 − t 2 (c) f ( x) = −3x + 5
R
1
(e) f (v) = 2v − 500 (f) f ( x) =
2
(d) f ( x) = 2 x − 3x + 5
3− x
FO
(g) f (t ) = kt 5 (h) f ( x) = 2 x
2. Using first principles of differentiation, find the gradient function of each
of the following functions and hence compute the gradient of each curve
y = f ( x) at the given points.
436
Form Five
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1  7
(a) y = 5x ; x = 1 (b) y = x3 − x2 + 4; (x2,8
= 2) (c) y = x − ; x2,= 2
4  4 
1  1
(d) y = x 2 + 6; (3,
x =15)
3 (e) y = ; x4,= 4 
x 2  16 
3. If f ( x ) = 5x − 2 x 2 , find f ′ ( x ) using first principles of differentiation and

evaluate f ′ (3) and f ′(−1).
4. For each of the following curves, find the y-coordinate for the given value
of x and use first principles to find the gradient.
=
(a) y 5= x3 ; x 6 (b) y = x( x 2 − 3); x = 2 (c) y = x( x − 2) 2 ; x =
1
LY
5. From first principles of differentiation, show that:
d ⎛ 1 ⎞ 2 d ⎛1⎞ 3
(a) ⎜ 2⎟=− 3 (b) ⎜ 3⎟=− 4
dx ⎝ x ⎠ x dx ⎝ x ⎠ x
N
d 2 1 − x ⎛ 4 x − 5x2 ⎞
( )
O
6. Use first principles to show that dx x 1 − x = 2 ⎜ 1 − x ⎟ .
⎝ ⎠
d ⎛ 1 ⎞ SE 2x
7. From first principles, show that ⎜ 2 ⎟
=− . Hence, verify
dx ⎝ 1 + x ⎠ ( )
1 + x 2 2
d  1  16 1
that  2 
=
− at x = .
dx  1 + x  25 2
U
Differentiation of a function
E
The process of finding the derivative of a function or rate of change of one variable
N
with respect to another variable is called differentiation. It is important to note that,

not all functions are differentiable. The function f ( x ) is said to be differentiable
LI
f ( x + h) − f ( x )
at a point x if lim exists. The functions considered in this chapter
N
h→ 0 h
are differentiable for all values of x.
O
Derivatives of polynomial functions

R
The derivative of the polynomial function f ( x ) = x , where n is a positive integer

n
can be determined from first principles.

FO
Given f ( x ) = x n , then from first principles,

f ( x + h) − f ( x )
f ′( x) = lim
h →0 h
437
Form Five
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But f ( x + h ) = ( x + h )
n
( x + h) n − x n
Thus, f ′( x) = lim
h →0 h
n
  h 
 x 1 + x   − x
n
 
= lim 
h →0 h
 n  h n  n
 x 1 +   − x
 x 
lim 
LY
⇒ f ′( x) = ............................................................(i)
h →0 h
n
⎛ h⎞
On expanding ⎜ 1 + ⎟ by using binomial theorem, gives
N
⎝ x⎠
⎛ 1 + h ⎞ = 1 + n h + n ( n − 1) ⎛ h ⎞ + n ( n − 1)( n − 2 ) ⎛ h ⎞ + ! ………... (ii)
n 2 3
O
⎜ x⎟ ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟
⎝ ⎠ x 2! ⎝x⎠ 3! ⎝x⎠
Substituting equation (ii) into equation (i), it gives;
SE
⎡ x n + n h x n−1 + n (n−1) (h)2 x n−2 + n(n−1)(n−2) (h)3 x n−3 + !⎤ − x n
⎢ 2! 3! ⎥⎦
f ′( x) = lim ⎣
U
h→ 0 h
⎡ x n + n h x n−1 + n (n−1) (h)2 x n−2 + n(n−1)(n−2) (h)3 x n−3 + ! − x n ⎤
⇒ f ′( x) = lim ⎣⎢ 2! 3! ⎦⎥
E
h→ 0 h
N
 nh x n −1 + n ( n−1) ( h) 2 x n − 2 + n(n−1)( n−2) (h)3 x n −3 + 

lim
⇒ f ′( x) =  2! 3! 
LI
h→ 0 h
(n−1) n−2 n(n−1)(n−2) 2 n−3

f ′( x) = lim ⎡ nx n−1 + n h x + !⎤
N
hx +
h→ 0 ⎢⎣ 2! 3! ⎥⎦
O
(n−1) n(n−1)(n−2) 2 n−3

⇒ f ′( x) = ⎡nx n−1 + n ( 0 ) x n−2 + ( 0) x + !⎤ as h → 0
⎣⎢ 2! 3! ⎦⎥
R
⇒ f ′( x) = nx n−1.
Thus,
FO
d n
Therefore, ( x ) = f ′( x) = n x n −1.
dx
Note that, this formula is true even for negative values of n and fractional values
p
such as n = , where p and q are integers.
q
438
Form Five
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Example 9.5
Differentiate y = x 5 with respect to x.
Solution
d n
From
dx
( x ) = nx n−1 , then
d 5
⇒
dx
( )
x = 5 x5−1
= 5x4
LY
Therefore, d x5 = 5 x 4 .
( )
dx
N
Example 9.6
O
Differentiate the function
f ( x) = ( x − 2)( x + 3) with respect to x at the point x = 1.
SE
Solution
Given, f ( x) = ( x − 2)( x + 3)
U
⇒ f ( x) = x 2 + x − 6
d n
Using the rule, ( )
x = nx n−1 , then
E
dx
N
⇒ f ′( x) = 2 x 2−1 + x1−1 − 0
⇒ f ′( x) = 2 x + 1
LI
At the point x = 1, f ′(1) = 2(1) + 1 = 3

N
pointt x = 1, f ′( x) = 3.
Therefore, at the poin
O
Properties of derivatives
The following are properties of derivatives for polynomial functions:
R
n
1. If f ( x) = x , then f ′( x) = nx .
n −1
FO
d d d
2. ⎡⎣ f ( x ) ± g ( x )⎤⎦ = ⎡⎣ f ( x )⎤⎦ ± ⎡⎣ g (= x )⎤⎦ f ′( x) ± g ′( x)
dx dx dx
d d
3. If k is any scalar, then ⎡⎣ kf ( x )⎤⎦ = k ⎡⎣ f ( x )⎤⎦ = k f ′( x).
dx dx
439
Form Five
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Example 9.7
4 x3 + 2 x 2
Find the derivative of the function f ( x) = .
3
x
Solution
Since the derivative of sum of two functions is the sum of their derivatives, then
4 x3 + 2 x 2 4 x3 2 x 2
⇒ f ( x) = = 3 + 3
3
x x x
8 5
4 x3 2x2
f ( x) = + = 4x 3 + 2x 3
LY
1 1
x3 x3
d n
Using ( )
x = nx n−1
N
dx 8 5 5 2
⎛ 8 ⎞ 3 −1 ⎛ 5 ⎞ 3 −1 32 3 10 3
′
⇒ f ( x) = 4 ⎜ ⎟ x +2 ⎜ ⎟ x = x + x
O
⎝ 3⎠ ⎝3⎠ 3 3
5 2
Therefore, f ′( x) = 32 x 3 + 10 x 3 . SE
3 3
Exercise 9.2
U
1. Find the derivative of each of the following functions with respect to x at
the given point.
E
6 x5 + 2 x3
(a) f ( x) =2 x ( x − 4 ) ; x(1,= −1 6)
2
(c) f ( x) = ; x(−=1, −–18)
x2
N
1 1
(b) f ( x) = 3x4 − 2 x3 + x2 + 9; x(0,9)
= 0 (d) f ( x) =x 4 − x3 + x 2 + 9; x = –2
LI
3 4
2. Differentiate each of the following functions with respect to x:

N
1 2 1 ⎛ x2 + 4 ⎞ x + x2 − 4x
(a) f ( x ) = ax − 3bx + c (b) f ( x ) = ⎜ ⎟ (c) f ( x) =
O
4 5⎝ 5 x ⎠ x
3. Find the derivative of each of the following functions with respect to x:
R
x3 − 2 x 2
(a) f ( x) = 2 ( x −1)( x − 5) (c) h( x) =
3x
FO
3 ( x − 1)( x − 2 )
(b) g ( x) =
4
4. If the gradient of the curve f ( x) = ( x − 3)( x 2 + a) at the point x = 1 is −1.
Determine the value of a.
440
Form Five
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2 1
5. Find the coordinates of the point on the curve y = 2
at which its gradient is .
x 2
6. If g ( x) = 2 x − 8x + 5, find the values of x for which g ′( x) = 0.
3
7. Find the values of t for which the gradient of the curve = x 2t 3 + 3t 2 is zero.
Hence, determine the gradient at t = 2.
8 10
8. Determine the gradient of the function h(t ) = 9t 4 − 7t 3 + 8t 2 − + 3 at t = 1.
t t
2 −2
9. Differentiate 2 x + 5 + 4 x with respect to x and then find the value of the
derivative when x = 4.
LY
dy
10. If y( x + 2)2 = −100, find and the gradient of the curve at x = −1.
dx
N
O
Derivative of product of polynomials
Let y be the product of two functions u and v of an independent variable x . That is,
SE
y = u v .The derivative of the product of functions can be obtained as follows.
Let y = u ( x)v( x). If δ y, δ u and δ v denote small increments in y, u, and v, respectively,
U
then
y + δ y = (u + δ u ) (v + δ v)
⇒ y + δ y = uv + vδ u + uδ v + δ uδ v
E
But y = uv
N
⇒ δ y = vδ u + uδ v + δ uδ v
LI
Dividing by δ x on both sides gives,

δy δu δv δu
N
=v +u + δv
δx δx δx δx
O
Now, as δ x → 0 ,
δ y dy , δ v dv δ u du and δ v → 0 ,
= = , = ,
δ x dx δ x dx δ x dx
R
dy du dv du dv dv
Therefore, =v +u + = (0) v + u
dx dx dx dx dx dx
FO
The result, dy du dv is called the product rule of differentiation.

= v +u
dx dx dx
Therefore, the product rule for differentiation is given by dy = v du + u dv .

dx dx dx
441
Form Five
FOR ONLINE USE ONLY
DO NOT DUPLICATE
Example 9.8
Use the product rule to differentiate the following function with respect to x.
y = ( x3 − 4 x 2 + 6 x)(2 x 4 − 19 x + 5).
Solution
3 2
Let u = x − 4 x + 6 x and v = 2 x 4 − 19 x + 5
du dv
⇒ = 3x 2 − 8 x + 6 and = 8 x3 − 19
dx dx
dy du dv
LY
From, = v +u
dx dx dx
dy
⇒ ( )( ) ( )(
= 2 x 4 − 19 x + 5 3x 2 − 8 x + 6 + x3 − 4 x 2 + 6 x 8 x3 − 19 )
N
dx
dy
⇒ = 14 x6 − 48 x5 + 60 x 4 − 76 x3 + 243x 2 − 268 x + 30
O
dx
dy
Therefore, = 14 x6 − 48 x5 + 60 x 4 − 76 x3 + 243x 2 − 268 x + 30.
SE
dx
Example 9.9
U
Differentiate with respect to x the function

f ( x) = ( x3 − 2)( x + 4)2 , then find f ′( x) at the point x = 1.
E
N
Solution
The function f ( x) = ( x3 − 2)( x + 4)2 is a product of two functions.
LI
du dv
Using f ′( x) = v +u
N
dx dx
Let v = ( x + 4) and u = x3 − 2
2
O
dv du
⇒ = 2( x + 4) and = 3x 2
dx dx
R
( ) ( )
⇒ f ′( x) = ( x + 4 ) 3x 2 + x3 − 2 ( 2 x + 8)
2
FO
⇒ f ′( x) = 5x 4 + 32 x3 + 48x 2 − 4 x − 16
At the point x = 1,
442
Form Five
FOR ONLINE USE ONLY
DO NOT DUPLICATE
[ f ′( x)](1,f −′(1)
25)
= 5(1) 4 + 32(1)3 + 48(1) 2 − 4(1) − 16
= 65
Therefore, f ′( x) = 5 x 4 + 32 x3 + 48 x 2 − 4 x − 16 and f ′( x) at x = 1 is 65.
Exercise 9.3
1. Differentiate each of the following functions with respect to the given

variables:
(a) f ( x) = (1 + x ) x − 1
2 2
( )
LY
(
(b) f (s) = 6s 2 − 4s s 2 + 4s + 8 )( )
N
⎛ 2 1 ⎞⎛ 1 2⎞
(c) f ( y ) = ⎜ 6 − 3 y + 2 ⎟⎜ − 4 y + 8 y ⎟
⎝ y ⎠⎝ y ⎠
O
(
(d) f (t ) = 7t 2 − 4t + 9 2t 3 − 2t + 1)( ) SE
2. Find the x-coordinate of the point where the gradient of the curve
(
y =x 2 − 2 ) 3 + x is zero.
1
U
3. Evaluate the derivative of the curve y = x3 (4 − x) 2 at the point x = 1.
4. Find the derivative of each of the following functions with respect to x:

1
E
2
(
(a) f ( x) = x + 4 x + 1 ) x − 3 (1 + x ) (c) h( x) = x −3 2 2
N
(b) g ( x) = 2 x ( 2 + x ) (d) k ( x) = (1 − x )( 2 − x )
6 5
3 5
+ x6
LI
Differentiate g ( x) = ( x + 1) ( x + 4 ) with respect to x.

2 −2
5.
N
3
6. If f ( x) = 2 x 2
(2 + x )(−1 + x ) , show that f ′( x) = 4 x + 5x x − 6 x.
O
7. The equation of a curve is y = ( x − 3)( x + 4). Find the gradient of the curve:
(a) at the point where the curve crosses the y-axis.
R
(b) at each of the points where the curve crosses the x-axis.
( ) (1 − r ).
2
8. Use the product rule to find f ′(r ), where f (r ) = 1 + r 2
FO
9. Differentiate z = ( y − 2) ( 2 y + 3) with respect to y.

2
10. Given that f (u) = (u + 1) (u −1) , find f ′(u ) and f ′(−5).

2 4
443
Form Five
FOR ONLINE USE ONLY
DO NOT DUPLICATE
The derivative of quotient of two δ v dv

functions lim = , lim v 2 = v 2 , and lim δ v = 0
δ x→ 0 δ x dx δ v→0 δ v→ 0
If u and v are two differentiable functions
du dv
u v −u
of x and y = , then the derivative of y dy dx dx .is called the
v Thus, =
dx v2
can be determined as follows:
quotient rule of differentiation.
u
Given y = , then it implies that Therefore, the quotient rule of differentiation
v
is given by;
u + δ u , where δ y, δ u, and δ v
y +δ y = du dv
v +δv v −u
dy
LY
= dx 2 dx .
denote small increments in y, u, and v, dx v
respectively.
N
u +δu u
Thus, δ y = − Example 9.10
v +δv v
O
(vu + vδ u ) − (uv + uδ v) x2 + 4
⇒δ y = Find the derivative of y = .
v (v + δ v ) x2 − 4
⇒δ y =
vδ u − uδ v)
SE
Solution
v (v + δ v ) x2 + 4
Given y = .
x2 − 4
U
Divide by δ x both sides to get
2
δu δv Let u = x 2 + 4 and v = x − 4
v −u
δy du dv
= δx δx
⇒ = 2 x and = 2x
E
δx v (v + δ v ) dx dx
Using quotient rule, it implies that
N
Taking the limit as δ x → 0 and δ v → 0

gives du dv
v −u
LI
dy dx dx
 δu δv  ⇒ =
lim  v − dx v2
δy  δ x δ x 
N
δ x → 0
lim = Thus,
δ x →0 δ x
(
lim v 2 + vδ v )
O
δ x →0
dy ( x 2 − 4)(2 x) − ( x 2 + 4)(2 x)
=
δu δv dx ( x 2 − 4) 2
lim v − lim u
δ x →0 δx δ x → 0 δx
R
= dy −16 x
lim ( v + vδ v )
2
⇒ = 2
δ x →0 dx ( x − 4)2
FO
δu δv dy −16 x
v lim − u lim Therefore, = 2 .
δ x →0 δ x δ x →0 δ x
= dx ( x − 4) 2
lim v + v lim δ v
2
δ x →0 δ x →0
δ y dy δ u du
But lim = , lim = ,
δ x→ 0 δ x dx δ x→ 0 δ x dx
444
Form Five
FOR ONLINE USE ONLY
DO NOT DUPLICATE
Example 9.11
2. Differentiate the following
5 x3 + 2 x 2 dy functions with respect to x. For
If y = , find .
x +1 dx each case, find f ′ (2) correct to
Solution 3 decimal places.
5x3 + 2x 2 . ⎛ 1+ x ⎞
Given y = (a) f ( x) = ⎜ ⎟
x +1 ⎝ 3+ x ⎠
Let u = 5 x + 2 x 2 and v= x + 1
3
x
du dv (b) f ( x) =
⇒ = 15 x 2 + 4 x and =1 x+3
LY
dx dx
Using the quotient rule, 2 x3 − x 2
(c) f ( x) =
du dv x+3
N
v −u
dy dx dx
⇒ = 3. Find the derivative of each of the
O
2
dx v
following:
Thus, t −1 + 2t 2
2 3 2 SE (a) s =
dy (x + 1) (15x + 4x) − (5x + 2x )(1) 3t 2
=
dx (x + 1)2 q3 − 2q 2 + 3q
3 2 2 3 2 (b) p =
dy 15x + 4x + 15x + 4x − 5x − 2x q2
U
⇒ =
dx (x + 1)2 v + 2v 2
(c) u =
10x3 + 17x 2 + 4 x 3v
E
= 3z 2 + z − 6
(x + 1)2 4. Given that t = , find
2z
N
3 2
dy 10x + 17x + 4 x dt
Therefore,
dx
= . at z = 2.
LI
(x + 1)2 dz
1
N
5. If g ( x) = x − 1 + , where
Exercise 9.4 x +1
O
dy x ≠ −1, find the values of x for

1. Find in each of the following:
dx which g ′( x) = 0.
R
2x + 4 2x +1 6. Show that the gradient of the

(a) y = (c) y =
FO
3x − 2 x2 − 2 2x
curve y = 2 at the point
2 x −5
⎛ x +1 ⎞
(b) y = ⎜ ⎟ x = 2 is −18 .
⎝ x −1 ⎠
445
Form Five
FOR ONLINE USE ONLY
DO NOT DUPLICATE
x δ y and δ u denote small increments

7. If y = , prove that
x+5 in y and u, respectively.
dy δ y = f (u + δ u ) − f (u )
x = y (1 − y ).
dx
8. Verify that, the derivative Dividing by δ x both sides gives,
1+ y2 δ y f (u + δ u ) − f (u )
of g ( y ) = is =
1− y2 δx δx
4y
g ′( y) = . δ y f (u + δ u ) − f (u ) δ u
⇒
Þ = ×
( )
2
1− y2 δx δu δx
d  ( s − 1)( s − 2 ) 
LY
Introducing limits both sides gives,
9. Determine  ,
ds  ( s − 3)( s − 4 )  lim δ y = lim f (u + δ u ) − f (u ) lim δ u
δ x→0 δ x δ u→0 × δ x→0
then find the gradient when δu δx
N
s = 4.5. dy d du
( ) ⇒ = [ f (u)]×
O
10. If z 2 1 + w2 = 1 − w2 , show dx δ u dx
2
dz ⎞ 1− z4
that ⎛⎜ ⎟ = . SE dy dy du
⎝ dw ⎠ 1 + w
4
Thus, = × , which is the chain
dx du dx
The chain rule rule of differentiation.
U
The chain rule is used to find the
Therefore, the chain rule of differentiation
derivative of a composite function.
dy dy du
Consider the following functions: is given by; = × .
E
dx du dx
(i) f ( x) = ( 4 x −1) is a cubic of a
3
N
linear function g ( x) = ( 4 x − 1) . Example 9.12

LI
(ii) n( x) = (x 4
)
− 3 is a square root of
(
Given that y = 2 x 2 + 4 , find )
6 dy
.
the quartic function m( x) = ( x4 − 3). dx
N
(x − 2 ) is a quintic of a Solution
5
(iii) h(=
x) 2
O
( 2x + 4) .
6
Given=y 2
quadratic function g ( x) = x − 2 . ( 2
)
u 2 x 2 + 4 , then y = u 6 .
Let=
R
If y is a function of u, say y = f (u ) ,
where u itself is a function of x, say du dy
FO
⇒ = 4 x and = 6u 5
u = g ( x), then y is called a composite dx du
function of x. dy dy du
Using the chain rule, = ×
Given y = f (u ) then, dx du dx
y + δ y = f (u + δ u ) , where
446
Form Five
FOR ONLINE USE ONLY
DO NOT DUPLICATE
dy Example 9.14
⇒ = 4 x × 6u 5
dx 2
dy (
Find the derivative of x 4 − 3x 2 + 4 ) 3
⇒ u 2x2 + 4 .
= 24 xu 5. But=
dx at x = 1.
dy
= 24 x ( 2 x 2 + 4) .
5
Therefore, Solution
dx
2
4
( 2
Given y = x − 3x + 4 3 . )
Example 9.13 2
4 2
Let u = ( x − 3x + 4) ⇒ y = u 3
LY
If y = 6( x3 − 3x + 2)2 and
dy 2 − 13 du
⇒ = u and = 4 x3 − 6 x
u = ( x3 − 3x + 2) , express y in terms of du 3 dx
N
dy Using the chain rule,
u. Hence, find at x = 2. dy dy du
O
dx = ×
dx du dx
Solution dy 2 − 13
SE
Given y = 6( x3 − 3x + 2)2 and ⇒ = u × 4 x3 − 6 x
dx 3
( )
u = ( x3 − 3x + 2) 1
dy 2 4
( ) × (4x )
−
⇒ = x − 3x 2 + 4 3
− 6x
U
3
⇒ y = 6u 2
dx 3
dy du At x = 1,
⇒ = 12u and = 3x 2 − 3
E
1
du dx  dy  2
( ) × ( 4 (1) − 6 (1))
−
 dx  = 3 (1) − 3 (1) + 4
4 2 3 3
Using the chain rule,

N
x =1
dy dy du ⎡ dy ⎤
⇒ = ×
LI
dx du dx ⇒ ⎢ ⎥ = −1.058
⎣ dx ⎦ x =1
dy
( )
N
Thus, = 12u × 3x 2 − 3 ⎡ dy ⎤
dx Therefore, ⎢ ⎥ = −1.058.
⎣ dx ⎦ x=1
O
dy
(
⇒ = 12 x3 − 3x + 2 3x 2 − 3
dx
)( )
R
At x = 2
FO
⎡ dy ⎤
( )( )
⇒ ⎢ ⎥ = 12 (2)3 − 3(2) + 2 3(2) 2 − 3 = 432 .
⎣ dx ⎦ x=2
dy
Therefore, = 432, at x = 2.
dx
447
Form Five
FOR ONLINE USE ONLY
DO NOT DUPLICATE
Exercise 9.5
1. Using the chain rule, find the derivative of each of the following functions
with respect to x:
1
(a) f ( x) = x 4 − 2 (b) f ( x) = 3
x +1
2. Differentiate each of the following using the chain rule:

( ) ( )
16 3
2 2
(a) y = x + 1 (c) y = 3x − 4
y = (z )
−6
LY
(b) 3
+ 4 z 2 − 3z − 3 (d)=y x2 + 5
3. Differentiate each of the following functions using the chain rule:
N
1
( )
2.9
(a) f (t ) = t 2 − 6t + 7 (c) g ( z ) = (e) y = t 3
− t
O
3 − z3
2
⎛ 1 ⎞5
) (3 − t )
21
(d) z = ⎜ x + ⎟
(b) f (t=
⎝ x⎠
SE
4. Use the chain rule of differentiation to prove that,
d  1  4
U
( )( )
2 2 2 3 −
3 5  =
− x 10 x − 7 6 x − 7 x + 9 3.
dx  6 x − 7 x + 9 
3
1
5. Given that f (t ) = , find the following:
E
3
2t 4 + 3t 3 − 5t + 6
(a) f ′(t )
N
(b) f ′( −1)
LI
d ⎛ 2 1 ⎞
6. Find ⎜ r − 2 ⎟⎟ using the chain rule.
dr ⎜⎝ r
N
⎠
d
( 4 − 2θ ) .
5
7. Determine
O
dθ 1
⎛ 2 ⎞3
8. Find the derivative of x = ⎜1 − ⎟ using the chain rule.
R
⎝ u⎠
FO
3
d ⎛ 1⎞
9. Evaluate ⎜ y + 1 − ⎟ at the point y = −2.
dy ⎝ y⎠
d ⎡ 1+ t2 − t ⎤ −2
10. Verify that ⎢ ⎥ = .
( )
2
dt ⎢⎣ 1 + t 2 + t ⎥⎦ 1+ t2 1+ t2 + t
448
Form Five
FOR ONLINE USE ONLY
DO NOT DUPLICATE
Differentiation of implicit functions To differentiate a function of y with

An implicit function is a function written in respect to x requires to differentiate the
terms of both dependent and independent function with respect to y, and then multiply
variables. It is the function of the form dy
f ( x, y,) whose variables are connected by to complete the chain rule. That is,
by an equation which does not express one dx
d d dy
variable in terms of the other variables. For
dx
( f ( y )) = ( f ( y )) × .
dy dx
example, x y = 8 is an implicit function
2 3
because each variable in the equation

Suppose z is in terms of y, and y is
x 2 y 3 = 8 is not expressed as the function
of the other. Also, the equation x = y 2 does in terms of x . It can be written as;
( y ) and y y ( x),. Then using the
LY
not define y as the function of x, since =
each z z=
positive value of x has two values of y. dz dz dy
chain rule, it gives = ×
In this case, x = y 2 can be differentiated dx dy dx
N
with respect to y as follows.
If an expression has a term in the form
d ( x) d 2
O
= (y ) x m y n , then
dy dy
d m n d n d m
⇒
dy
= 2y dx
SE (
x y = xm ) dx
( )
y + yn
dx
x .( )
dx
dy 1 Þ d x m y n = nx m y n−1 dy + mx m−1 y n .
( )
⇒ = dx dx
dx dx
U
dy
dy 1 Example 9.15
⇒ =
E
dx 2 y
Differentiate z = y 2 with respect to x.
δy
N
1
Generally, = , where δ x and δ y
δx δ x
Solution
LI
δy
are small increments in x and y, respectively. 2 dz
Given z = y ⇒ = 2y
N
Now, as δ x → 0 ,
δ y dy and δ x = dx dy
=
δ x dx δ y dy Using the chain rule,
O
dy 1 dz dz dy
Therefore, = . = × ,
dx dx dx dy dx
R
dy
Implicit differentiation is a method for finding dz dy
FO
⇒ = 2y×
the slope of a curve when the equation of dx dx
the curve is not written in explicit form, dz dy
g ( x, y ) = 0 . The chain rule and the product Therefore, = 2y .
dx dx
rule are useful in differentiating implicit
functions.
449
Form Five
FOR ONLINE USE ONLY
DO NOT DUPLICATE
Example 9.16 dy 15
2y =
dy dx (2 x + 3) 2
Find for the curve 3x 2 − 4 y 2 = 11
12
dx Squaring both sides gives
at the point (4, 3).  dy 
2
225
2
4y   = .
 dx  ( 2 x + 3)
4
Solution x−6
Given the curve 3x 2 − 4 y 2 = 11
12. But y 2 =
2x + 3
Differentiate with respect to x: 2
 dy  225
d d .
( )
⇒  =
3x 2 − 4 y 2 = (11)(12)  dx   x−6 
LY
4
4 (2 x + 3)
dx dx 
 2x + 3 
d d
( ) ( )
2
 dy  225
⇒ 3x 2 − 4 y2 = 0 ⇒  =
dx dx  dx  4 ( x − 6 )( 2 x + 3)
3
N
dy
⇒ 6x − 8 y =0 dy
2
225
Therefore,   =
O
dx .
4 ( x − 6 )( 2 x + 3)
3
 dx 
dy 3x
⇒ = SE
dx 4 y Exercise 9.6
At the point (4, 3), 1. Differentiate each of the
dy 3 × 4 following functions with respect
⇒ =
U
dx 4 × 3 to x:
=1 (a) y 6 (b) x + y
dy
E
Therefore, at (4, 3) is 1. 2. By implicit differentiation of

dx dy x
= .
N
x 2 − y 2 = 1, show that
dx y
x−2
LI
dy
Example 9.17 3. Given y 2 = , find .
x+3 dx
N
4. Differentiate (3x + 6) = 5 y3
4
2 x−6
If y = , show that
2x + 3 with respect to x.
O
2
 dy  225
  = . 5. If x 2 + y 2 = 4 x , show that
4 ( x − 6 )( 2 x + 3)
3
 dx  dy 2 − x
R
= .
dx y
FO
Solution 1 1
x−6 6. If + = y, show that
Given y 2 = x y
2x + 3
dy ( 2 x + 3) (1) − ( x − 6)(2)
1 ⎛ 1 ⎞ dy
2y = − 2 =⎜y+ 2 ⎟ .
dx (2 x + 3) 2 x ⎝ y ⎠ dx
450
Form Five
FOR ONLINE USE ONLY
DO NOT DUPLICATE
7. Find the gradient of the curve x 2 + y 2 = (

9 at the point 1, − 2 2 . )
dy
8. Find for the curve x 2 − 3 y 2 =
9 at the point (6, 3).
dx
9. If x 2 − 3 y 2 =
9 find y'.
dz
10. Given that x 2 + z 2 =
25, determine the values of when x = − 4.
dx
Further implicit differentiation of functions

implicit differentiation can also be done without rearranging the terms in the
LY
expression of the function. In this case, each term is differentiated as a function
of x by applying the chain rule and the product rule if needed.
N
Example 9.18
O
dy
Using implicit differentiation, find for y 2 + x3 − y 3 + 5 = 4 y.
dx SE
Solution
Differentiate each term with respect to x as follows;
d 2 d 3 d 3 d d
U
⇒
dx
( )
y +
dx
x − ( )
dx dx
( )
y + (5) = ( 4 y )
dx
d 2 dy d 3 d 3 dy d d dy
( ) ( ) ( )
y × + ( 5) = ( 4 y ) ×
E
⇒ y × + x −
dy dx dx dy dx dx dy dx
N
dy dy dy
⇒ 2y + 3x 2 − 3 y 2 + 0 = 4
LI
dx dx dx
dy
Collect together all the terms containing yields:
N
dx
dy 3x 2
O
⇒ = 2
dx 3 y − 2 y + 4
R
dy 3x 2
Therefore, = .
dx 3 y 2 − 2 y + 4
FO
451
Form Five
FOR ONLINE USE ONLY
DO NOT DUPLICATE
Example 9.19
dy
If x5 + 4 xy3 − 3 y5 = 2, find .
dx
Solution
Differentiate each term with respect to x as follows;
d 5 d d d
dx
( )
x +
dx
(
4 xy 3 −
dx
)
3 y5 = ( 2)
dx
( )
For the term 4xy 3 product rule is used as follows:
LY
⎛ d 3 dy dx ⎞ d 5 dy
5x4 + 4 ⎜ x ( )
y × + y3 ⎟ − 3 y =0 ( )
⎝ dy dx dx ⎠ dy dx
N
⎛ dy ⎞ dy
⇒ 5 x 4 + 4 ⎜ 3xy 2 + y 3 ⎟ − 15 y 4 =0
⎝ dx ⎠ dx
O
dy
Collect all terms containing :
dy dx SE
(
⇒ 12 xy 2 − 15 y 4 ) dx
(
= − 5x4 + 4 y3 )
dy 5x 4 + 4 y3
⇒ =−
U
dx 12 xy 2 − 15 y 4
dy 5x 4 + 4 y 3
Therefore, =− .
E
dx 12 xy 2 − 15 y 4
N
Example 9.20
LI
Find the gradient of the curve x 2 y − 2 xy 2 + y 2 =

1 at the point (2, 1).
N
Solution
O
Differentiate each term with respect to x as follows:

d 2 d d 2 d
( )
x y − (
2 xy 2 + )
y = (1) ( )
R
dx dx dx dx
dy ⎛ 2 dy ⎞ dy
FO
⇒ 2 xy + x 2 − ⎜ 2 y + 4 xy ⎟ + 2 y =0
dx ⎝ dx ⎠ dx
dy
Collect together all terms containing :
dx
452
Form Five
FOR ONLINE USE ONLY
DO NOT DUPLICATE
dy
⇒ ( x 2 − 4 xy + 2 y ) = 2 y 2 − 2 xy 7. Given the implicit function
dx
2, show that
x 2 + xy =
dy 2 y 2 − 2 xy
⇒ = 2 dy 2x + y
dx x − 4 xy + 2 y =− .
dx x
At the point (2,1) , 8. Show that the gradient to the curve
⎡ dy ⎤ 2(1) 2 − 2(2)(1) x3 + 3 xy + y 3 =
5 at the point (1, 1)
⇒⎢ ⎥ = 2
= 1.
⎣ dx ⎦ (2,1) (2) − 4(2)(1) + 2(1) is −1.
Therefore, the gradient of the curve at 9. Given that x2 y − xy 2 + x 2 + y 2 = 0,
LY
the point (2,1) is 1. dy
find .
dx
N
Exercise 9.7 10. If x 3 + y 3 = 3axy , where a is an
dy
O
arbitrary constant, find .
dy dx
1. Find for each of the following:
dx SE x y
11. Given + =6, show that
(
(a) y 2 1 + x2 = 3 − x2) y x
(b) 2xy + y 2 =x + y
dy 3 y − xy
1 = .
(c) 4 x 2 y 3 − 6 xy 2 + 4 xy − = 40
U
yx dx xy − 3x
(d) x + xy + y =
2 2 3
2
2 3 dy 12. If 1 − p 2 + 1 − q 2 = k ( p − q ) , show
2. If x y = x − 6 , find .
E
dx dq 1− q2
that = .
3. Determine the gradient of the graph
N
dp 1 − p 2
( )
2
2 2
of 3 x + y = 100 xy at the point 13. Differentiate each of the following
LI
(3, 1). with respect to x:

N
4. Given that x 1 + y + y 1 + x =
0, 2 2
(a) x 3 + y 3 =
0
dy −1
prove that = .
O
dx (1 + x)2 (b) y + xy =
x2
(x )
2
5. Find y′, given (c) 2
+ y2 = xy
R
x 2 y − xy 2 + x 2 + y 2 = 0.
FO
dz Derivatives of trigonometric functions

6. Find , if
dx The trigonometric functions involve sine x,
x 2 + z 2 − 6 xz + 3x − 2 z + 15 = 0. cosine x, tangent x, secant x, cosecant x, and
cotangent x and their units are in radians.
453
Form Five
FOR ONLINE USE ONLY
DO NOT DUPLICATE
Derivatives of trigonometric functions can be derived using first principles of

differentiation.
Example 9.21
Use first principles to find the derivative of each of the following:

(a) f ( x) = sin x (b) y = cos x
Solution
(a) From first principles of differentiation,
LY
f ( x + h) − f ( x)
f ′( x) = lim , where f ( x) = sin x and f ( x + h=
) sin( x + h)
h→ 0 h
N
sin ( x + h ) − sin ( x )
Þ f ′( x) = lim
O
h →0 h
Using the compound angle formula, it implies that SE
sin x cos h + cos x sin h − sin x
f ′( x) = lim
h→ 0 h
sin x(cos h − 1) + cos x sin h
U
⇒ f ′( x) = lim
h→ 0 h
(cos h − 1) sin h
⇒ f ′( x) = lim sin x + lim cos x
E
h→ 0 h h→ 0 h
N
⎛ cos h − 1 ⎞ sin h
⇒ f ′( x) = sin x lim ⎜ ⎟ + cos x lim
h→ 0
⎝ h ⎠ h→ 0 h
LI
sin h ⎛ cos h − 1 ⎞
But, lim = 1 and lim ⎜ ⎟=0
N
h→ 0 h h → 0
⎝ h ⎠
⇒ f ′ ( x) = 0 × sin x + 1 × cos x
O
⇒ f ′( x) = cos x
R
Therefore, f ′( x) = cos x.
(b) From the first principles of differentiation:
FO
dy y ( x + h) − y ( x) , where y x + h= cos x + h and y ( x=

= lim ( ) ( ) ) cos x.
dx h→ 0 h
Þ dy = lim cos( x + h) − cos x
dx h→ 0 h
454
Form Five
FOR ONLINE USE ONLY
DO NOT DUPLICATE
Using the compound angle formula, it implies that

dy cos x cos h − sin x sin h − cos x
= lim
dx h→ 0 h
cos x(cos h − 1) − sin x sin h
= lim
h→ 0 h
(cos h − 1) sin h
= cos x lim − sin x lim
h→ 0 h h → 0 h
(cos h − 1) sin h
But lim = 0 and lim =1
h→ 0 h h→ 0 h
LY
dy
Thus, = 0 × cos x − 1× sin x
dx
N
dy
⇒ = − sin x
dx
O
dy
Therefore, = − sin x .
dx SE
Find the derivative of sin3 θ with

U
Find the gradient of the curve
respect to θ. y = 5sin x − x 2 at the point x = −π .
E
Solution Solution
Let y = sin θ
3 Differentiate with respect to x as
N
follows:
Also, let u = sin θ ⇒ y = u 3 .
LI
dy d
dy
= (5sin x − x 2 )
du = 3u 2 dx dx
⇒ = cos θ and
N
dθ du = 5cos x − 2 x
Using the chain rule, At x = −π ,
O
dy du dy ⎡ dy ⎤
= × ⇒⎢ ⎥ = 5cos(−π ) − 2(−π )
dθ dθ du
⎣ dx ⎦ x=−π
R
dy
⇒ = cos θ × 3u 2 ⎡ dy ⎤
FO
dθ ⇒ ⎢ ⎥ = 5(−1) − 2(−π )
⎣ dx ⎦ x =π
= cos θ × 3sin 2 θ
dy = 2π – 5.
Therefore, = 3cos θ sin 2 θ . Therefore, the gradient of the curve
dθ
at x = – π is 2π – 5.
455
Form Five
FOR ONLINE USE ONLY
DO NOT DUPLICATE
Example 9.24
Solution
Using first principles, show that ⎛1⎞
Given y = cos ⎜ ⎟ .
f ′(θ ) = sec θ tan θ , if f (θ ) = sec θ . ⎝ x⎠
1
Let u = = x −1 ⇒ y = cos u
Solution x
1 dy du
Let f (θ ) = sec θ = . Thus, = − sin u and = − x −2
cos θ
du dx
From first principles,
Using chain rule,
f (θ + h ) − f (θ )
dy dy du
LY
f ′(θ ) = lim = ×
h→ 0 h
dx du dx
1 1
−
cos (θ + h ) cos (θ ) Þ dy =− sin u × ( − x −2 )
N
⇒ f ′(θ ) = lim dx
h→ 0 h
O
dy ⎛1⎞ 1 ⎛1⎞
⎡ cos θ − cos(θ + h) ⎤ Thus,
⇒ = x −2 sin ⎜ ⎟ = 2 sin ⎜ ⎟
⇒ f ′(θ ) = lim ⎢ dx ⎝x⎠ x ⎝x⎠
h → 0 h cos θ cos(θ + h) ⎥
⎣ ⎦ SE dy 1 ⎛1⎞
Using the factor formula, it implies Therefore, = 2 sin ⎜ ⎟ .
that dx x ⎝x⎠
⎛ h⎞ ⎛ h⎞
U
−2sin ⎜ θ + ⎟ sin ⎜ − ⎟
⎝ 2⎠ ⎝ 2⎠ Example 9.26
f ′(θ ) = lim
h→ 0 h cos θ cos(θ + h)
cos x
E
⎛ h⎞ ⎛ h⎞ If f ( x) = , show by using first

−2sin ⎜ θ + ⎟ sin ⎜ − ⎟ x
N
⎝ 2⎠ ⎝ 2⎠
= lim × lim x sin x + cos x
h → 0 cos θ cos(θ + h) h →0 h principles that f ′( x) = − .
LI
x2
−2sin θ ⎛ 1⎞ Solution
= ×⎜− ⎟
N
cos θ cos θ ⎝ 2⎠ Given

⇒ f ′(θ ) = sec θ tan θ . cos x cos( x + h)
O
f ( x) = ⇒ f ( x + h) =
Therefore, f ′(θ ) = sec θ tan θ . x x+h
Using first principles
R
f ( x + h) − f ( x)
Example 9.25 ⇒ f ′( x) = lim
FO
h→ 0 h
cos( x + h) cos x
⎛1⎞ −
Differentiate y = cos ⎜ ⎟ with
⎝ x⎠ ⇒ f ′( x) = lim x + h x
respect to x. h→ 0 h
456
Form Five
FOR ONLINE USE ONLY
DO NOT DUPLICATE
x cos( x + h) − ( x + h) cos x
⇒ f ′( x) = lim
h→ 0 h( x + h ) x
x[cos( x + h) − cos x] − h cos x
⇒ f ′( x) = lim
h→ 0 hx( x + h)
⎡ ⎛ x + h + x ⎞ ⎛ x + h − x ⎞⎤
x ⎢ −2sin ⎜ ⎟ sin ⎜ ⎟ ⎥ − h cos x
⎣ ⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎝ 2 ⎠⎦
⇒ f ′( x) = lim
h→ 0 hx( x + h)
⎛ h⎞ ⎛h⎞
sin ⎜ x + ⎟ sin ⎜ ⎟
LY
2⎠ 2 cos x
⇒ f ′( x) = − lim ⎝ × lim ⎝ ⎠ − lim
h→ 0 ( x + h) h→ 0 h h → 0 x ( x + h)
N
sin x cos x
⇒ f ′( x) = − −
x x× x
O
sin x cos x
⇒ f ′( x) = − − 2 SE
x x
x sin x + cos x
⇒ f ′( x) = − 2
x
U
x sin x + cos x
Therefore, f ′( x) = − .
x2
E
Exercise 9.8
N
1. Differentiate each of the following functions with respect to x:

LI
) = sin 2 x (e) cos 1 − x

f ( x(a) ( 2
) (i) tan 4x
N
(f) cos x (j) sin (3x −1)

2 2
g ( x(b)
) = x 2 sin x 3
x
O
⎛2⎞ sin x
h( x(c)
) = sin ⎜ ⎟ (g) sin x (1 + cos x ) (k)
⎝x⎠ 1 + cos x
R
⎛ 1 − sin x ⎞
(d) 6 cos 2x (l) cos ⎜
(h) tan x + 2 ⎟
⎝ 1 + cos x ⎠
FO
2. Find the gradient of each of the following curves at the given points:
1
(a) y = −π
2sin x − x 2 ; x = (b) y = − 4 cos x; x = π
2
457
Form Five
FOR ONLINE USE ONLY
DO NOT DUPLICATE
1 + sin x
3. If y = , show that dy = 1
.
1 − sin x dx 1 − sin x
1
d ⎛ tan x ⎞ 2 sec 4 x
4. Show that ⎜ ⎟ = 3
.
dx ⎝ 1 − tan 2 x ⎠
sin x
(
2 tan x 1 − tan 2 x ) 2
5. Differentiate f ( x) = with respect to x.

x
g ( x) 3cot x + 5cosec x, show that g ′( x) =
6. If = −3cosec 2 x − 5cosec x cot x.
LY
7. Find
d
dθ
(
sin θ 2 − 1 . )
d
( )
9 x2
N
3
8. Prove that tan
= 6x + 2 3
sec 2 6 x3 + 2.
dx 6x + 2
O
1 + sin θ + cos θ
9. Given that x = , show that x′ = (1 − sin θ )−1.
1 − sin θ + cos θ SE
dy
10. Find of each of the following:
dx
1 − cos 2 x
(a) xy 2 + cos 2 y = 4 (c) y =
U
sin 2 x
1 + tan x
( )
(b) y 4 + x3 + cos x + y 2 = 0 (d) y =
1 − tan x
E
11. From first principles, show that:

N
d
(a) (1 + 2 cos 4θ ) = −8sin 4θ
dθ
LI
d
(b) (tan x) = sec2 x
N
dx
d
(cot x) = − cosec2 x
O
(c)
dx
d
(d) (cos 2 x) = − sin 2 x
R
dx
d  cosec 2θ  cosec 2θ ( 2θ cot 2θ + 1)
FO
(e)  = −
dx  2θ  2θ 2
458
Form Five
FOR ONLINE USE ONLY
DO NOT DUPLICATE
Derivatives of inverse trigonometric functions

The inverse trigonometric functions include sin −1 x, cos −1 x, tan −1 x, cosec −1 x,
sec −1 x, and cot −1 x. This section discusses how to determine the derivatives of
inverse trigonometric functions.
Activity 9.3: Recognizing derivatives of inverse trigonometric functions
Individually or in a group, perform this activity using the following tasks:

1. Think and write down any inverse of trigonometric function.
2. Write the formula for differentiation from first principles.
3. By showing all steps clearly, differentiate the function in task 1 from first
LY
principles.
4. What have you observed from task 3? .
N
5. Think and use any other alternative method of performing task 3.
6. Give an opinion between the methods in tasks 3 and 5.
O
Derivatives of some inverses of trigonometric SE
Example 9.27
functions are derived as follows:
(a) Consider the function y = sin −1 x .
Differentiate y = sin −1 (2 x − 3) with
Then, x = sin y .
U
respect to x.
dx dy 1
Thus, = cos y ⇒ =
dy dx dx
Solution
E
dy
dy 1 Given y = sin −1 (2 x − 3) .
.
N
⇒ =
dx cos y −1
Let u = 2 x − 3 ⇒ y = sin u
LI
Since sin 2 y + cos 2 y =

1, then du dy 1
⇒ = 2 and =
dx du 1− u2
N
cos y = 1 − sin 2 y Using the chain rule,

O
dy 1 dy dy du .
⇒ = = ×
dx 1 − sin 2 y dx du dx
R
But sin y = x Substituting the expressions for

dy 1 dy du
FO
⇒ = and , gives
dx 1 − x2 du dx
dy d 1 dy 1
= (sin −1 x) =
Therefore, . = × 2. But u = 2 x − 3.
dx dx dx 1− u2
1 − x2
459
Form Five
FOR ONLINE USE ONLY
DO NOT DUPLICATE
dy 1 ⎛ 1 − x2 ⎞
2
Thus, dx = ×2. ⇒ cos y = 1 − ⎜ 2 ⎟

1 − ( 2 x − 3)
2
⎝ 1+ x ⎠
dy 1 4 x2 2x
Therefore, = . ⇒ cos y = =
dx 3x − x 2 − 2
(1 + x )
2
2 1 + x2
dy − 4x
Example 9.28 Thus, =
dx 1 + x 2 2 × 2 x
( )
1 + x2
Find the derivative of each of the
dy −2
LY
⇒ =
following functions with respect to x: (
dx 1 + x 2 )
−1 ⎛ 1 − x ⎞
2
Therefore,
N
(a) y = sin ⎜ 2 ⎟
⎝ 1+ x ⎠
d  −1  1 − x 2   −2
O
−1
(b) y = cos x sin  2 
= .
dx   1 + x   (1 + x )
2
Solution
−1 ⎛ 1 − x ⎞
2
SE
(b) Given y = cos−1 x .
(a) Given y = sin ⎜ 2 ⎟. Þ x = cos y, which implies that
⎝ 1+ x ⎠ dx
= − sin y
U
⎛ 1 − x2 ⎞ dy
Þ sin y = ⎜ 2 ⎟
⎝ 1+ x ⎠ dy 1
Using the relation =
dx dx
d d ⎛ 1 − x2 ⎞ dy 1
E
⇒ (sin y) = ⎜ ⎟ ⇒ =− dy
dx dx ⎝ 1 + x 2 ⎠ dx sin y
N
2
(
dy −2 x 1 + x − 2 x 1 − x )
2
( ) But
LI
⇒ cos y = sin 2 y + cos2 y = 1 ⇒ sin y = 1 − cos2 y

( )
2
dx 1 + x2
dy 1 1
N
⇒ =− =−
dy − 4x dx 1 − cos 2 y 1 − x2
⇒ cos y =
O
( )
2
dx 1 + x 2
Therefore,
dy − 4x d 1
(cos −1 x) = − .
R
⇒ =
dx
(
dx 1 + x 2 2 cos y) 1 − x2
FO
But sin 2 y + cos2 y = 1 ⇒ cos y = 1 − sin 2 y

in 2 y + cos2 y = 1 ⇒ cos y = 1 − sin 2 y
460
Form Five
FOR ONLINE USE ONLY
DO NOT DUPLICATE
Example 9.29
(b) If y = tan −1 x , show that
dy d 1
If y = cos −1 (3x − 1) , find
dx
.
dx
(
tan −1 x =)1 + x2
.
Solution Solution
Given y = cos −1 (3x − 1) . =
(a) Given (
y cos −1 3 x − 5 x3 . )
Þ 3x − 1 = cos y d d
d d
⇒
dx
(cos y ) =
dx
(
3x − 5 x3 )
Thus, (3 x − 1) = (cos y )
dx dx dy
LY
dy ⇒ − sin y = 3 − 15 x 2
⇒ 3 = − sin y dx
dx dy 3 − 15 x 2
⇒ =−
dy 3 dx sin y
N
⇒ =
dx − sin y But
O
But sin 2 y + cos2 y = 1 ⇒ sin y = 1 − cos2 y
sin 2 y + cos2 y = 1 ⇒ sin y = 1 − cos2 y SE dy 3 − 15 x 2
⇒ =−
dy 3 dx 1 − cos 2 y
Thus, =−
dx 1 − cos 2 y
dy (
3 − 15 x 2 )
U
dy 3 ⇒ =−
dx
( )
2
⇒ =− 1 − 3x − 5 x3
dx 1 − (3 x − 1) 2
Therefore,
E
dy 3
⇒ =−
dx 2
1 − (9 x − 6 x + 1) dy (
3 5x2 −1 )
N
= .
dx 1 − 9 x 2 + 30 x 4 − 25 x 6
dy 3
LI
⇒ =−
dx −9 x 2 + 6 x (b) Given y = tan −1 x , Then,
N
dy 3 x = tan y
Therefore, =− .
dx 3x(2 − 3x) dx
O
⇒ = sec2 y
dy
dy 1
R
Example 9.30 Using the relation =

dy 1 dx dx
⇒ =
FO
dy
(
(a) Given y = cos−1 3x − 5x3 , ) dx sec2 y
show that
But sec 2 y = 1 + tan 2 y .
dy
=
(
3 5x −1 2
) . dy 1
dx Thus, =
1 − 9 x 2 + 30 x 4 − 25 x 6 dx 1 + tan 2 y
461
Form Five
FOR ONLINE USE ONLY
DO NOT DUPLICATE
dy 1 Solution
⇒ =
dx 1 + x 2
−1 ⎛ cos x ⎞
Given y = tan ⎜ ⎟.
d 1
Therefore,
dx
(
tan −1 x =)1 + x2
. ⎝ 1 − sin x ⎠
cos x
⇒ tan y =
1 − sin x
Example 9.31
d d ⎛ cos x ⎞
⎛ 1 ⎞
−1
⇒ (tan y ) = ⎜ ⎟
Differentiate y = tan ⎜ 2 ⎟ with dx dx ⎝ 1 − sin x ⎠
respect to x. ⎝x ⎠
dy − sin x(1 − sin x) − cos x(− cos x)
LY
⇒ sec2 y =
Solution dx (1 − sin x)2
⎛ 1 ⎞ dy − sin x + sin 2 x + cos 2 x
Given y = tan −1 ⎜ 2 ⎟ .
N
⎝x ⎠ ⇒ =
1 dx (1 − sin x)2 sec2 y
⇒ 2 = tan y
O
x 1 − sin x
d ⎛ 1 ⎞ d =
⇒ ⎜ 2 ⎟ = (tan y ) (1 − sin x)2 sec2 y
dx ⎝ x ⎠ dx SE
But
−3 dy2
⇒ −2 x = sec y ⎛ cos x ⎞
2
dx 2 2 2
sec y = 1 + tan y ⇒ sec y = 1 + ⎜ ⎟ .
U
dy −2 ⎝ 1 − sin x ⎠
⇒ = 3 2 dy 1 − sin x
dx x sec y ⇒ =
dx 2
⎛ ⎛ cos x ⎞2 ⎞
(1 − sin x) ⎜1 + ⎜
E
But sec 2 y = 1 + tan 2 y . ⎜ ⎝ 1 − sin x ⎟⎠ ⎟⎟

⎝ ⎠
dy −2
N
Thus, = 3 Upon rearranging, it gives

(
dx x 1 + tan 2 y ) dy 1 − sin x 1 − sin x
LI
dy −2 x = =
⇒ = dx 2 − 2sin x 2(1 − sin x)
N
dx x 4 + 1
dy 1
dy 2x ⇒ =
dx 2
O
Therefore, =− 4 .
dx x +1 dy 1
Therefore, = .
dx 2
R
Example 9.32
Exercise 9.9
FO
−1 ⎛ cos x ⎞
If y = tan ⎜ ⎟ , show that
⎝ 1 − sin x ⎠ −1
1. If y = tan x, show that
dy 1
= . d ⎡ 2 dy ⎤
dx 2
⎢
dx ⎣
1 (
+ x )
⎥
dx ⎦
(
1 + x 2 = 2. )
462
Form Five
FOR ONLINE USE ONLY
DO NOT DUPLICATE
−1
⎛ 1 ⎞
2. Differentiate sin ⎜ ⎟ with respect to x.
2
⎝ 1+ x ⎠
dy
3.
= If y sin −1 ( 3θ − 4θ 3 ) , show that 1 − θ 2 = 3.
dθ
x ⎛ x⎞
4. Differentiate y = − sin −1 ⎜ ⎟ with respect to x.
a2 − x2 ⎝a⎠
5. Find the first derivative of y sin x + y + 6 = tan −1 x .
3
6. Given that y = tan −1 

 1 − x  , find dy .

 1+ x  dx
LY
11
7. Given that x and y satisfy the equation, tan −1 x + tan −1 y + tan −1 xy = π.
12
dy 1
Show that if x = 1, then = −1 − 3.
N
dx 2
3
d
( ) ( )
−
8. Show that sin(tan −1 x) = 1 + x 2 2 .
O
dx
dy
9. If y = x 2 sin −1 x , find .
dx SE
10. Differentiate each of the following with respect to x:
−1
(a) y = sin 5 x
−1
(b) y = cos x 2
U
Computer packages in differentiating polynomial and trigonometric functions

Computer packages can be applied to differentiate polynomial and trigonometric
E
functions. In this section, Maple and MATLAB packages are discussed.

N
(a) Maple 18
LI
Maple is a computing software which uses the function “diff ” that allows differentiation
of a function. The “diff ” function works similar to that of the function D in Mathematica.
N
The function “diff” in Maple 18 software has two arguments;

O
1. The function to be differentiated.

2. The independent variable to be considered in differentiation.
R
Example 9.33
FO
x2 + 1
Using Maple 18 software, differentiate with respect to x.
x2 − 1
463
Form Five
FOR ONLINE USE ONLY
DO NOT DUPLICATE
Solution
LY
N
O
d ⎛ x2 + 1 ⎞ 2x
Therefore, dx ⎜⎜ 2 ⎟=− 3 .
⎟
⎝ x −1 ⎠ x 2 + 1 ( x 2 − 1) 2
SE
Example 9.34
U
Using Maple 18 software, differentiate x 2 x + 1 with respect to x.
Solution
E
N
LI
N
O
R
FO
1 x (5 x + 4)
Therefore,
d 2
dx
(
x x +1 =
2
) x +1
.
464
Form Five
FOR ONLINE USE ONLY
DO NOT DUPLICATE
Example 9.35
(
Using Maple 18 software, find the derivative of sin 3x2 + 4 . )
Solution
LY
N
O
)) (
SE
Therefore, d sin 3x 2 + 4 = 6 x cos 3x 2 + 4 .
( ( )
dx
U
(b) MATLAB
MATLAB is another software that can be used to find the derivative of a function.
E
It involves declaring variables, defining the function whose derivative is needed

and finally the “diff” function is applied to find the derivative.
N
Differentiation using MATLAB R2014a software involves finding the rate of

LI
change of a quantity with respect to the other, such as, to find the rate at which y
changes with respect to x.
N
O
Example 9.36
Using MATLAB R2014a, differentiate y = 4 x 4 − 6 x 2 − 10 with respect to x.

R
FO
465
Form Five
FOR ONLINE USE ONLY
DO NOT DUPLICATE
Solution
LY
N
O
d
Therefore,
dx
( 4 x 4 − 6 x 2 − 10 ) = 16 x3 − 12 x.
Example 9.37
SE
4x − 2
Use MATLAB R2014a software to differentiate the function y = with
U
3x 2 + 4
respect to x.
Solution
E
N
LI
N
O
R
FO
dy 4 6 x(4 x − 2)
Therefore, = 2 − .
dx 3x + 4 3x 2 + 4 2( )
466
Form Five
FOR ONLINE USE ONLY
DO NOT DUPLICATE
Example 9.38
( )
Use MATLAB R2014a software to differentiate the function y = 2 x + 3 ( x − 2 )
2 4
with respect to x.
Solution
LY
N
O
SE
U
dy
Therefore,
dx
4
( )
= 4x ( x − 2) + 4 2x2 + 3 ( x − 2) .
3
E
Exercise 9.10
N
1. Differentiate each of the following functions with respect to x using Maple

LI
18 software.
N
3+ x
(a) y = 4 x ( x − 8)
3
(e) y = sin ( 7 x + 4 )
2
(c) y = 2
x −4
O
=
(b) (
y tan 2 x + tan 2 5 x (d) y = cos x3 + 2 x + 1 )
R
2. Differentiate each of the following functions with respect to x using

MATLAB R2014a:
FO
5
2x +1
(a) y = sin 2 x cos 4 x (d) y = 2
2 ( x − 8 )
( )
3
−1 −1 2
(b) y = sin 2 x + cos x − 1
(c) y = sec (3x + 6 ) (e ) y = cot ( cosec2 x )
467
Form Five
FOR ONLINE USE ONLY
DO NOT DUPLICATE
Derivatives of logarithmic functions

Logarithmic functions are functions of the form y = log b x , where x > 0, b > 0, b ≠ 1
It is an inverse of the exponential function. Thus, any exponential function can
be written in logarithmic form. The derivative of logarithmic functions to base e
(natural logarithm) can easily be found. If the base is different from e, it should first
be converted to base e, then the appropriate technique of differentiation is applied.
Activity 9.4: Recognizing derivatives of logarithmic functions
LY
1. Write down a natural logarithmic function of any independent variable.
2. Determine the derivative of the function in task 1 from first principles.
N
3. Determine the derivative of the function in task 1 by using any alternative method.
4. Give an opinion between the answers obtained in tasks 2 and 3.
O
5. What have you observed from this activity? Give reasons.
Example 9. 39
SE
Example 9.40
3
Differentiate y = log e x with respect If y = log e ( x − 2), show that
U
to x. dy 3x 2
= 3 .
dx (
x −2 )
E
Solution
Given y = log e x , then,
N
Solution
ey = x
(
Given y = loge x3 − 2 . )
LI
d d
⇒ (e y ) = ( x )
dx dx Let u = x3 − 2 and y = loge u
N
dy du dy 1
⇒ ey =1 Thus, = 3 x 2 and = .
O
dx dx du u
dy 1 1 Using the chain rule of differentiation,
⇒ = =
R
dx e y x dy du dy
= ×
dy 1 dx dx du
FO
Therefore, = .
dx x dy 1
⇒ = 3x 2 ×
d f ′( x) dx u
Generally, ( ln f ( x) ) = .
dx f ( x) 3
But u = x − 2
468
Form Five
FOR ONLINE USE ONLY
DO NOT DUPLICATE
dy 1 Example 9.42
⇒ = 3x 2 × 3
dx x −2
2
⎛ 1 − x2 ⎞
Therefore, dy = 3x . Given y = log e ⎜ ⎟ , evaluate
⎜ 1 + x2 ⎟
dx x3 − 2 ⎝ ⎠
1
y′ at x = 2 .
Example 9.41
Solution
Show that ⎛ 1 − x2 ⎞
d sin x  sin x  Given y = log e ⎜ ⎟.
= x ( )
xsin x  cos x ln x + . ⎜ 1 + x2 ⎟
LY
dx  x  ⎝ ⎠
1
⎛ 1 − x2 ⎞ 2
Solution ⇒ y = log e ⎜ 2 ⎟
⎝ 1+ x ⎠
N
Let y = x sin x .
1 ⎛ 1 − x2 ⎞
O
Introducing natural logarithms ⇒ y = log e ⎜ 2 ⎟
both sides gives 2 ⎝ 1+ x ⎠
⇒ ln y = ln xsin x
SE
⇒y=
1⎡
⎣ ( ) (
log e 1 − x 2 − log e 1 + x 2 ⎤⎦ )
⇒ ln y = sin x ln x 2
d d 1  −2 x 2x 
( ln y ) = (sin x ln x ) .
U
⇒ ⇒ y′
=  − 
dx dx 2  (1 − x 2 ) (1 + x 2 ) 
 
Implicit differentiation gives −2 x
⇒ y′ = 2
E
.
1 dy
= cos x ln x + sin x
1 (1 − x )(1 + x 2 )
N
y dx x
1
dy ⎛ 1 ⎞ At x = ,
LI
⇒ = y ⎜ cos x ln x + sin x ⎟ 2
dx ⎝ x ⎠ ⎛1⎞
−2 ⎜ ⎟
⎡ dy ⎤ ⎝2⎠
N
But y = x sin x ⇒⎢ ⎥ =
⎣ dx ⎦ x = 1 ⎛ ⎛ 1 ⎞ ⎞ ⎛ ⎛ 1 ⎞2 ⎞
2
dy 1 ⎜⎜1 − ⎜ ⎟ ⎟⎟ ⎜⎜1 + ⎜ ⎟ ⎟⎟
O
⎛ ⎞ 2
⇒ = xsin x ⎜ cos x ln x + sin x ⎟
dx ⎝ x ⎠ ⎝ ⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎠⎝ ⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎠
1 −16
R
Therefore, Therefore, y′ at x = is .
2 15
FO
d sin x  sin x 
=
dx
x ( )
xsin x  cos x ln x +
 x 
.
469
Form Five
FOR ONLINE USE ONLY
DO NOT DUPLICATE

dy 2
(
Given y = ln x4 sin 2 x . )
Find if y = e x sin x .
dx ⇒ y = ln x 4 + ln sin 2 x
Solution ⇒ y = 4ln x + 2ln sin x
x2
Given y = e sin x . Taking derivative on both sides:
Introducing natural logarithms both sides: 1 1
x2 y′ = 4 × + 2 × × cos x
⇒ ln y = ln e sin x x sin x
1
4
⇒ y′ = + 2 cot x
2
⇒ ln y = ln e x + ln(sin x) 2
LY
x
1 4
⇒ ln y = x 2 ln e + ln sin x Therefore, y′ = + 2 cot x.
2 x
N
1
⇒ ln y = x 2 + ln sin x Example 9.45
O
2
d d 1
( ln y ) = ⎛⎜ x 2 + ln sin x ⎞⎟ Find y′ if y = log a x .
SE 2
dx dx ⎝ 2 ⎠
Implicit differentiation gives, Solution
1 dy 1 cos x Given y = log a x 2 .
= 2x +
U
y dx 2 sin x Convert the base of the logarithmic
dy ⎛ 1 ⎞ function to base e.
⇒ = y ⎜ 2 x + cot x ⎟ ln x 2
E
dx ⎝ 2 ⎠ ⇒y=
ln a
N
2
But y = e x sin x
2 ln x
dy  1  ⇒y=
LI
2
=
⇒ e x sin x  2 x + cot x  . ln a
dx  2 
Now, differentiation with respect to
N
dy ⎛ 1 ⎞ 2
Therefore, = ⎜ 2 x + cot x ⎟ e x sin x . x gives
O
dx ⎝ 2 ⎠ 2 .
y′ =
x ln a
Example 9.44
R
2
Therefore, y′ = .
x ln a
FO
Prove that the derivative of

4
y = ln( x 4 sin 2 x) is y′ = + 2 cot x .
x
470
Form Five
FOR ONLINE USE ONLY
DO NOT DUPLICATE
Exercise 9.11
1. Differentiate each of the following

(
(c) y = ln x x 2 − 4 )
functions with respect to x: (d) y = x x
(a) y = ln (5x − 4 ) 6. Given that f ( x) = ln ( ln tan x ) ,

find f ′( x).
(b) y = x ln x − x
(c) y = x (sin ( ln x ) − cos ( ln x )) 7. Differentiate
⎛ sin θ + cos θ ⎞
2. Find the derivative of x = ln ⎜ ⎟ with
⎝ sin θ − cos θ ⎠
LY
⎛ x+3⎞ respect to θ .
y = ln ⎜ ⎟ with respect to
⎝ x+5⎠
x.
N
8. Show that the derivative of the
3. Given that 1 5⎛ 1⎞
O
function f ( x) = x ⎜ ln x − ⎟
( )(
y = ln ⎡⎣ x 2 + 3 x3 + 2 ⎤⎦ , find ) 5 ⎝ 5⎠
dy is f ′( x) = x ln x.
4
the expression for . SE
dx 2
x2 − 2
9. Given f ( x) = ln x ,
4. Differentiate each of the x +1
following functions with respect prove that
U
to x. 2 x 1
f ′( x) = + 2 − .
(
(a) f ( x) = ln x + 1 + x 2 ) x x − 2 x +1
E
10. If x y = y x , show that

⎛ x ⎞ 4
N
(b) f ( x) = ln ⎜ 2 ⎟
dy y ( x ln y − y )
= .
⎝ (3x − 5) ⎠ dx x ( y ln y − x )
LI
(c) f ( x) = (sin x )
x
11. Find the derivative of the

N
f ( x) = ln ( x 2 + 2 ) (1 − x 3 ) 
3 4
(d)  
function y = log 2 (3x + 1) at
O
x = 1.
5. Find the derivative of each of the
x −1
following functions with respect 12. If y = ln , show that
R
x +1
to x:
dy 1 dy
FO
= 2 . Hence, find
(a) y = (sin x )
tan x
dx x − 1 dx
 ( x 2 + 3) cot x  when x = 3.
(b) y = ln  
 tan 3 x 
471
Form Five
FOR ONLINE USE ONLY
DO NOT DUPLICATE
Derivatives of exponential functions
Activity 9.5: Recognizing derivative of an exponential function

1. Determine the derivative of f ( x) = e x from first principles.
2. Determine the derivative in task 1 using any alternative method.
3. Give your opinion in answers obtained in tasks 1 and 2.
4. What have you observed from this activity? Give reasons.
5. Share your results with other students for more inputs.
Consider the following series expansion of the exponential function.
LY
x 2 x3 x 4
e x =+
1 x + + + +
2! 3! 4!
N
The derivatives of the left-hand side and of the right-hand side are determined by the
O
rule for derivative of the sum. That is, the derivative of the sum equals the sum of the
derivatives of each of the term.
That is,
d x d d d  x 2  d  x3  d  x 4 
SE
dx
( )
e = (1) + ( x) +   +   +   + 
dx dx dx  2!  dx  3!  dx  4! 
U
d x 2 3 4
⇒
dx
( )
e = 0 +1+
2 ×1
x+
3 × 2 ×1
x2 +
4 × 3 × 2 ×1
x3 + 
d x 1 2 1
( )
E
⇒ e =1 + x + x + x3 + 
dx 2 ×1 3 × 2 ×1
N
d x 2 x3
⇒ ( e x ) =1 + x + + +
dx 2! 3!
LI
The expression for the derivative is the same as the original function.
d x d f ( x) d
Therefore, ( e ) = e x . Generally, ( e ) = e f ( x) f ( x).
N
dx dx dx
O
Note that, ex is its own derivative, and in fact, is the only function which is its own derivative.
R
Example 9.46
FO
If f ( x) = e ax , where a is a constant, find f ′( x).
Solution
Let u = ax and y = eu .
472
Form Five
FOR ONLINE USE ONLY
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du Solution
dy
⇒ = a and = eu . e2 x
dx du Given y = .
Using the chain rule of differentiation, 1 + e− x
dy dy du Let u = e2 x and v = 1 + e− x
⇒ = ×
dx du dx du dv
⇒ 2e 2 x and
= − e− x .
=
d u d dx dx
⇒ f ′( x) =
dx dx
( )
e × ( ax )
Using quotient rule of differentiation:
= eu × a du dv
v −u
dy dx dx
= ae ax ⇒ =
LY
dx v2
Therefore, f ′( x) = ae .
ax
⇒
dy 1 + e
=
(
−x
)(
2e2 x − −e− x e2 x) ( )( )
N
( )
2
Example 9.47 dx 1 + e− x
O
d x3 + 5 x 2e 2 x + 3e x
Find (e ). = .
dx
(1 + e )
2
−x
Solution
SE
d x3 + 5 x Therefore,
x
dy e 2e + 3
=
x
.
( )
Given (e ).
( )
2
dx dx 1 + e− x
U
Let y = e x3 + 5 x
and u= x + 5 x
3
⇒ y = eu . Example 9.49
E
dy du
⇒ = eu and = 3x 2 + 5 , −x
Find y′ given that y = e ln x.
N
du dx
dy dy du
LI
= × = eu (3 x 2 + 5) Solution
dx du dx
Given y = e− x ln x.
dy
N
Þ
dx
(
= 3x 2 +5 eu ) Let u = e − x and v = ln x
O
d x3 + 5 x du dv 1
Therefore, (e =
3
) (3 x 2 + 5)e x +5 x . ⇒ = − e − x and =.
dx dx dx x
R
Using the product rule of differentiation:

Example 9.48 dy du dv
FO
= v +u
dx dx dx
e2 x
Find the derivative of y = with
⎛1⎞
( )
−x
respect to x. 1 + e ⇒ y′ = ln x − e − x + e − x ⎜ ⎟
⎝x⎠
473
Form Five
FOR ONLINE USE ONLY
DO NOT DUPLICATE
e− x . x ⎛ a ⎞
⇒ y′ = − e− x ln x + 8. If = ln ⎜ ⎟ , show that
x x− y ⎝ x− y⎠
e− x
Therefore, y′ = − e− x ln x + . dy x
x = 2− .
dx y
Exercise 9.12 9. If x y = e x − y , show that
dy x− y
1. Find the derivative with respect = .
dx x (1 + ln x )
to x of each of the following x 3 ln 2 x
functions: 10. Differentiate y = x with
e sin x
LY
(a) f ( x) = e
x 2
respect to x.
2
(b) g ( x) = e 1 − 6 x
x
( ) The second derivative of a function
N
(c) h( x) = e x ln x
In general, the derivative of a function
x 2 −1
O
(d) f ( x) = e f ( x) is also the function of x. Suppose
2. Differentiate y = ecos x sin x with g ( x) = f ′( x). If g ( x) is differentiable,
respect to x. then g ′( x) is called the second derivative
SE
2
x
3. If y = a , show that of f ( x), and it is denoted by
d 2 f Thus,
.
dx 2
2
y′ = 2 xa x ln a. d ⎛ df ⎞ d f 2
U
4. If y = e−2 x sin 3x, show that g ′( x) = ⎜ ⎟= .
dx ⎝ dx ⎠ dx 2
= y′ e −2 x ( 3cos 3 x − 2sin 3 x ) .
The second derivative of a variable y
E
5. Given that f ( x) = x 2 e x , find

f ′( x) . d2y
N
with respect to x can be written as .

6. Find the derivative of each of the dx 2
LI
following:
2 Example 9.50
(a) y = esin 4x
N
(b) y = 3
2x
If y = x 2 cos8 x, find
d 2 y at x = 0.
( )
O
(c) y = x 3
x dx 2
(d) x = e
tan θ
Solution
R
3 −3t sec t 2 Given y = x 2 cos8 x .

(e) x = t − e + ln e
Let u = x 2 and v = cos8 x
FO
2
(f) v = eu + 2u −8
7. Show that du dv
⇒ = 2 x and = − 8sin 8 x
d e +e 2x −2 x
 −8 dx dx
  = 2 x −2 x 2 .
dx  e 2 x − e −2 x  (e − e ) Using the product rule of differentiation:
474
Form Five
FOR ONLINE USE ONLY
DO NOT DUPLICATE
dy du dv
⇒ = v +u
dx dx dx
dy
Thus, = 2 x cos8 x − 8 x 2 sin 8 x.
dx
dy d2y
Again, differentiate to obtain , that is,
dx dx 2
d ⎛ dy ⎞ d
⎜ ⎟=
dx ⎝ dx ⎠ dx
(
2 x cos8 x − 8 x 2 sin 8 x )
d2y
LY
⇒ 2
= 2cos8 x − 16 x sin 8 x − 16 x sin 8 x − 64 x 2 cos8 x
dx
d2y
N
⇒ 2 = 2cos8 x − 32 x sin 8 x − 64 x 2 cos8 x
dx
O
At x = 0,
d2y SE
⇒  2=  2 cos(8) × 0 − 32 × 0 × sin(8) × 0 − 64 × (0) 2 × cos(8)
= ×0 2
 dx  x =0
⎡d2y⎤
Therefore, ⎢ = 2.
U
2 ⎥
⎣ dx ⎦ x =0
Example 9.51
E
N
sin x d 2 y 2 dy
If y = , prove that + 0.
+y=
x dx 2 x dx
LI
Solution
N
Let u = sin x and v = x .

du dv
O
⇒ = cos x and =1
dx dx
Using the quotient rule of differentiation:
R
du dv
v −u
FO
dy
⇒ = dx 2 dx
dx v
dy x cos x − sin x
⇒ = .
dx x2
475
Form Five
FOR ONLINE USE ONLY
DO NOT DUPLICATE
dy
Multiplying by x 2 both sides gives; with respect to t followed by dividing
dx
dy the result by the derivatives of x with
x2 = x cos x − sin x .
dx d 2 y d ⎛ dy ⎞
Differentiate again with respect to respect to t. That is, = ⎜ ⎟.
dx 2 dx ⎝ dx ⎠
x gives dy
dy 2 d 2 y Since is a function of t, then
⇒ 2x +x = − x sin x dx
dx dx 2 d 2 y d ⎛ dy ⎞ dt
2
Divide by x both sides to obtain, = ⎜ ⎟ × . This formula is
dx 2 dt ⎝ dx ⎠ dx
LY
2 dy d 2 y sin x useful in finding second derivatives of
+ 2 = − .
x dx dx x parametric functions.
sin x
N
But y =
x Example 9.52
O
2 dy d 2 y
⇒ + = −y If x = sin t and y = cos 2t , show
x dx dx 2
d 2 y 2 dy
SE d2y
Therefore, + 0.
+y= that = − 4.
dx 2 x dx dx 2
Derivatives of parametric functions Solution

U
Parametric functions are functions which Given x = sin t and y = cos 2t .
have a pair of equations in which two dx
⇒ = cos t and
E
variables x and y are related by two dt

equations of the form x = f (t ) and dy
= −2sin 2t = − 4sin t cos t
N
y = g (t ), where x and y are functions dt

dy dy dt
LI
of a parameter t. Using the chain rule, But = ×

dx dt dx
dy dy dt
N
= × . But dt = 1 . Thus,
dy
= ( − 4sin t cos t ) ×
1
dx dt dx dx ⎛ dx ⎞ dx cos t
O
⎜ ⎟
⎝ dt ⎠ dy
⇒ − 4sin t
=
Therefore, the useful formula for finding dx
R
the first derivatives of parametric

d 2 y d ⎛ dy ⎞ dt
functions is given by Again, = ⎜ ⎟×
FO
dx 2 dt ⎝ dx ⎠ dx
dy dy 1 dy dt d2y d 1
= × = × . ⇒ 2 = ( − 4sin t ) ×
dx dt dx dt dx dx dt cos t
dt
The second derivative of a parametric d2y 1
⇒ 2 = − 4cos t ×
function is obtained by differentiating dx cos t
476
Form Five
FOR ONLINE USE ONLY
DO NOT DUPLICATE
d2y
⇒ 2 = − 4. =
( )
2θ 2 θ 2 − 1 − 2θ θ 2 + 1 ( )× 2θ 2
dx (θ ) θ 2 −1
2
2
−1
2
Therefore, d y = − 4. 2θ 3 − 2θ 3 − 2θ
dx 2 = × 2θ 2
(θ − 1)
2 3
Example 9.53
8θ 3
1 =−
1
(θ )
3
Given that 2x = θ + and 2 y = θ − ,
2
−1
θ θ
show that: d2y 8θ 3
LY
d2y 8θ 3 Therefore, = − .
(a) dy = θ + 1 (b) ( )
2 3
= − dx 2 θ 2 −1
( )
3
dx θ 2 − 1 dx 2 θ 2 −1
N
1 1
(a) Given 2x = θ + and 2y = θ − .
O
If x = a(θ + sin θ ), y = a(1 − cos θ ), find
θ θ
dy d2y
dx 1 dy 1 and . Give your answer in terms
⇒2 = 1 − 2 and 2 = 1+ 2 dx
SE dx 2
dθ θ dθ θ
of half angle of θ.
Thus, dy = dy × dθ
dx dθ dx Solution
U
dy 1 + θ −2 2 Given x = a(θ + sin θ ), y = a(1 − cos θ ) .
⇒ = × dx dy
dx 2 1 − θ −2 ⇒ = a(1 + cos θ ) and = a sin θ
dθ dθ
E
dy 1 + θ −2
= dy dy dθ dθ 1
N
dx 1 − θ −2 ⇒ = × , but =
dx dθ dx dx a(1 + cos θ )
dy 1 + θ −2 θ 2
LI
⇒ = × dy 1
dx 1 − θ −2 θ 2 ⇒ = a sin θ ×
dx a(1 + cos θ )
N
Therefore,
dy θ 2 + 1
= . dy sin θ
dx θ 2 − 1 ⇒ =
O
dx 1 + cos θ
(b) From
dy θ 2 + 1 ,
= .
dx θ 2 − 1 Using half angles formulae for sine and
R
d 2 y d ⎛ dy ⎞ dθ cosine, it gives;
⇒ 2 = ⎜ ⎟×
FO
dx dθ ⎝ dx ⎠ dx dy 2sin 12 θ cos 12 θ
⇒ =
dx 2cos2 12 θ
d 2 y d ⎛ θ 2 +1 ⎞ 2
⇒ 2 = ⎜ 2 ⎟× dy
dx dθ ⎝ θ − 1 ⎠ 1 − θ −2 ⇒ = tan 12 θ
dx
477
Form Five
FOR ONLINE USE ONLY
DO NOT DUPLICATE
d 2 y d ⎛ dy ⎞ dθ 4. If x = e t (cos t + sin t) and y = et(cost – sint),

Also, = ⎜ ⎟× find:
dx 2 dθ ⎝ dx ⎠ dx
d 1 dy d2y
= ( tan 12 θ ) × (a) (c) , when t = 0
dθ a (1 + cos θ ) dx dx 2
1 1 d2y
= sec2 12 θ × (b)
dx 2
2 (
a 2cos 2 12 θ ) d2y dy
sec 2 12 θ 5. Show that 2
− 2 + 5 y = 0, given that
= dx dx
LY
4a cos 2 12 θ x
y = e cos 2 x.
1
= sec4 12 θ . 6. The equation of a curve is given
4a
N
parametrically by the equations
d2y 1 t2 t3
Therefore, = sec4 12 θ .
O
dx 2
4a = x = and y , find:
1+ t3 1+ t3
SE dy
Exercise 9.13 (a) , when t = 2
dx
1. If x = sin 3θ and y = cos3θ sinθ, d2y ⎛1 1⎞
(b) at the point ⎜ , ⎟ .
U
prove that dx 2
⎝2 2⎠
d 2x d 2 y
− −=10 y 3 x ( 2 cos θ − 3) . 7. A curve is defined parametrically as
dθ 2 dθ 2
E
x =2t 2 + 5t + 1 and y =t + 6. Find its

sin x dy
2. Given that y = , find gradient at the point (1, 6).
N
2
2
x dx
and d y . Hence, verify that dy −1 ⎛ 2t ⎞
LI
dx 2 8. Verify that = 1 , if x = tan ⎜ 2 ⎟

2 dx ⎝ 1− t ⎠
d y dy
+ ( x 2 + 2 ) sin x =
N
x 4 2 + 4 x3 0 −1 ⎛ 2t ⎞
dx dx and y = sin ⎜ .
2 ⎟
⎝ 1+ t ⎠
O
t+2 2t + 3
3. If x =
= and y , find: d2y ln x
2t + 1 t 9. Find if y = . Hence, evaluate
R
2
dy 2
d y dx x
(a) (c) , when x = 0 d2y
dx dx 2 when x = 2 (leave your answer in
FO
2 dx 2
d y
(b) logarithmic form).
dx 2
478
Form Five
FOR ONLINE USE ONLY
DO NOT DUPLICATE
1 Example 9.55
( )
2
10. Given that x = sin −1 θ ,
2
find the value of If y = 2 x 2 − 3x , find an approximate
d 2x dx change in y when x increases from
(1−θ 2
dθ
)2
−θ
dθ
. 7 to 7.02.
11. Given y = aenx + be− nx , show Solution
d2y Given y = 2 x 2 − 3x .
that 2
= n 2 y. dy
dx ⇒ = 4x − 3
dx
LY
Applications of differentiation dy
But Δy ≈ Δx
Differentiation is useful in solving real dx
life problems particularly in physical ⇒ Δy ≈ (4 x − 3)Δx , where
N
sciences, computer sciences, engineering, Δx = 7.02 − 7 = 0.02
O
economics, and in many other areas. For ⇒ Δy ≈ (4 × 7 − 3)(0.02)
instance, in ecology, derivatives are used
in predictions of the population of species
in a habitat after a certain period of time.
SE
⇒ Δy ≈ 0.5
Therefore, the approximate change
In seismology, it is used to determine in y is 0.5.
U
earthquakes. In business, the concept of
derivative is used in calculating profit
Example 9.56
and loss.
E
Solving problems involving small changes The side of a square is 10 cm. Find
N
Small changes of quantities are related the increase in the area of the square
to the concept of differentiation. If δ x when its side expands by 0.01cm.
LI
δ y dy
is small, then ≈ , which implies,
δ x dx
N
Solution
dy
δ y ≈ δ x . This notation can be written Let A denote the area of the square
O
dx and l denote the length of side.

dy dA
as Δy ≈ Δx.
⇒ A = l 2 and dl = 2l
R
dx
If y is a function of x, then the change in Using small changes;
FO
y corresponding to a given small change ΔA dA

≈
in x can be determined. Δl dl
Note that, the symbol δ can also be dA
written as Δ. The notation δy is read as ⇒ ΔA ≈ Δl
dl
“delta y”.
479
Form Five
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⇒ ΔA ≈ 2l Δl Solution
But l = 10 cm and Δl = 0.01 Given R = kr n .
Thus, dR knr n
⇒ = knr n−1 =
ΔA ≈ 2 ×10 cm × 0.01 cm ≈ 0.2 cm2 dr r
Therefore, the increase in area is dR n Rn
⇒ = kr n =
0.2 cm 2 . dr r r
dR
But ∆R= ∆r
Example 9.57 dr
Rn
⇒ ∆=R ∆r
LY
Use the technique of small changes r
to find an approximate value of Rn  ∆r  ∆R
⇒ n   . But
= = y%
r  r  r
N
25.08.
∆R  ∆r 
O
⇒ n 
=
Solution R  r 
Given 25.08 . SE ∆R
⇒ ny %
=
Let y = x and ( x, y ) = (25,5) R
⇒ ( x + δ x, y + δ y ) = (25 + 0.08, 5 + δ y) Therefore, the resulting error in R is ny %.
dy 1 − 12 1
U
⇒ = x =
dx 2 2 x Exercise 9.14
dy
But δ y ≈ δx
E
dx 1. Find an approximate increase in y

1 when x increases from 8 to 8.01,
N
⇒δ y ≈ (0.08)
2 25 given = y x 2 + 2 x.
LI
⇒ δ y ≈ 0.008 2. Find an approximate value of each of

the following:
N
Thus, y + δ y =5 + 0.008 ≈ 5.008

(a) 3 27.27 (c) 4 64.96
Therefore, 25.08 ≈ 5.008
O
(b) (5.03)3
Example 9.58 3. Find an approximate change in the
R
volume of a cube of side x cm caused

If R = kr n , where k is a constant and by increasing the sides by 1%.
FO
an error of y % is made in measuring 4. Approximate the decrease in volume

the radius r. Prove that the resulting and surface area if an ice sphere of
error in R is ny %. radius 10 m shrinks to radius 9.8 m.
480
Form Five
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5. Find the approximate increase in Solving problems involving rates of

the volume of a sphere its radius change
increases from 10 cm to 10.1 cm. The rate of change is defined as the
change of one quantity with respect to
1
6. If y= x + , find an approximate another. The derivative of a function
x
increase in y when x changes representing the position of a particle
from 2 to 2.02. along a line at a time t is the velocity
at that time, and the derivative of the
7. The solid circular cylinder has
velocity which is the second derivative
a base radius 5 cm and height of the position function represents the
LY
12.5 cm. If the radius of the base acceleration of the particle at time t.
increases to 5.04 cm, find an
Understanding the nature of change and
N
approximate increase in surface
the rate at which it takes place enable
area of the cylinder. (Leave π in
O
the expert to make important predictions
your answer). and decisions about the atmospheric
1
8. An error of 2 % is made in pressure, humidity, wind patterns,
SE
2
the measurement of the area of temperature, and many others. Also,
a circle. Find the percentage error it is useful in determination of rates of
change of quantities such as volumes,
U
of results in the circumference.
areas, motion, and patterns. The chain
9. As x increases, prove that the
rule can be used when dealing with
area of a circle of radius x and the
E
problems involving rates of changes.

area of a square of side x increase
N
by the same percentage, provided Distance, velocity, and acceleration

that the increase in x is small.
LI
The concept of rates of change can

10. Let y centimetres be the length be used in motion of objects to find
N
velocity and acceleration when the

of a pendulum and t seconds the
displacement function is known.
O
time of one complete swing. It

is known that y = kt 2 , where Let s (t ) be the position of a particle
R
k is a constant. If the length at time t. Then, s′(t ) represents the

of the pendulum is increased instantaneous velocity and
FO
by y %, y being small, find a(t ) = v′(t ) = s′′(t ) represents the

the corresponding percentage instantaneous acceleration of the
increase in time of swing. particle at time t .
481
Form Five
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2
Acceleration, d s may be written in Example 9.60
dt 2
another form by using the fact that A particle moves along a straight line
dv dv ds dv OB so that it is s metres from O in
= × = × v. t seconds, where s = t (2t − 3)(t − 4) .
dt ds dt ds
Deduce the expressions for its velocity
dv d 2 s dv
Therefore, =
a = =2
v . and acceleration in terms of t , hence
dt dt ds
describe the following motion at t = 2
seconds:
Example 9.59 (a) The position of the particle.
LY
(b) The direction of the particle with
The position of a particle on a line reference to point B.
is given by s (t ) = t 3 − 2t 2 + 6t + 5, (c) Its speed.
N
where t is measured in seconds and (d) State whether the speed is
O
s is in metres. Find the velocity and increasing or decreasing.
acceleration of the particle at the end (e) The rate of change of the speed.
of 2 seconds. SE
Solution
Solution Given
s = t (2t − 3)(t − 4) = 2t 3 − 11t 2 + 12t.
U
Given s(t ) = t 3 − 2t 2 + 6t + 5 .
⇒ v = s′(t ) = 3t 2 − 4t + 6 ⇒ s′(t ) = 6t 2 − 22t + 12
Also, a = v′(t ) = 12t − 22 .
E
At t = 2sec,
At time t = 2 seconds ,
N
⇒ v = s′(2) = 3(2)2 − 4(2) + 6

(a) s =2(2(2) − 3)(2 − 4) =−4. The
⇒ v = 10 m/s
LI
particle is 4 m from O on BO
⇒ a = v′(t ) = 6t − 4 ( s = − 4m).
N
Also, at t = 2sec, (b) The particle is moving away from

O
B in the opposite direction.

⇒ a= 6(2) − 4= 8 m/s 2 . (c) Its speed:
Therefore, at the end of 2 seconds, s′(t ) = v = 6t 2 − 22t + 12
R
the velocity is 10 m/s and acceleration v 6(2) 2 − 22(2) + 12

⇒=
FO
is 8 m/s2.
= − 8.
Since speed is the magnitude of
velocity, then its speed is 8 m/s.
482
Form Five
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(d) Its speed is decreasing.

Upon substitution, it gives
(e) Rate of change of speed,
1 3
a = v′(t ) = 12t − 22 ⇒V = πh
12
⎡ dv ⎤ dV π 2
⇒ ⎢ ⎥ = 12(2) − 22 ⇒ = h
⎣ dt ⎦ t =2 dh 4
= 2m / s 2 . Apply chain rule of differentiation:
Therefore, the rate of change of speed
dV dV dh
is 2 m/s 2 . ⇒ = ×
dt dh dt
π dh
LY
⇒ −5 = h 2 ×
Example 9.61 4 dt
A liquid is running out of a conical But h = 10
N
funnel at the rate of 5 cm3 /s . The dh 20
⇒ =−
radius of the funnel is 10 cm and its dt 100π
O
height is 20 cm. How fast is the liquid 1
=−
level dropping when the liquid is 10 SE 5π
cm deep? (Leave your answer in π ). Therefore, the liquid level is dropping
1
Solution at the rate of cm3 /s.
U
5π
Let h be the depth, r the radius, and
V the volume of the liquid at time t. Example 9.62
dV
E
Thus, = −5 cm 3 /s (liquid is The volume of a spherical balloon

dt
N
decreasing). Consider the following increases at a constant rate of 1.5 cm3 /s

diagram:
LI
when the balloon is blown up. If the

volume of the balloon is 62 cm3 , find
N
the rate of increase of its radius.

O
Solution
Let r be the radius of the balloon,
R
V the volume, and t the time in

seconds.
FO
r 10 h 4 dV
Given = , then r = . Since V = π r 3 , then = 4π r 2 .
h 20 2 3 dr
1 2 Using the chain rule of differentiation:
Volume of the cone is V = π r h.
3 dV dV dr .
⇒ = ×
dt dr dt
483
Form Five
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dr 3. A hollow circular cone is held

Thus, 1.5 = 4π r 2 ×
dt downward beneath the water tap
dr 1.5
⇒ = leaking at the rate of 2 cm3 / s .
dt 4π r 2
Find the rate of rise of water level
But V = 4 π r 3
3 when the depth of the cone is 6 cm,
4 given that its height is 18cm and
⇒ 62 = π r 3
3 radius is 12 cm.
1
4. The radius of a spherical bottom
⎛ 62 × 3 ⎞ 3
⇒r =⎜ ⎟ increases at the rate of 6 cm/min.
⎝ 4π ⎠
LY
Find the rate of increase of volume
= 2.4553 cm when the radius of the bottom is
dr 1.5
⇒ = 4 cm.
N
dt 4π ( 2.4553)2
5. At what rate is the area increasing
O
= 0.02 cm/s. when the radius is 4 cm, given
Therefore, the rate of increase of the the radius of the spherical balloon
radius is 0.02 cm/s. SE increases at a rate of 6 cm/sec?
Exercise 9.15 6. The area of a circle is increasing at

the rate of 3 cm 2 /s. Find the rate
U
1. The surface area of a sphere is of change of the circumference of
4π r 2 , where r is its radius. If the circle when its radius is 2 cm.
E
the radius increases at the rate of 7. A container in the form of right

0.1cm 2 / s, find the rate of change
N
circular cone of height 10 cm and

of area in cm 2 /s when the radius base radius 1 cm is receiving drops
LI
of the sphere is 40 cm. of liquid from a leaking tap at the

2. The formula rate of 0.1 cm3 /s. Find the rate at
N
s(t ) = − 4.9t 2 + 49t + 20 which the surface area of the liquid

O
represents the height in metres is increasing when the liquid is half

of an object after it is thrown way up the cone.
R
vertically upward from a point 8. An inverted right circular cone of

15 m above the ground at a vertical angle 120° is collecting
FO
velocity of 49 m/s. How high water from a tap at the rate of

above the ground will the 18π cm3 /min. Find the water level
object reach? after 12 minutes and the rate of
increase of water level in the cone.
484
Form Five
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9. If the volume of a sphere Activity 9.6: Identification of

increases at a rate of 6 cm3 /s, turning points and points of
find the rate of increase in surface inflexion
area of the sphere at the instant Individually or in a group, perform
when the radius is 4 cm. the following tasks:
10. A particle moves along the 1. Draw the graphs of curves of
x-axis and its position is given your choice. The curves should
by s (t ) = 5 + 4sin 2t + 3cos 2t. be of degrees two and three.
Prove that its velocity is zero
2. Identify the turning points and
LY
when s = 10 and its acceleration
points of inflexion of the graphs
is 20 − 4 s.
in task 1.
11. If s (t=) 3t + t 3 is a displacement
N
3. Identify the values of the turning
function in metres, calculate the
points and points of inflexion
O
velocity and acceleration after
found in task 2.
2 seconds.
4. Use the results in task 3 to
12. A particle moves back and
SE determine the following:
forth along a horizontal line
defined by the position function (a) Maximum points
U
s (t ) =t 3 − 12t 2 + 36t − 30, for (b) Minimum points
t ≥ 0. (c) Points of inflexion
5. Share your results with other
E
(a) Determine the velocity and

acceleration functions. students for more inputs.
N
(b) When is the velocity zero?

LI
(c) When is the acceleration A turning point is a point at which values

zero? of the function change from decreasing
N
(d) At what interval is the to increasing or from increasing to

velocity negative? Explain decreasing. It is a point at which the
O
its physical meaning. gradient of the curve zero. If a curve

is defined by y = f ( x) , then a turning
R
Turning points and points of inflexion point is determined when f ′( x) = 0. In

of a curve other words, the turning point is obtained
FO
Turning points are points on a curve when the derivative of the curve is zero.
where its graph changes direction. The
following activity illustrates the concept
of turning points and point of inflexion.
485
Form Five
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LY
Figure 9.3: Turning points and points of inflexion
N
Figure 9.3 illustrates the concepts of turning points and points of inflexion. Points
O
A and D are maximum points of the curve, point B is a minimum point and points
C and E are points of inflexion. The function has maximum values PA and SD
SE
when x = OP and x = OS, respectively. Also, the function has a minimum value
QB when x = OQ. The values of points of inflexion are RC and TE when x = OR
U
and x = OT, respectively.
Note that, O is the origin.

E
The following are steps for determining the turning points:

N
1. Differentiate the given function to obtain f ′( x).

2. Equate the expression for f ′( x) to zero.
LI
3. Solve f ′( x) = 0 , for the x-coordinate(s) of the turning point(s)

4. Find the x values ( x1 , x2 , x 3 ,) which satisfy the equation f ′( x) = 0 .
N
5. Calculate the corresponding values of y using y = f ( x).

O
Example 9.63
R
Given the function defined by the equation y = x 2 − 4 x + 5 , find the coordinates

FO
of the turning points.
Solution
Given y = x 2 − 4 x + 5 .
486
Form Five
FOR ONLINE USE ONLY
DO NOT DUPLICATE
dy
⇒ = 2x − 4
dx
dy
Solve the equation = 0:
dx
⇒ 2x − 4 = 0
⇒x=2
Calculate y-coordinate from y = f ( x) :
⇒ y = (2)2 − 4(2) + 5
=1
LY
Therefore, the turning point is (2,1).
N
Example 9.64
O
3 2
Determine the turning points of the curve y = 4 x + 3x − 60 x − 12.
Solution SE
Given y = 4 x3 + 3x 2 − 60 x − 12.
dy
⇒ = 12 x 2 + 6 x − 60
U
dx
dy
At the turning points, = 0.
dx
E
⇒ 12 x 2 + 6 x − 60 = 0
N
Upon solving the equation, x = 2 and x = –2.5.

LI
Calculate the y-coordinates from y = f ( x) :
When x = 2, ⇒ y = 4(2)3 + 3(2)2 − 60(2) − 12 = −88 .

N
When x = –2.5
O
⇒ y = 4 ( −2.5 ) + 3(−2.5) 2 − 60(−2.5) − 12 = 94.25 .

3
Therefore, the turning points are (2, − 88) and ( − 2.5, 94.25 ) .
R
FO
Example 9.65
Determine the turning points of the curve f ( x) = 7 + 24 x − 9 x 2 − 2 x3 .
487
Form Five
FOR ONLINE USE ONLY
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Solution
Given f ( x) = 7 + 24 x − 9 x 2 − 2 x3 .
⇒ f ′( x) = 24 − 18x − 6 x 2 .
At the turning points, f ′( x) = 0 .
Solving f ′( x) = 0 for x
⇒ 24 − 18 x − 6 x 2 = 0 .
Upon solving, x = − 4 and x = 1.
Determine the corresponding values of y.
LY
When x = − 4 : f ( − 4) =+7 24 ( − 4) − 9 ( − 4) − 2 ( − 4) =
2 3
− 105 .
When x = 1: f (1) = 7 + 24(1) − 9(1) − 2(1) = 20
2 3
N
Therefore, the turning points are (− 4, −105) and (1, 20).
O
Exercise 9.16
SE
1. Determine the turning points of the curve y = 4 x3 + 3x 2 − 6 x − 2.
2
2. Find the turning points of the curve y = x ( x − 6).
3. Determine the turning points of the function y = 2 x3 − 12 x 2 − 30 x − 10.
U
4. For each of the following curves, find the coordinates of the turning
points:
1
E
2
(a) y = x 2 − 2 x − 8 (b) y = 3x − x (c) y= x +
x
N
5. Find the coordinates of the turning points on each of the following curves:
(a) y = x3 + x 2 − x + 3 (c) y = 2 x 2 − 8x
LI
(b) y = 8 + 4 x − 2 x 2 − x3 (d) y = (1 − x)( x − 5)

3 2
6. The curve f ( x) = x − kx + x − 3 has two turning points. If one point occurs
N
at x = 1, find the value of k and the coordinates of the turning points.

O
7. For the curve y = x3 − 9 , find its turning points.

1
8. Show that the turning points of the curve f (t ) = t 3 − t 2 − 2t + 4 are (1, 2.5)
R
2
⎛ 2 22 ⎞
and ⎜ − , 4 ⎟ .
FO
⎝ 3 27 ⎠
9. Verify that the turning point of the curve y = 2 x − e is ( 0.6931, − 0.6136 ) .
x
10. Determine the equation of the cubic curve whose turning points are (1, 3)
and ( −1, 7 ) .
488
Form Five
FOR ONLINE USE ONLY
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Real life problems involving maximum d2y

and minimum values (b) If the value of at the
dx 2
The turning points and points of inflexion point is negative, then the
of the functions (curves) have numerous point is a maximum
applications in real life situations. For d2y
(c) If the value of at the point
instance, stationary points (maximum, dx 2
is zero, then the point is a point
minimum and points of inflexion)
of inflexion or maximum or
are useful in sketching the curves. In
minimum. To verify this, use
economics, the stationary points are the variation signs of the first
used to determine the equilibrium prices,
LY
derivatives.
break-even points, marginal costs and
marginal revenues. The following are Or
steps for classifying stationary points. 5. Determine the sign of the gradient of
N
the curve just before and just after the
dy
O
1. Given y = f ( x), determine (that stationary points. If the sign of the
dx
gradient of the curve changes from
is, y′ = f ′( x) ).
SE positive to negative, then the point is
dy a maximum. If the sign of the gradient
2. Let = 0 and solve for the values
dx changes from negative to positive,
of x.
the point is a minimum. When the
U
3. Substitute the values of x into
the given equation, y = f ( x) in gradient sign does not change, then
order to obtain the corresponding the point is a point of inflexion.
E
y-coordinate values. This establishes

Example 9.66
N
the coordinates of the stationary

points. Identify the nature of the
LI
stationary points of the function

To determine the nature of stationary
f ( x) = 3x 4 − 8 x3 + 6 x 2 − 5. Hence,
N
points: Either,
d2y sketch its graph.
4. Find and substitute into it the
O
dx 2
Solution
values of x in order to obtain the
Given f ( x) = 3x 4 − 8 x3 + 6 x 2 − 5 .
nature of the stationary point as
R
follows: ⇒ f ′( x) = 12 x3 − 24 x 2 + 12 x .
FO
d2y At stationary points, f ′( x) = 0

(a) If the value of at the point
dx 2 ⇒ 12 x3 − 24 x 2 + 12 x = 0
is positive, then the point is a
⇒ 12 x( x − 1)( x − 1) = 0
minimum.
⇒ x = 0 and x = 1 .
489
Form Five
FOR ONLINE USE ONLY
DO NOT DUPLICATE
When, x = 0 ⇒ f ( x) = −5 .
When, x = 1, f ( x) = − 4
The stationary points are (0, −5) , and (1, − 4)
Classify the stationary points by finding the second derivative. That is,
d
f ′′( x) =
dx
(12 x3 − 24 x 2 + 12 x )
⇒ f ′′( x) = 36 x 2 − 48 x + 12.
When x = 0 ⇒ f ′′(0) = 12 > 0 . Thus, the point (0, −5) is a minimum point.
When x = 1 ⇒ f ′′(0) = 0.
LY
The nature of the point is determined by variation of signs of the gradient of
the curve. That is, f ′( x) = 12 x3 − 24 x 2 + 12 x.
N
If x is slightly less than 1, say x = 0.9, then
f ′(0.9) = 12 (0.9) − 24 (0.9) + 12 (0.9)
3 2
O
= 0.108 > 0 SE
Also, if If x is slightly greater than 1, say x = 1.1, then
f ′(1.1) = 12 (1.1) − 24 (1.1) + 12 (1.1)
3 2
= 0.132 > 0
U
Since the gradient does not change, then the point (1, − 4) is an inflexion point.
Therefore, (0, −5) is a minimum point and (1, − 4) is an inflexion point.
E
The following is the graph of the curve f ( x) = 3x 4 − 8 x3 + 6 x 2 − 5.

N
LI
N
O
R
FO
490
Form Five
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Example 9.67 dA
At the turning points, = 0.
dx
A gardener has 400 m of fencing 200
Thus, 200 − 2 x = 0 ⇒ x = = 100
material and wishes to build a 2
rectangular field completely enclosed ⇒ y = 200 − 100 = 100 .
by the fence. Therefore, the dimensions of the field
(a) Find the dimensions of the field should be 100 m by 100 m.
that the gardener should make so (b) When x = 100 ,
as to maximize the area.
(b) Find the maximum area to be ⎡ d 2 A⎤
LY
⎢ 2⎥ = −2 < 0 ⇒ (100,100 )
enclosed. ⎣ dx ⎦ x =100
is a maximum point.
N
Solution
(a) Let x be the length of the field
O
The area is maximum when
and y the width as shown in the
x = 100 m and y = 100 m
following figure. SE
Thus, A = xy = 100 m ×100 m
⇒ A = 10,000 m2
U
Therefore, the maximum area is
10, 000 m 2 .
E
Area length × width

= Example 9.68
N
⇒ Area, A =
xy
Find the coordinates and the nature
LI
But the fencing does not exceed 400 of turning points of the curve
m. So the field must have a maximum y = x3 + 3x 2 − 9 x + 6. Hence, sketch
N
perimeter of 400 m the curve.

O
⇒ x + x + y + y = 400
⇒ 2 x + 2 y = 400 Solution
R
⇒ y = 200 − x . Given y = x3 + 3x 2 − 9 x + 6 .
Substituting y = 200 − x into the The gradient of the curve is given by
FO
equation A = xy gives, y′ = 3x 2 + 6 x − 9
A = x(200 − x) = 200 x − x 2 At turning points, y′ = 0 .
dA ⇒ 0 = 3x 2 + 6 x − 9
⇒ = 200 − 2 x
dx ⇒ ( x − 1)( x + 3) = 0
491
Form Five
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⇒ x = 1 and x = −3.
The corresponding y coordinates are obtained as follows:
When x = 1 ⇒ y = (1)3 + 3(1)2 − 9(1) + 6 = 1 .
When x = −3 ⇒ y = (−3)3 + 3(−3)2 − 9(−3) + 6 = 33.

Thus, the turning points are (1,1) and ( −3,33).
To test the nature of the turning points, use the second derivative test that is,
y′′ = 6 x + 6 when x =1 ⇒ y′′ (1) = 6 (1) + 6 =12 > 0 ⇒ (1,1) is a minimum point.
⇒ y′′ = 6 x + 6 when x = −3 ⇒ y′′(−3) = 6(−3) + 6 = −12 < 0 ⇒ (−3, 33) is a
LY
maximum point.
Therefore, (1,1) is a minimum point and (−3, 33) is a maximum point.
N
O
SE
U
E
N
LI
N
Example 9.69
O
Find the maximum and minimum values of the curve y = 3x 2 + 3 − x3 by

examining the variation signs of its gradient.
R
Solution
FO
dy
Given y = 3x 2 + 3 − x3 ⇒ = 6 x − 3x 2 .
dy
dx
For turning points, = 0.
dx
Thus, 6 x − 3x 2 = 0 ⇒ x = 0 and x = 2.
492
Form Five
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When x = 0 ⇒ y = 3(0)2 + 3 − (0)3 = 3, thus ( x, y ) = (0,3).

When x = 2 ⇒ y = 3(2)2 + 3 − (2)3 = 7, thus ( x, y ) = (2, 7).
Hence, (0,3) and (2, 7) are the coordinates of the turning points.
Next, examine the nature of the turning points using variation signs of the
gradient.
Considering the point (0,3) :

If x is slightly less than 0, let say x = − 0.9 , then
 dy 
 dx  =6(−0.9) − 3(−0.9) 2 =−7.8 < 0.
LY
x = −0.9
If x is slightly greater than 0, let say x = 0.1, then
N
⎡ dy ⎤
⎢ dx ⎥ = 6(0.1) − 3(0.1) 2 = 0.57 > 0.
⎣ ⎦ x = 0.1
O
Since the gradient changes from negative to positive, the point (0,3) is a
minimum point and the minimum value is 3. SE
Considering the point (2, 7) :
If x is slightly less than 2, let say x = 1.9, then,
⎡ dy ⎤
U
⎢ dx ⎥ = 6(1.9) − 3(1.9)2 = 0.57 > 0.
⎣ ⎦ x=1.9
If x is slightly greater than 2, let say x = 2.1 , then
E
⎡ dy ⎤
= 6(2.1) − 3(2.1)2 = − 0.63 < 0.
N
⎢ dx ⎥
⎣ ⎦ x=2.1
LI
Since the gradient changes from positive to negative, then the point (2, 7) is
a maximum point.
N
Therefore, the maximum value is 7.

O
Example 9.70
R
FO
Find and classify the nature of the turning points for the function
y = x 4 − 4 x3 + 16 x − 16 .
493
Form Five
FOR ONLINE USE ONLY
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Solution
Given y = x 4 − 4 x3 + 16 x − 16
dy
= 4 x3 − 12 x 2 + 16
dx
dy
For turning points, = 0.
dx
Hence, 4 x3 − 12 x 2 + 16 = 0
⇒ x3 − 3x 2 + 4 = 0
LY
Þ x3 − 3x2 + 4 = ( x + 1) ( x2 − 4x + 4) = 0
Þ ( x + 1)( x − 2) = 0
2
N
Þ x = −1 and x = 2
O
When x = −1⇒ y = ( −1) − 4 ( −1) + 16 ( −1) − 16 = −27
4 3
Thus, ( x, y ) = (−1, − 27) .

4 3 SE
When x = 2 ⇒ y = ( 2) − 4 ( 2) + 16 ( 2) −16 = 0
Thus, ( x, y ) = (2, 0).
The turning points are (−1, − 27) and (2, 0).
U
Consider the point (−1, − 27):
If x is slightly less than −1 , let say x = −2 , then
E
 dy 
4 ( −2 ) − 12 ( −2 ) + 16 =
3 2
 dx  = − 64 < 0
N
x = −2
If x is slightly greater than −1 , let say x = 0 , then

LI
⎡ dy ⎤
⎢ dx ⎥ = 4 ( 0 ) − 12 ( 0 ) + 16 = 16 > 0.
3 2
N
⎣ ⎦ x =0
Since the gradient changes from negative to positive, then (−1, − 27) is a
O
minimum point.
R
Consider the point (2,0):

If x is slightly less than 2, let say x = 1, then
FO
⎡ dy ⎤
⎢ dx ⎥ = 4 (1) − 12 (1) + 16 = 8 > 0.
3 2
⎣ ⎦ x =1
If x is slightly greater than 2, let say x = 3, then
494
Form Five
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⎡ dy ⎤
⎢ dx ⎥ = 4 (3) − 12 (3) + 16 = 16 > 0.
3 2
⎣ ⎦ x =3
Since the gradient does not change sign, then (2, 0) is the inflexion point.
Exercise 9.17
1. An open rectangular prism is to be constructed from a square base and four

vertical rectangular shapes in order to have the capacity of 32 m3. Find the
least area of the cuboid to be used in the construction of the rectangular prism.
LY
2. A rectangular sheet of cardboard has length 12 cm and width 7.5 cm. Equal
squares of side x cm are cut from each corner. The flaps are then folded to
make an open box in the form of a cuboid. If the volume of the box is V cm3:
N
(a) Show that V =4 x 3 − 39 x 2 + 90 x.
O
(b) Find the value of x which gives the maximum value of V.
(c) What is the maximum value of V.
3. The product of two positive numbers is 100. Find their least possible sum.
SE 15 + 10 x
4. Find the coordinates of the turning points of the function 2
and
classify them. x + 1
U
5. Find the values of x for which the curve ( x − 2)( x − 3)2 has turning points
and determine the maximum and minimum turning points of the curve.
6. For each of the following curves, find the coordinates of the turning points,
E
classify the turning points, and determine where the curves cross the axes.
N
2 4 5
(a) y = ( x − 2) ( x − 1) (d) y = 5 x − 12 x
LI
4 3 2
(b) y = x − 4 x (e) y = x − 4
N
2 3 3 2
(c) y = 36 x − 3x − 2 x (f) y = 4 x − 2 x − x − 1
O
7. A rectangle of length x centimetres has a constant area of 12 cm2. Find the

perimeter of the rectangle in terms of x and the least possible perimeter of
the rectangle.
R
8. A lidless box with square ends is to be made from a sheet of metal. Determine
FO
the least area of the metal for which its volume is 3.5 m3 .
9. A closed cylindrical container has a surface area of 400 cm2. Determine
the dimensions for maximum volume.
495
Form Five
FOR ONLINE USE ONLY
DO NOT DUPLICATE
10. Determine the area of the largest fence of a rectangular ground that can be
enclosed by 100 m of fencing, if part of an existing straight wall is used
as one side.
Taylor’s and Maclaurin’s series

Taylor's series is an expression of a function f (x) near a point x = a which consists
of an infinite sum of terms involving derivatives of the function at the point x = a,
where a ≠ 0. If we allow a = 0, the infinite series is then known as Maclaurin's
series.
LY
(a) Taylor’s theorem
Consider the polynomial in power of ( x − a ) given by
N
f ( x) =c0 + c1 ( x − a ) + c2 ( x − a ) + c3 ( x − a ) + c4 ( x − a ) +  + cn ( x − a ) .
2 3 4 n
O
The successive derivatives of f ( x) will be as follows;
f ′( x) = c1 + 2c2 ( x − a ) + 3c3 ( x − a ) + 4c4 ( x − a ) +  + ncn ( x − a )
2 3 n −1
2
SE
f ′′( x) = 2 × c2 + 3 × 2c3 ( x − a ) + 4 × 3c4 ( x − a ) +  + n ( n − 1) cn ( x − a )
n−2
f ′′( x) = 3 × 2c3 + 4 × 3 × 2c4 ( x − a ) +  + n ( n − 1)( n − 2 ) cn ( x − a )

n −3
, and so on.
U
The constants c0 , c1 , c2 , , cn are calculated by substituting x = a in the function
f ( x) and to the respective derivatives.
E
Putting x = a gives,
N
f ′′(a) f iv (a )
, c3 = f ′′′(a ) , c4 =
n
c0 = f (a) , c1 = f ′(a) , c2 = , … , cn = f (a) .
2! 4!
LI
3! n!
Substituting these coefficients in the polynomial gives the Taylor’s theorem.
N
Thus, the Taylor’s theorem states that,

f ′′(a ) f ′′′(a ) f ′′′(a )
O
( x − a) + ( x − a) +  + ( x − a)
2 3 n
f (a ) + f ′(a )( x − a ) +
f ( x) =
2! 3! n!
If x = a + h ⇒ h = x − a , then Taylor’s theorem becomes
R
f ′′(a ) 2 f ′′′(a ) 3 f ′′′(a ) n

f ( x) = f (a + h) = f (a ) + f ′(a )h + h + h ++ h .
FO
2! 3! n!
Taylor’s theorem is useful in expanding the function f ( x) about x = a.
Example 9.71
496
Form Five
FOR ONLINE USE ONLY
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Example 9.71
⎛π ⎞
Use Taylor’s theorem to expand sin ⎜ + h ⎟ in ascending powers of h as far
⎝3 ⎠
as the term in h .
4
Solution
⎛π ⎞ ⎛π ⎞ π 3
Let f ( x) = sin x = sin ⎜ + h ⎟ and f ⎜ ⎟ = sin = .
⎝3 ⎠ ⎝3⎠ 3 2
⎛π ⎞ ⎛π ⎞ 1
⇒ f ′( x) = cos x and f ′ ⎜ ⎟ = cos ⎜ ⎟ =
LY
⎝3⎠ ⎝3⎠ 2
⎛π ⎞ ⎛π ⎞ 3
⇒ f ′′( x) = − sin x and f ′′ ⎜ ⎟ = − sin ⎜ ⎟ = −
⎝3⎠ ⎝3⎠ 2
N
⎛π ⎞ ⎛π ⎞ 1
⇒ f ′′′( x) = − cos x and f ′′′ ⎜ ⎟ = − cos ⎜ ⎟ = −
O
⎝3⎠ ⎝3⎠ 2
( iv ) ⎛ π ⎞ ⎛π ⎞ 3
⇒ f (iv ) ( x) = sin x and f ⎜ ⎟ = sin ⎜ ⎟ =
⎝3⎠ ⎝3⎠ 2
SE
By Taylor’s theorem,
U
f ′′(a ) 2 f ′′′(a ) 3 f iv (a ) 4 f n (a)
f ( x)= f (a + h)= f (a ) + f ′(a )h + h + h + h + +
2! 3! 4! n!
 3  1  3
E
−  −  
π  3 1  2  2  2  3  2  4
Thus, sin  + h  = + h+ h + h + h +
N
3  2 2 2! 2! 4!
LI
π  3 1 3 2 1 3 3 4
⇒ sin  + h  = + h− h − h + h +
3  2 2 4 12 48
N
π  3 1 3 2 1 3 3 4
Therefore, sin  + h  = + h− h − h + h +
O
3  2 2 4 12 48
R
Example 9.72
FO
π 
Use Taylor’s theorem to expand cos  + x in ascending powers of h as far
6 
as the term in h . Hence, find the value of cos 31° correct to four significant
4
figures, taking 1° as 0.01745 radians and 3 as 1.7321.
497
Form Five
FOR ONLINE USE ONLY
DO NOT DUPLICATE
Solution
⎛π ⎞ ⎛π ⎞ π 3
Let f ( x) = cos x = cos ⎜ + h ⎟ and f ⎜ ⎟ = cos =
⎝6 ⎠ ⎝6⎠ 6 2
⎛π ⎞ ⎛π ⎞ 1
⇒ f ′( x) = − sin x and f ′ ⎜ ⎟ = − sin ⎜ ⎟ = −
⎝6⎠ ⎝6⎠ 2
⎛π ⎞ ⎛π ⎞ 3
⇒ f ′′( x) = − cos x and f ′′ ⎜ ⎟ = − cos ⎜ ⎟ = −
⎝6⎠ ⎝6⎠ 2
LY
⎛π ⎞ ⎛π ⎞ 1
⇒ f ′′′( x) = sin x and f ′′′ ⎜ ⎟ = sin ⎜ ⎟ =
⎝6⎠ ⎝6⎠ 2
N
( iv ) ⎛ π ⎞ ⎛π ⎞ 3
⇒ f (iv ) ( x) = cos x and f ⎜⎝ 6 ⎟⎠ = cos ⎜⎝ 6 ⎟⎠ = 2 .
O
By Taylor’s theorem, SE
f ′′(a ) 2 f ′′′(a ) 3 f iv (a ) 4
f ( x) = f (a + h) = f (a ) + f ′(a )h + h + h + h +
2! 3! 4!
 3  3
U
−   1  
−
π  3 1  2  2  2  3  2  4
Thus, cos  + h  = − h+ h + h + h +
6  2 2 2! 3! 4!
E
π  3 1 3 2 1 3 3 4
N
⇒ cos  + h  = − h− h + h + h +
6  2 2 4 12 48
LI
For the value of cos31° = cos (30° + 1°) , it implies that

N
3 1 3 1 3
− ( 0.01745 ) − ( 0.01745) + ( 0.01745) + ( 0.01745) +
2 3 4
cos 31=
°
2 2 4 12 48
O
= 0.8572 .
π  3 1 3 2 1 3 3 4
R
⇒ cos  + h  =
Therefore, − h− h + h + h +  and
6  2 2 4 12 48
FO
cos 31° =0.8572.
498
Form Five
FOR ONLINE USE ONLY
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Example 9.73
⎛π ⎞
Use Taylor’s theorem to expand tan ⎜ + h ⎟ in ascending powers of h as far
⎝4 ⎠
as the term in h .
3
⎛π ⎞ ⎛π ⎞ π
Let f ( x) = tan x = tan ⎜ + h ⎟ and f ⎜ ⎟ = tan = 1.
⎝4 ⎠ ⎝4⎠ 4
⎛π ⎞ 2⎛π ⎞
⇒ f ′( x) = sec2 x and f ′ ⎜ ⎟ = sec ⎜ ⎟ = 2
⎝4⎠ ⎝4⎠
⎛π ⎞ ⎛π ⎞ ⎛π ⎞
LY
⇒ f ′′( x) = 2sec2 x tan x and f ′′ ⎜ ⎟ = 2sec 2 ⎜ ⎟ tan ⎜ ⎟ = 4
⎝4⎠ ⎝4⎠ ⎝4⎠
⇒ f ′′′( x) = 4sec2 x tan 2 x + 2sec4 x and
N
⎛π ⎞ ⎛π ⎞ ⎛π ⎞ ⎛π ⎞
f ′′′ ⎜ ⎟ = 4sec 2 ⎜ ⎟ tan 2 ⎜ ⎟ + 2sec 4 ⎜ ⎟ = 16
O
⎝4⎠ ⎝4⎠ ⎝4⎠ ⎝4⎠
By Taylor’s theorem,
⇒ f ( x) = f (a + h) = f (a ) + f ′(a )h +
SE
f ′′(a ) 2 f ′′′(a ) 3 f iv (a ) 4
h + h + h +
2! 3! 4!
π  4 16
U
1 2h + h 2 + h 3 + 
Thus, tan  + h  =+
4  2! 3!
8
1 2h + 2h 2 + h3 +
=+
3
E

π  8
N
1 2h + 2h 2 + h 3 + 
Therefore, tan  + h  =+
4  3
LI
Maclaurin’s series
N
Considering a relationship x= a + h , where a is a constant, and x and h are

O
variables, there is a special case given by a = 0 when x = h . In this case,

Taylor’s theorem can be reduced to:
R
f ′′(0) 2 f ′′′(0) 3 f iv (0) 4

′
f ( x) =f (0) + f (0) x + x + x + x + which is called
2! 3! 4!
FO
Maclaurin’s series. Maclaurin’s series is a special case of Taylor’s theorem

for a = 0.
499
Form Five
FOR ONLINE USE ONLY
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Example 9.74
Use Maclaurin’s series to expand ln (1 + x) in ascending powers of x as far

as the term in x4.
Solution
Given f ( x) = ln(1 + x) .
⇒ f (0) = ln(1) = 0
⇒ f ′( x) = (1 + x)−1 and f ′(0) = 1
⇒ f ′′( x) = − (1 + x)−2 and f ′′(0) = −1
LY
⇒ f ′′′( x) = 2(1 + x)−3 and f ′′′(0) = 2
N
⇒ f iv ( x) = − 6(1 + x)−4 and f (iv ) (0) = −6
O
By Maclaurin’s series,
f ′′(0) 2 f ′′′(0) 3 f iv (0) 4
⇒ f ( x) = f (0) + f ′(0) x + x + x + SE x +
2! 3! 4!
(−1) 2 2 3 (− 6) 3
Thus, ln(1 + x) = 0 + 1× x + x + x + x +
2! 3! 4!
U
x 2 x3 x 4
⇒ ln (1 + x ) =x − + − +
2 3 4
x 2 x3 x 4
E
Therefore, ln (1 + x ) =x − + − +
2 3 4
N
Example 9.75
LI
N
Find the Maclaurin’s series for e5 x as far as the term in x3 .

O
Solution
Given f ( x) = e5 x .
R
⇒ f (0) = 1
FO
⇒ f ′( x) = 5e5 x and f ′(0) = 5e5(0) = 5

⇒ f ′′( x) = 52 e5 x and f ′′(0) = 52 e5(0) = 52
⇒ f ′′′( x) = 53 e5 x and f ′′′(0) = 53 e5(0) = 53 .
500
Form Five
FOR ONLINE USE ONLY
DO NOT DUPLICATE
By Maclaurin’ series,
f ′′(0) 2 f ′′′(0) 3 f iv (0) 4
⇒ f ( x) = f (0) + f ′(0) x + x + x + x +
2! 3! 4!
25 2 125 3
Thus, e5 x =+
1 5x + x + x +
2 6
25 2 125 3
Therefore, e5 x =+
1 5x + x + x +
2 6
LY
Exercise 9.18
1. Show that the first three terms in the Maclaurin's expansion of log e (1 + e x )
N
1 1
are log e 2 + x + x 2 . Show that there is no term in x3 .
O
2 8
2. Using Taylor’s theorem, obtain a series expansion of sin (θ + x), where θ
SE 4
is an acute angle measured in radians such that sin θ = (Give the first
5
four non-zero terms).
3. Apply Taylor’s theorem to expand the following:
U
(a) ln(1 + 4 x) in ascending powers of 4x as far as the term in x 4 and
deduce its corresponding Maclaurin’s series.
E
4
⎛ π⎞ ⎛ π⎞
(b) cosec x in ascending powers of ⎜ x − ⎟ as far as the term in ⎜ x − ⎟ .
2⎠ 2⎠
N
⎝ ⎝
4
⎛ π⎞  π
LI
(c) sec x in ascending powers of ⎜ x + ⎟ as far as the  x +  term.

⎝ 4⎠  4
π 
(d) cos  + x  in ascending powers of x as far as the term in x 4 .
N
3 
O
x +1  1 1 1 
4. Prove that log e  
 =2  + + +  and state the
 2 x + 1 3 ( 2 x + 1) 5 ( 2 x + 1)
3 5
 x  
R
range of values of x for which the series is valid.

FO
5. Find the Maclaurin’s series of the following functions up to the term

containing x 4 .
(a) cos x (b) sin x (c) a x (d) 1 + 4x
6. Produce the power series for cos 2θ as far as the term in θ 6 .
2
501
Form Five
FOR ONLINE USE ONLY
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3
x
7. Using Maclaurin’s series, develop a series for e 2 as far as the fourth term.
8. Show that the first three non-zero terms in the Maclaurin series for sin(sinx)
x3 x5
is x − + +
3 10
⎛π ⎞
9. Use Taylor’s theorem to expand sin ⎜ + h ⎟ in ascending powers of h as
far as the term in h4. ⎝2 ⎠
3
10. If x is the angle of radian measure of an angle which is so small that x
and higher powers of x can be neglected, use Taylor’s theorem to show
π  1 3 1
LY
that, sin  + x  = + x − x2 + 
2  2 2 4
N
Introduction to partial derivatives
O
The function z = f ( x, y ) depends on two variables x and y , where x and y are
independent of each other. Thus, f depends on x and y. The derivative of f
with respect to x or y is called a partial derivative.
SE
Identifying functions of two variables
U
The definition of a function of two variables is very similar to the definition for a
function of one variable. The main difference is that, instead of mapping values
of one variable to values of another variable, the ordered pairs of variables are
E
mapped to another variable.

(a) f ( x, y) means
⇒ f f is a function of x and y
N
(b) h(q, r ) ⇒means

h h is a function of q and r.
LI
Let z = f ( x, y ) be a function of two independent variables, x and y. The partial

N
derivatives of z are obtained as follows:

If x varies while y remains constant, then z is a function of x. The partial derivative
O
∂z f ( x + h, y ) − f ( x )
of z with respect to x is given by, = f x ( x, y ) = lim .
∂x h→ 0 h
R
If y varies while x remains constant, then z is a function of y. The partial derivative

FO
of z with respect to y is given by;

∂z f ( x, h + y ) − f ( x, y )
= f y ( x, y ) = lim .
∂y h→ 0 h
502
Form Five
FOR ONLINE USE ONLY
DO NOT DUPLICATE
Other notations used for partial derivatives include
∂2 z ∂ ⎛ ∂z ⎞ ∂ 2 z ∂ ⎛ ∂z ⎞ ∂2 z ∂ ⎛ ∂z ⎞
2
= z xx = ⎜ ⎟ , 2
= z yy = ⎜ ⎟ and, = zx y = ⎜ ⎟ ,
∂x ∂x ⎝ ∂x ⎠ ∂y ∂y ⎝ ∂y ⎠ ∂x∂y ∂x ⎝ ∂y ⎠
where z xx is the second derivative of z with respect to x, z yy is the second derivative
of z with respect to y, and z xy is a mixed second derivative of z with respect to x and y.
Example 9.76
Find the first partial derivatives of z =x 2 + 3 xy + y 2 .
LY
Solution
The partial derivatives are given by:
N
∂z ∂ 2
= (
x + 3xy + y 2 )
O
∂x ∂x
∂z
⇒ = 2 x + 3 y.
∂x SE
Similarly,
∂z ∂ 2
= (
x + 3xy + y 2 )
U
∂y ∂y
∂z
⇒ = 3x + 2 y .
∂y
E
N
Example 9.77
LI
Find the first partial derivatives of z = sin 3 x cos 4 y .

N
Solution
O
Given z = sin 3 x cos 4 y .

∂z ∂z
R
⇒ = 3cos 3x cos 4 y and = − 4sin 3x sin 4 y .

∂x ∂y
FO
Example 9.78
∂2 z x3 + y 2
Find if z = e .
∂x 2
503
Form Five
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Solution
3 2
Given z = e x + y .
⇒
∂z ∂ x3 + y 2
=
∂x ∂x
e ( )
∂z 3 2
⇒ = 3x 2e x + y .
∂x 2
∂ z ∂
Thus, 2 =
∂x ∂x
(
3
3x 2 e x + y
2
)
∂2 z
LY
( )
2 3
⇒ 2
= 9 x4 + 6 x e x + y .
∂x
N
Exercise 9.19
O
kT
1. If p = , find the first partial derivatives of p, where k is a constant.
V
∂z
2. Find
∂x
and
∂z
∂y
if z = x 2 y 3 .
SE
x y
3. Find the first partial derivatives of the function z = 2 − 2 with respect
U
y x
to x and y.
∂z
4. Find for each of the following functions:
E
∂x
(a) z = xy cos( xy )
N
x− y
(b) z =
LI
x+ y
(c) =
N
z (3 x + y ) 2
∂f ∂f
O
5. For each of the following functions, find and .

∂x ∂y
y ) x3 y + x 2 y 2
(a) f ( x,=
R
(b) f ( x, y=
) x 2 + 3 xy
FO
4 3 2 4
(c) f ( x, y )= x y + 8 x y + y + 5 x
x2 y 2
(d) f ( x, y=
) +
y x
504
Form Five
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2
6. Given z = x sin( x − 2 y), find:
∂2 z ∂2 z
(a) (c)
∂x 2 ∂x∂y
∂2 z ∂2 z
(b) (d)
∂y 2 ∂y∂x
−1 ⎛ x ⎞
2 2
∂ z ∂ z
7. Find and when z = cos ⎜ ⎟ .
⎝ y⎠
2 2
∂x ∂y
3x ∂2 z ∂2 z ∂2 z 1 
=
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8. If z = , show that , and hence evaluate 2 at  , 3  .
y ∂x∂y ∂y∂x ∂x 2 
x ∂z ∂2 z ∂2 z
9. Verify that if z = ln y, then =x . Find the value of when
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y ∂y ∂y∂x ∂ y 2
x = −3 and y = 1.
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l
10. The time of oscillation t of a pendulum is given by t = 2π , where l is
SE g
the length and g is the acceleration due to gravity. Determine:
∂t ∂t
(a) (b)
∂l ∂g
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Chapter summary
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1. Differentiation from first principles is done using the formula,

dy lim f ( x + h) − f ( x) , provided this limit exists.
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= .
dx h→0 h
d n
( x ) = nx n −1.
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2. The derivative of a polynomial term is given by

dx
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3. The derivative of the sum or difference of two

or more polynomial functions is given by:
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d d d d
⎡⎣ f ( x ) ± g ( x ) ± h ( x )⎤⎦ = ⎡⎣ f ( x )⎤⎦ ± ⎡⎣ g ( x )⎤⎦ ± ⎡⎣h ( x )⎤⎦
dx dx dx dx
R
4. If y = u(x) v (x), then the product rule of differentiation is given by

FO
dy du dv u ( x)
= v +u and the quotient rule for differentiation of y = is
dx dx dx v( x)
du dv
v −u
given by, dy = dx 2 dx .
dx v
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5. To find the nature of turning point, using the second derivative:

(a) If f ′′( x) > 0, then the turning point is minimum
(b) If f ′′( x) < 0, then the turning point is maximum
(c) If f ′′( x) = 0, then the point is an inflexion, minimum or maximum point.
6. Taylor’s theorem is given by;

f ′′(a ) 2 f ′′′(a ) 3 f iv (a ) 4 f n (a )h n
f ( x)= f (a + h)= f (a ) + f ′(a )h + h + h + h + +
2! 3! 4! n!
7. Maclaurin’s theorem is a special case of Taylor’s theorem and it is given by;
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f ′′(0) 2 f ′′′(0) 3 f iv (0) 4
f ( x) =f (0) + f ′(0) x + x + x + x +
2! 3! 4!
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8. The first partial derivatives of z = f ( x, y ) are given by;
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∂z f ( x + h, y ) − f ( x, y )
z x = f x ( x, y ) = = lim
∂x h→0 h
∂z f ( x, y + h) − f ( x, y)
SE
z y = f y ( x, y) = = lim
∂y h → 0 h
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Revision exercise 9
1. Differentiate each of the following functions from first principles:

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(a) sin x
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(b) cos 2 x (c) x sin x (d) cos(5 x + 2)

x
( )
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that y tan x ( 2 x + 3) , show that

−1
2. Given=
y′ =( )
( 2 x + 3) sec2 x − 2 tan x ( 2 x + 3) .
−1
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3. Find the derivative of 5sin x − 4 cos x + 8 .

O
4. Differentiate (5 − 4cos x)(1 − 2 tan x) .

dy
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5. Find of each of the following:

dx
FO
(a) 2 xy 3 + 3x 2 y =7 (c) y 2 ln x − 3 = 1 − x 2 ln x
−1 ⎛ y ⎞ 2 2
(
(b) tan ⎜ + 3 ⎟ = ln x + y + 2
⎝ x ⎠
)
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Form Five
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6. Differentiate each of the following functions:
x ln x
(a) xe
x
(b)
ex (
(c) e x x2 − 3 ) (d)
x3
(e) 5e1− x
7. Find the derivative of each of the following functions:

1 + 4x2
(a) x e
2 4x
(b) e − x
x (c) ( x + 2) ln 4 x
2 2
(d)
1 + x2
8. If x 5 and higher terms are neglected, show that
( ) 1
log e x + 1 + x 2 =x − x3 .
6
LY
9. Expand each of the following:
(a) (2 + x) 2 e − x in ascending powers of x as far as the term in x3.
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(a) log e y at y = 1 in ascending powers of (y – 1) as far as the term in (y – 1)3.
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d2y dy
10. If y = e x tan x, show that 2
− 2 (1 + tan x ) + (1 + 2 tan x ) y = 0.
dx dx
d2y dy
SE
4x
11. Given y = e cos 3 x, show that − 8 + 25 y = 0.
dx 2 dx
1 1 1 1
12. If x > 1 , show that log e  x +1  = + 3 x + 5 + , hence find log e 2.
2 x 3x 5x
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 x −1 
13. Use Taylor’s theorem to find the expansion of each of the following:
(a) sin ( x + h )
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(b) e x
⎛π ⎞
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(c) sin ⎜ + h ⎟ in ascending powers of h as far as the term in h 4

⎝6 ⎠
⎛π ⎞
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(d) tan ⎜ + h ⎟ in ascending powers of h as far as the term in h 4

⎝3 ⎠
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⎛π ⎞
(e) tan ⎜ + x ⎟ in ascending powers of x as far as the term in x 4
⎝6 ⎠
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14. Use Taylor’s theorem to express esin x in ascending powers of x as far as

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4
the x term.
cos x
15. Expand in ascending powers of x as far as the x 4 term by considering
1− x 1
−
the product of the expansion of cos x and (1 − x) 2 .
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16. Given that f (=
x) ln(3 + x) :
1
(a) Find f (0) and f ′(0) , hence show that f ′′(0) = − .
9
(b) Write down the first three terms of the Maclaurin’s series for f ( x),
where −3 < x ≤ 3.
x
17. Find the coordinates of the turning points of the curve y = x − e and
sketch its graph.
18. The equation of a curve is given by y = 2 x 2 − 3x − 2, find:
(a) the gradient at the point where x = 0.
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(b) the coordinates of the points where the curve crosses the x-axis.
(c) the gradient at each of the points in (b).
1
19. Oil is dropping onto a surface at the rate of π cm3 / s and forms a circular
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10
film which may be considered to have a uniform depth of 0.1 cm. Find the
O
rate at which the radius of the circular film is increasing when the radius
is 7 cm. SE
20. The radius of a circle is to be measured and its area calculated. If the radius
is measured to 0.001 m and the area must be accurate to 0.1 m 2 , find the
maximum radius.
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21. Suppose the volume of a sphere is increasing at a constant rate of 7 cm3 /s.
(a) Find in terms of π the rate at which the radius of the sphere is increasing
E
at the instant when the radius is 5 cm.

(b) Show that at any instant, the rate of increase of the surface area of the
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sphere is inversely proportional to the radius of the sphere.

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⎛1 ⎞ 1 1 1
22. Show that sin ⎜ π + x ⎟ = + 3x − x 2 , where x is measured in
⎝6 ⎠ 2 2 4
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radians.
1 1 1 1
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23. Show that log e  x +1  = + 2 x + 5 + and use it to calculate

2  x −1  x 3x 5x
log e 2 to two decimal places.
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24. Differentiate each of the following functions:

FO
⎛ 2 + cos x ⎞
(a) ln ⎜ ⎟ (c) ln(sec 2 x + tan 2 x)
⎝ 3 − sin x ⎠
⎛ 1− x ⎞ 1 3
(b) arctan ⎜ ⎟ (d) x 2 1 + x
⎝ 1+ x ⎠
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Form Five
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25. Let g ( x) = tan x .

(a) Show that g ′′′( x) = 2sec x + 4 tan x sec x .
4 2 2
(b) Obtain the Maclaurin expansion for g ( x) up to the term in x3 .
26. Give the first three non-zero terms of Maclaurin’s series for each of the
(a) cos 3x (b) sin 2x
27. Given f ( x) = e 2 x , obtain the Maclaurin expansion of f ( x) up to the term
in x3 .
LY
28. Find the partial derivatives of each of the following:
1
=
(a) z sin(2 x + 3 y ) (b) z = 2 (c) z = x3 + y 2 + xy 3
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x + y2
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29. Find the partial derivatives of z with respect to the independent variables
x and y for each of the following:
(a) x 2 + y 2 + z 2 =
25
SE
(d) z =
x3 y 3
−
y2 x
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2
(b) z = e x + xy
(e) z = 2 x 2 − 6 xy + y 2
(c) z =x3 + 2 xy + y 4 (f) z = xy
E
30. A waste paper basket consists of open circular top. If the volume of the
N
basket is to be 20 cm3, find the radius of its base when the material used
is minimum.
LI
31. A wire of length 100 cm is to be cut into two parts. One portion is bent into
the shape of a circle and the other into a square and then fixed on a tray to
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occupy a minimum area. Find the length of the two parts.

O
32. A solid is formed by a cylinder of radius r and height h, together with two
hemispheres of radius r attached at each end. If the volume v of the solid
R
1
is constant, but r is increasing at the rate of metres per minute, how
2π
FO
fast must h be changing when r and h are both 10 metres.

33. The position function of a stone thrown from a cliff is given by s(t ) = 10t − 16t 2
metres (below the cliff) after t seconds. Find the average velocity of the
stone between t = 1 second and t = 5 seconds.
509
Form Five
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34. A particle moving in a straight 37. Prove that the power series for
line has its displacement 2 4
cos 2θ =1 − 2θ 2 + θ 4 − θ 6 +
governed by the equation 3 45
s(t ) = −2t 2 + 10t − 1, t ≥ 0, where 38. Use Maclaurin’s series to
s is in metres and t in seconds. Find prove that the expansion of
(3 + 2t )
4
the velocity and acceleration of the = 81 + 216t 2 + 96t 3 + 16t 4 .
particle at time t.
39. The time, T of a swing of a
35. Given z = x3 y 2 − yx −2 + y −1 , find
pendulum is given by T = k l ,
where k is a constant. Determine
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∂z the percentage change in time of
(a) , when x = 1 and y = 2
∂x the swing if the length l of the
(b) ∂z at the point ( −1, − 1)
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pendulum changes from 32.1 cm
∂x to 32.0 cm.
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x− y d2y
40. Determine the value of ,
36. If z = , find each of the dx 2
x+ y SE correct to 4 significant figures,
following:
π
∂2 z ∂2 z at θ = radians for the cardioid
(a) (b) 6
∂x∂y ∂y∂x formed by x = 5(2θ − cos 2θ )
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and y = 5(2sin θ − sin 2θ ).
E
N
LI
N
O
R
FO
510
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Chapter
Ten Integration
Introduction
Integration is one of the main operations in calculus and it is an important

concept in Mathematics. Integration is the inverse process of differentiation.
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In this chapter, you will learn about inverse process of differentiation,
integration of functions, and applications of integration. The competencies
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developed has many real-life applications such as determining the total cost
and total revenue of goods produced, finding displacement, velocity and
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acceleration of moving bodies, moment of inertia of vehicles, and the rate
of a chemical reaction. It is also used in building constructions, in graphical
SE
representations where three-dimensional models are demonstrated in analysis
of the spread of infectious diseases, among many other applications.
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Inverse process of differentiation includes a function f ( x) it is written as
Suppose f ( x) is a known function,
then its derivative f '(x) with respect to ∫ f ( x) dx and read as, “the integral of
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x can be obtained. The inverse process f ( x) with respect to the variable x”. In
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gives the original function f ( x) from this case, the function f ( x) is called an
that derivative. This inverse process of integrand, and the change in a variable
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differentiation is called integration. For is represented by a symbol dx .

N
instance, the derivative of f ( x) = x3 with

Note that, the derivative of a constant
respect to x gives f ′( x) = 3x 2 .
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is always zero. This implies that,

Therefore, the integral of 3x 2 is x3 . differentiation makes the function
lose the constant. For instance,
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Anti-derivative and integral notation the derivatives of = y x3 + 1 and

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The opposite of the derivative of a = y x 3 + 2 are both equal to 3x 2 . Thus,

function is called the anti-derivative. the integration of 3x 2 gives x3. This
The anti-derivative of a function is the means that, the reverse of 3x 2 cannot
integration which is represented by the
give back the functions, = y x3 + 1
integral notation, . When this notation and = y x 3 + 2 . This is because during
∫
511
Form Five
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differentiation the constant becomes 0 as it does not change. Therefore, to show

the presence of a constant, an arbitrary constant is added after the completion of
the integration process. That is, ∫ 3 x 2 dx
= x 3 + c, where c is an arbitrary constant.
Example 10.1
Find the anti-derivative of each of the following:
d 4 d
(a)
dx
( x ) = 4 x3 (b) ( 2 x3 ) = 6 x 2
dx
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Solution
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d 4
( x ) = 4 x3 , it means that,
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(a) If
dx
d ( x 4 ) = 4 ( x 3 ) dx SE
⇒ 4 ( x 3 ) dx = d ( x 4 )
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Introduce the integral sign on both sides of the equation to obtain:
∫d (x )
⇒ ∫ 4 x 3 dx = 4
E
= x4 + c
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Therefore, ∫ 4 x3 dx
= x 4 + c.
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d
(b) ( 2 x3 ) = 6 x 2 , it means that,
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dx
⇒ 6( x 2 )dx =
d (2 x 3 )
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Introduce the integral sign on both sides of the equation to obtain

∫ 6 x dx = ∫ d ( 2 x )
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2 3
FO
= 2 x3 + c
Therefore, ∫ 6 x 2=
dx 2 x 3 + c.
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Form Five
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Table 10.1 shows some useful standard integrals.
Table 10.1: Some useful standard integrals
xn + 1
∫ x=
n
dx + c; where n ≠ −1
n +1 ∫ cot
= x dx ln sin x + c
⌠ 1=
 dx ln x + c ∫ sec =
2
x dx tan x + c
⌡x
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∫ e dx= ∫ cosec x dx =
x 2
ex + c − cot x + c
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∫ sin x dx − cos x + c
= ∫ sec x dx= ln sec x + tan x + c
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∫ cos=
x dx sin x + c ∫ cosec x=
SE dx ln cosec x − cot x + c
⌠ dx 1 x
∫=
tan x dx ln sec x + c =
 2
⌡a +x 2
a
tan −1   + c
a
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Types of integrals
E
There are two types of integrals, namely; Solution

indefinite and definite integrals. Given ∫ 2 x 2 dx.
N
LI
Indefinite integrals ⇒ ∫ 2 x 2 dx =
2 ∫ x 2 dx
An indefinite integral of a function
N
f ( x) is a differentiable function F ( x)  x3 
= 2   + c.
such that its derivative gives the  3
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original function f ( x). An indefinite

integral of function f ( x) is expressed 2 x3
Therefore, ∫ 2 x 2 =
dx + c.
as ∫ f ( x= ) dx F ( x) + c , where c is an 3
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arbitrary constant of integration.

FO
Example 10.3
Example 10.2
Find ∫ 12 cos θ dθ .
Find ∫ 2 x 2 dx.
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Form Five
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3. Find the integral of each of the

Solution following functions:
Given ∫ 12 cos θ dθ . 3
(a) f ( x) = 2
⇒ ∫ 12 cos θ dθ =
12 ∫ cos θ dθ x
1
= 12sin θ + c (b) g ( x) =
x
Therefore, ∫ 12 cos
= θ dθ 12sin θ + c . (c) f (t ) = 3 t
4
(d) h( x) = −2e x
(e) f (θ ) = 10sin θ
Exercise 10.1
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(f) f ( x) = 2 5 x3
1. Find the anti derivative of each of
the following:
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Integration of simple expressions
(a) d x 6 = 6 x 5
( ) Expressions which involve mathematical
O
dx operations on simple polynomials, fractions,
 1 −1 and exponential functions are referred to
(b) d  2 x 2  = x 2 as simple expressions. Simple expressions
SE
dx   can be integrated by treating each term
separately using the integration rules. The
(c) d (3x −7 ) = −21x −8
dx rules of mathematical operations such
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as scalar multiplication, additional, and
(d) d
dx
( x ) = 21x subtraction of integral functions are also
used, that is;
E
(i) ∫ af ( x)dx = a ∫ f ( x)dx

(e) d
( )3
x2 =
2 −31
x
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dx 3 (ii) ∫ ( af ( x) ± bg ( x) ) dx = a ∫ f ( x) dx ± b ∫ g ( x)dx
d  3 −2 
LI
 x  = −3 x∫ ( af ( x) ± bg ( x) ) dx = a ∫ f ( x) dx ± b ∫ g ( x)dx , where a and

−3
(f)
dx  2 
b are constants.
N
2. Determine each of the following:

∫ x dx
2
(a) Note that;
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(i) ∫ 0dx = c
∫ 5e dx
x
(b)
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(c) ⌠ 1 (ii) ∫ adx

= ax + b , where a and b are
 dx
⌡ 4x constants.
FO
(d) ∫ 2 cos θ dθ
1 Example 10.4
(e) ⌠
 sin θ dθ
⌡2
(f) ∫ 4 tan θ dθ Integrate x3 + 2 x − 1 with respect to x.
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Form Five
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Solution
Required to find ∫ ( x3 + 2 x − 1) dx.
⇒ ∫ ( x3 + 2 x − 1) dx = ∫ x3 dx + 2 ∫ x dx −1∫ x 0 dx
x3+1 2 x1+1 x 0+1
= + −1 +c
3 +1 1+1 0 +1
x4 2 x2
= + −x+c
4 2
x4
Therefore, ∫ ( x + 2 x − 1) dx =
3
+ x 2 − x + c.
4
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Example 10.5
2
N
Integrate x3 + with respect to x.
x2
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Solution
⌠ 3 2 
Given   x + 2  dx.
⌡ x 
SE
⌠ 2 ⌠ x3 dx + ⌠ 2 dx
⇒   x 3 + 2  dx =  2
⌡ x  ⌡ ⌡x
U
3
= ⌠
 x 2 dx + ∫ 2 x −2 dx
⌡
E
3
+1
x 2
2 x −2+1
= + +c
N
3 − 2 + 1
+1
2
LI
5
2x 2
N
= − 2 x −1 + c
5
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5
2x 2 2
= − +c
5 x
R
⌠ 3 2  2 x5 2
Therefore,   x + 2  dx
= − + c.
FO
⌡ x  5 x
Example 10.6
5 x3 − 2 x
Integrate 3 + with respect to x.
3x 4
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Form Five
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Solution
⌠  5 x3 − 2 x 
Given   3 +  dx.
⌡ 3x 4 
⌠  5 x3 − 2 x  ⌠
3
⌠ 5 x − 2 x dx
⇒  3+  dx =  3dx + 
⌡ 3x 4  ⌡ ⌡ 3x 4
⌠ ⌠  5 x3 2 x 
= 3 x 0 dx +   4 − 4  dx
⌡ ⌡  3x 3x 
5 1 2 −3
= 3x + ⌠  dx − ∫ x dx
3 ⌡x 3
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5 1 d 1
= 3 x + ln x + x −2 + c; since (ln x) =.
3 3 dx x
N
Therefore, ⌠  5 x3 − 2 x 
  3 + 3 x 4  dx =
5 1
3 x + ln x + x −2 + c.
⌡  3 3
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Example 10.7 SE
⌠3 5 
Find   cos θ + sin θ  dθ .
⌡2 3 
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Solution
Given ⌠  3 cos θ + 5 sin θ  dθ .
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 
⌡2 3 
N
⌠3 5  3 ⌠5
⇒   cos θ + sin θ  dθ = ⌠
 cos θ dθ +  sin θ dθ
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⌡2 3  ⌡2 ⌡3
3 5
∫ cos θ dθ + ∫ sin θ dθ
N
=
2 3
O
3 5
= sin θ − cos θ + c
2 3
R
3 5 3 5
Therefore, ∫  cos θ + sin θ  dθ = sin θ − cos θ + c.
2 3  2 3
FO
Exercise 10.2
Evaluate each the following integrals:
516
Form Five
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∫ (5x + 8 x 2 − 3 x + 5 ) dx
3
1.
∫ ( 7e + 4e x ) dx
x
17.
2. ∫ (−6 x3 + 9 x 2 + 4 x − 3) dx
⌠ y3 + 2
18.  2
dy
⌠  32  ⌡ y
3.   x + 2 x + 3  dx 19. ∫ ( 2 cos θ + 2sin θ ) dθ
⌡ 
⌠ 3 ⌠ 4sin x dx
5

4.  12t 4 − 9t 2  dt 20. 
⌡  ⌡ 3 tan x
⌠1 3
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2 
5.   x + 5 x − 7 x + 2  dx 21. ⌠  3 2 3 
⌡3    4 x + 7 x − cos x  dx
⌡ 2 
⌠  −3 7 
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4
6.   t − 2t + + 1 dt 22. ⌠
x 4 − x3 + 3 x − 1
⌡ t   dx
⌡ x2
O
⌠ (1 − x )
3
2 6
7.  dx ⌠ t + 5t − 4 dt
x 23. 
⌡ SE ⌡ t3
8. ⌠  3 cos x  ⌠ 1 1 
 2 +  dx 24.   2 − 4 + 3r  dr
⌡ x 2  ⌡r r 
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⌠ 1 
9.   x +  dx Techniques of integration
⌡ 3 x There are several techniques of integration
E
⌠8 5 6  depending on the given function. The most

10.   − 2 + 3  dx useful techniques of integration include
N
⌡ x x x 
integration by inspection, by substitution,
2 6
⌠ t + 5t − 4 dt
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by parts, and by partial fractions.

11. 
⌡ t3
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Integration by substitution method

⌠  1 sin x cos x  This is a method which is used in
12.   + −  dx
O
⌡ x 5 3  reversing the chain rule. It is sometimes

called chain rule backward. The following
13. ∫ ( 6 − 2x ) dx are steps to be followed when integrating
R
by substitution method:
14. ∫ ( x + 4 x + 1) dx
2
Step 1: Choose a new variable for
FO
which the given function is

∫ ( x − 2 x − 3 x ) dx
4
15. to be reduced.
Step 2: Solve for dx of the given
16. ∫ ( 4t − 3t − 2t + 1) dt
3 2
integral, where the function is
integrated with respect to x.
517
du
⇒ ∫ m (ax ± b) n dx = ⌠
 (u )m ×
Form Five ⌡ a
FOR ONLINE USE ONLY
1 mn
a∫
DO NOT DUPLICATE u du =
Step 3: Rewrite the integral in terms of  n +1 
the new variable. 1  um 
= +c
Step 4: Integrate the resulting a  mn + 1 
function with respect to the  
new variable. But =u ax ± b.
Step 5: Substitute back the value of the Therefore,
new variable to get the function
 n 
in terms of x. 1  ( ax ± b ) m
+1

∫ m (ax=
± b) n dx
a
 n  + c.
Consider the following cases where the +1 
 m 
integration by substitution method is
LY
applicable:
(a) Integrals of the form ∫ (ax ± b) n dx , Example 10.8
N
where “a” and “b” are constants.
Find each of the following:
u ax ± b, then du = adx.
Let =
O
(a) ∫ (2 x + 3)3 dx
Þ dx = du . (b)
a
du
SE ∫ 3
(1 − 2 x) 7 dx
Thus, ∫ (ax ± b) n dx =⌠
u ×
n
⌡ a Solution
1 (a) Given ∫ (2 x + 3)3 dx.
= ∫ u n du
U
a
Let =u 2 x + 3, then du = 2 dx.
1  u n +1 
=  +c du
a  n +1  Þ dx = .
E
2
But =
u ax ± b. ⌠ 3 du
∫ (2 x + 3) dx =⌡ u × 2
3
N
Therefore,
1
LI
1  (ax ± b) n +1  = ∫ u 3 du
∫ (ax ±=
b) n dx 
a  n +1 
 + c. 2
N
1  u 3+1  1  u4 
=  =
 + c  +c
(b) Integrals of the form ∫ m
(ax ± b) n dx , 2  3 +1 2 4 
O
where “a” and “b” are constants. But =

u 2 x + 3.
Therefore,
R
u ax ± b, then du = adx .
Let = 1
∫ (2 x + 3) dx=
3
du (2 x + 3) 4 + c.
FO
Þ dx = . 8
a
Thus, ∫ m (ax ± b) n dx = ⌠
n
du
(b) Given ∫ 3
(1 − 2 x)7 dx.
 (u ) m ×
⌡ a
1 mn
Let u = 1 − 2 x , then du = −2dx
a∫
= u du
518
Form Five
FOR ONLINE USE ONLY
DO NOT DUPLICATE
du
Þ dx = − which gives Solution
2
⌠ 4 dx .
⌠
7
du (a) Given 
⌡ 2x + 3
∫ 3 (1 − 2 x=
7
) dx  (u ) 3 × −
⌡ 2
u 2 x + 3, then du = 2dx.
Let =
1 73
2∫
= − u du
Þ dx = du .
2
 10 
1u3  3 10 4dx 1 du
=
−  
2  10 
− u 3 +c
=
20 ⇒⌠
 4⌠
= ×
⌡ 2x + 3 ⌡u 2
 3 
LY
But u = 1 − 2 x. 4 du
2∫ u
=
Therefore,
= 2 ln u + c.
N
3 10
∫ (1
3
− 2 x ) dx7
=
− (1 − 2 x ) 3 + c.
But =
u 2 x + 3.
20
O
⌠ dx ⌠ 4 dx
(c) Integrals of the form  , Therefore,  = 2 ln 2 x + 3 + c.
⌡ ax ± b SE ⌡ 2x + 3
where “a” and “b” are constants. ⌠ dx .

(b) Given 
Let = ⌡ 5 − 7x
U
Þ dx = du . Let u= 5 − 7 x, then du = −7 dx.
a
du
dx 1 du
Þ dx = − .
7
E
Thus,⌠
 = ⌠  ×
⌡ ax ± b ⌡ u a
N
dx ⌠ 1  du 
1 du Thus,⌠
 =  ×− 
= ∫ ⌡ 5 − 7x ⌡ u  7 
LI
a u
1 du
1 = − ∫
= ln u + c 7 u
N
a 1
= − ln u + c
O
But =
u ax ± b. 7
dx 1
Therefore, ⌠
 = ln ax ± b + c. But u= 5 − 7 x.
⌡ ax ± b a
R
Therefore,
⌠ dx = 1
FO
Example 10.9  − ln 5 − 7 x + c.
⌡ 5 − 7x 7

(d) Integrals of the form ∫ sin(ax ± b) dx
⌠ 4dx dx
(a)  (b) ⌠
 where “a” and “b” are constants. Let
⌡ 2x + 3 ⌡ 5 − 7x u ax ± b, then du = adx.,
=
519
Form Five
FOR ONLINE USE ONLY
DO NOT DUPLICATE
du . du
Þ dx = Thus, dx = .
a a
du ⌠ eu × du
Thus, ∫ sin(ax ± b) dx = ⌠
 sin u × ⇒ ∫ e ax ±b dx =

⌡ a ⌡ a
1 1 u
= ∫ sin udu
a∫
= e du
a
1
= − cos u + c 1 u
a = e + c.
a
But =u ax ± b.
u ax ± b.
But =
LY
Therefore,
1 ax ±b 1 ax ±b
Therefore, ∫ e = dx e + c.
∫ sin( ax ± b ) dx =−
a
cos(ax ± b) + c. a
N
Example 10.11
Example 10.10
O
Determine ∫ 5e5 x + 2 dx.
Find ∫ 5sin(8 x + 2) dx. SE
Solution
Solution Given ∫ 5e5 x + 2 dx.
Given ∫ 5sin(8 x + 2)dx. u 5 x + 2, then du = 5dx.
Let =
U
Let =
u 8 x + 2, then du = 8dx. du
Þ dx = .
du 5
Þ dx = . ⌠ 5eu × du
E
8 ⇒ ∫ 5e5 x + 2 dx = 
⌡ 5
N
du
⇒ ∫ 5sin(8 x + 2) dx= ⌠ 5sin u × 5 u
5∫
⌡ 8 = e du
LI
5
= ∫ sin udu
8 = eu + c
N
5 u 5 x + 2.
But =
= − cos u + c
O
8
But =u 8 x + 2. Therefore, ∫ 5e5 x +=
2
dx e5 x + 2 + c.
Therefore,
R
5 Exercise 10.3
∫ 5sin(8 x + 2) dx =−8 cos(8 x + 2) + c.
FO

(e) Integrals of the form ∫ e ax ± b dx ,
∫ (6 x − 9) dx
8
1.
where “a” and “b” are constants. 3
Let =
2. ∫ (1 − 2x ) dx
2
520
Form Five
FOR ONLINE USE ONLY
DO NOT DUPLICATE
3.
∫ (3t − 1)
−3
dt du
Thus, dx = .
f ( x)
4.
∫ 3(1 − x)
−1
dx
⌠ du
x ⇒ ∫ f ( x) g ( x)dx =
 f ( x)u ×
5. f ( x)
∫ 4e dx3 ⌡
⌠ 1 dt = ∫ udu
6. 
⌡ 4 − 3t
1 2
7. = u +c
∫ 6 cos(1 − 3x)dx 2
But u = g ( x).
⌠ dx
LY
8.  1
[ g ( x)] + c.
2
⌡ 5 − 7x Therefore, ∫ f ( x=
) g ( x)dx
2
9.
∫ tan(2θ + 1)dθ ⌠ f ( x)
N
(b) Integrals of the form  dx
⌠ dx ⌡ g ( x)
10. 
O
⌡ 2x −1
Let u = g ( x) such that
⌠ 2 3− 4 x du
11.  e dx SE= f ( x) ⇒ du= f ( x)dx .
⌡7
dx
⌠ 1  du
12.  5sin  x − 1 dx Thus, dx = .
⌡ 2  f ( x)
U
⌠ f ( x) ⌠ f ( x) du
dx =
∫ e dx ⇒ ×
2 x+2
13. 
⌡ g ( x) ⌡ u f ( x)
14. ∫ cos (a x ± b) dx =⌠
du
E

⌡ u
15. ∫ tan(ax ± b) dx
N
= ln u + c
But u = g ( x).
LI
Integration by inspection method

This method is applicable when integrating
⌠ f ( x)
N
functions such as polynomials, trigonometric, Therefore,  = dx ln g ( x) + c.

logarithmic, and exponentials. Consider ⌡ g ( x)
O
the following cases where integration by

inspection method is applicable. Example 10.12
R
(a) Integrals of the form ∫ f ( x) g ( x)dx Find each of the following:

FO
∫ (2 x − 1)( x
2
Let u = g ( x) such that (a) − x + 1) dx
du
= f ( x) ⇒ du= f ( x)dx 2x
dx (b) ⌠
 dx
⌡ 1 + x2
521
Form Five
FOR ONLINE USE ONLY
DO NOT DUPLICATE
Solution
(a) Given ∫ (2 x − 1)( x − x + 1) dx.
2
By inspection, it can be seen that the derivative of x 2 − x + 1 is equal to 2 x − 1.

du
Now, let u = x 2 − x + 1, then = 2 x − 1 ⇒ du = (2 x − 1)dx.
dx
du
Substitute x 2 − x + 1 =u and dx = into the given integral as follows,
(2 x − 1)
⌠ du
∫ (2 x − 1)( x
2
− x + 1) =
dx  (2 x − 1)u ×
LY
⌡ (2 x − 1)
= ∫ udu
N
u2
= +c
2
O
But u = x 2 − x + 1.
1 2
Therefore, ∫ (2 x − 1)( x 2 − x + 1) dx
=
2
SE
( x − x + 1) 2 + c.
(b) Given 2x
∫ 1+ x 2
dx.
U
du
Let u = 1 + x 2, then = 2 x ⇒ du = 2 xdx.
dx
E
du
Substitute 1 + x 2 =u and dx = into the given integral as follows,
2x
N
⌠ 2 x= dx ⌠
2 x du
 2  ×
⌡ 1+ x ⌡ u 2x
LI
du
=⌠ 
⌡ u
N
= ln u + c
O
But u = 1 + x 2.
2x
Therefore, ∫ 1+ x dx = ln 1 + x 2 + c.
R
2
FO
Example 10.13
∫ xe dx.
2
Find x
522
Form Five
FOR ONLINE USE ONLY
DO NOT DUPLICATE
Solution
⌠ 32  3 12 
Given ∫ xe dx.x2
8.  x  x + 3  dx
⌡ 2 
Let u = x 2 , then
⌠ cos θ − sin θ
du 9.  dθ
= 2 x ⇔ du = 2 xdx. ⌡ cos θ + sin θ
dx
⌠ 1 + ln x dx
du 10. 
Substitute x 2 = u and dx = into ⌡ x
2x
the given integral as follows, ⌠ 4 + 18 x − 18 x dx
2
11. 
u du ⌡ 3 + 4 x + 9 x 2 − 6 x3
∫ xe dx = ∫ xe 2 x
x2
LY
⌠ ln( x + 2) dx
12. 
1 u ⌡ 2x + 4
2∫
= e du 1
⌠ 2
N
x
1 u 13.  3
dx
= e +c. 
O
2 ⌡ 1+ x 2
But u = x 2 . ⌠ x
14.  dx
⌡ 1+ x
Thus, ∫ xe =
x2
dx
1 x2
e + c.
SE
2 ∫ x x − 1 dx
2
15.
1 x2
Therefore, ∫ xe x=
2
dx e + c. x +4 x
∫ ( x + 2)e dx
2
16.
U
2
x x
∫ xe cos(3e )dx
2 2
17.
Exercise 10.4 ⌠ 1 − e dt
t
E
18. 
⌡ 1 + et
N
Find each of the following: ⌠ 1  1 

1.
19.  2 1 +  dx
∫
LI
( x 3 + x 2 − 3)(3 x 2 + 2 x) dx ⌡ x ln x  ln x 
⌠ 1
∫ e (1 + e )dt
−t −t
2. dx
N
20.  2
⌡ x(ln x)
∫ 8t (3t − 1)dt
2 3
3. tan −1 x
O
⌠e
21.  2
dx
⌡ 1+ x
x
⌠ e dx
4. 
⌡ 1 + ex
R
⌠ sec 2 ( x +1)
22.  dx
⌠ 1 + ln x dx ⌡ tan( x +1)
FO
5. 
⌡ x ln x 23. Show that
6. − ∫ sin θ cos θ dθ ⌠ 2sin 2 x dx
 = 4 ln(1 + cos x) − 4 cos x − 4 + c,
⌡ 1 + cos x
7. ⌠ 1 + tan x dx

⌡ 1 − tan x where c is an arbitrary constant.
523
Form Five
FOR ONLINE USE ONLY
DO NOT DUPLICATE
e3 x 1 2x x 3
24. Show that ⌠
 dx
= e − e + ln(1 + e x ) − + c, where c is an arbitrary
⌡ 1+ e x
2 2
constant.
Integration by parts
If u ( x) and v( x) are any two differentiable functions, then the derivative of the
product of the two functions is given by;
d d d
= [u ( x)v( x)] v( x) u ( x) + u ( x) v( x) .
dx dx dx
Integrating both sides with respect to x gives,
LY
⌠= d ⌠ d d
 [u ( x)v( x)] dx  v( x) u ( x)dx + ⌠ u ( x) v( x) dx .
⌡ dx ⌡ dx ⌡ dx
Applying the definition of indefinite integral gives,
N
d d
u ( x )v ( x ) ⌠
=  v( x) u ( x)dx + ⌠ u ( x) v( x) dx.
O
⌡ dx ⌡ dx
d d
Thus, ⌠  u ( x) = v( x) dx u ( x)v( x) − ⌠  v( x) u ( x)dx .
⌡ dx ⌡ dx SE
Since du and dv are differentials of a function of one variable, then the formula
for the integration by parts is given by,
⌠ u ( x) d = v( x) dx u ( x)v( x) − ⌠
d
 v( x) u ( x)dx .
U

⌡ dx ⌡ dx
d d
If v( x) = v′( x) and u ( x) = u ′( x), then the formula for integration by parts can
dx dx
E
also be written as
N
∫ uv′dx= uv − ∫ vu ′dx or simply ∫ udv

= uv − ∫ v du .
LI
Generally, if u ( x) and v( x) are any two differentiable functions of x, then

∫ udv= uv − ∫ vdu, which is a formula for integration by parts.
N
Note that, the integrand is in a form of a product of two functions, where the left
O
part of the integrand is considered as a first function and its right part is considered
as a second function. However, the first function is chosen in such a way that
R
its derivative can easily be integrated. Generally, the order of preference can be
chosen in such a way that the first function as the function which comes first in
FO
the word ILATE, where I stands for inverse trigonometric functions, L stands for
logarithmic functions, A stands for algebraic functions, T stands for trigonometric
functions, and E stands for exponential functions.
Consider the following cases where the method of integration by parts is applicable.
524
Form Five
FOR ONLINE USE ONLY
DO NOT DUPLICATE
(a) Integrals of the form
∫ x sin ( ax ) dx or ∫ x cos ( ax ) dx., The integral can be obtained by integration
n n
by parts as follows:
where “a” is a constants. In this case, let
the polynomial part be the function u and Let u = x 2 , then du = 2 xdx .
the trigonometric part be dv. Also,
dv
Example 10.14 let = cos(4 x − 1) ⇒= dv cos(4 x − 1)dx.
dx
Introduce the integral sign on both sides
Find ∫ x sin xdx.
and integrating gives,
Solution ∫ dv
= ∫ cos(4 x − 1)dx
LY
Given ∫ x sin xdx. ⇒v
=
1
sin(4 x − 1).
du 4
Let u = x, then = 1.
N
dx From the formula ∫ udv= uv − ∫ vdu , it
dv
O
Also, let = sin x ⇒ dv= sin xdx . implies that
dx
∫x
2
cos(4 x − 1)dx
Introduce the integral sign on both sides
and integrating gives, =
x2
SE
sin(4 x − 1) − ⌠
2x
 sin(4 x − 1)dx
4 ⌡ 4
∫ ∫
dv = sin xdx ⇒ v = − cos x
x 2
1
U
= sin(4 x − 1) − ∫ x sin(4 x − 1)dx
Apply the formula for integrating by 4 2
parts:
But, ∫ x sin(4 x − 1)dx requires further
E
∫ udv= uv − ∫ vdu, integration and it is integrated by parts as

N
follows,
∫
⇒ x sin x dx = ∫
− x cos x − (− cos x) ×1dx
du
LI
− x cos x + ∫ cos xdx

= Let u = x, then = 1.
dx
− x cos x + sin x + c
=
N
Also,
Therefore, dv
O
let = sin(4 x − 1) ⇒ =
dv sin(4 x − 1)dx
∫ x sin x dx =
− x cos x + sin x + c. dx
Introducing the integral sign on both
R
Example 10.15
sides and integrating gives,
FO
Find ∫ x cos(4 x − 1)dx.

2
∫ dv
= ∫ sin(4 x − 1)dx
Solution 1
⇒ v =− cos(4 x − 1) .
4
∫x
2
Given cos(4 x − 1)dx.
525
Form Five
FOR ONLINE USE ONLY
DO NOT DUPLICATE
Apply the formula for integrating by parts, that is,
x ⌠ 1
∫ x sin(4 x − 1)dx =− 4 cos(4 x − 1) − ⌡ − 4 cos(4 x − 1)dx
x 1
=− cos(4 x − 1) + ∫ cos(4 x − 1)dx
4 4
x 1 1 
=− cos(4 x − 1) +  sin(4 x − 1) 
4 4 4 
Substitute this result in the integral to get,
x2 1 x 1 
∫
2
x cos(4 x =
− 1) dx sin(4 x − 1) −  − cos(4 x − 1) + sin(4 x − 1)  + c .
LY
4 2 4 16 
2
x x 1
Therefore, ∫ x cos(4 x =
2
− 1)dx sin(4 x − 1) + cos(4 x − 1) − sin(4 x − 1) + c.
4 8 32
N
(b) Integrals of the form ∫ x n ln ax dx, where “a” is a constants
O
In this case, let the logarithmic part be the function u , and differentiate it. The
polynomial part in the integral is dv which will be integrated.
SE
Example 10.16 x n +1 x n +1 1
∫ x ln xdx=
n
ln x − ⌠
 × dx
U
n +1 ⌡ n +1 x
Determine each of the following: x n +1 1 ⌠ x n +1
= ln x −  dx
(a) ∫ x n ln xdx n +1 n +1 ⌡ x
E
x n +1 1
∫ x ln 2 x dx
2
(b) = ln x − ∫ x n dx
N
n +1 n +1
Solution x n +1 1 x n +1
LI
= ln x − × +c
(a) Given ∫x ln xdx . n +1 n +1 n +1
n
N
du 1 x n +1 x n +1
Let u = ln x, then = . = ln x − +c
dx x n +1 (n + 1) 2
O
dv
Also, let = x n ⇒ dv = x n dx . Therefore,
dx
R
Integrate both sides: x n +1 x n +1

∫ x ln xdx =
n
ln x − + c.
x n +1 n +1 (n + 1) 2
FO
∫= ∫ x dx ⇔=v
n
dv
n +1
∫x
2
(b) Given ln 2 xdx .
From ∫ udv= uv − ∫ vdu , it implies
that Let u = ln 2 x, then
526
Form Five
FOR ONLINE USE ONLY
DO NOT DUPLICATE
du 2 1 Apply the formula ∫ udv

= uv − ∫ vdu .
= ⇒ du = dx
dx 2 x x
Also, Now, the integral becomes,
dv ⌠ 1
let
dx
= x 2 ⇒ dv = x 2 dx . ∫ ln xdx= x ln x − ⌡ x × x dx
Integrate both sides: = x ln x − ∫ dx
x3 = x ln x − x + c
∫ ∫
2
=dv x dx ⇒
= v .
3
Therefore, ∫ ln xdx
= x ln x − x + c.
LY
From ∫ udv
= uv − ∫ vdu , it gives
(c) Integrals of the form
N
3 3
x x 1 n
sin(ax) dx or ∫ x n cos (ax) dx
∫ x ln 2 xdx=
2
ln 2 x − ⌠
 × dx ∫x
3 ⌡ 3 x
O
or ∫ x n eax dx, where “a” is a
x3 1 constant.
= ln 2 x − ∫ x 2 dx
3 3 A tabular method can be used to integrate
SE
problems involving repeated application
x3 x3
= ln 2 x − + c . of integration by parts.
3 9
U
Therefore, Example 10.18
x3 x3
∫ x ln 2 xdx
E
2
= ln 2 x − + c .
∫x
3
3 9 Find sin(10 x − 19) dx.
N
Solution
LI
Example 10.17 Given ∫ x3 sin(10 x − 19) dx.

Let u x3 , and
= = dv sin (10 x − 19) dx
N
Find ∫ ln xdx. Prepare a table consisting of three

O
columns and six rows as follows.

Solution
Given ∫ ln xdx= ∫ 1× ln xdx.
R
du 1 1
u ln x ⇒
FO
Let= = ⇔ du = dx.
dx x x
dv
Also, let 1 ⇒ dv = dx ⇔ v = x .
=
dx
527
Form Five
FOR ONLINE USE ONLY
DO NOT DUPLICATE
Alternate signs u and its derivatives v′ and its anti-derivatives
+ x3 sin(10 x − 19)
1
− 3x 2 − cos (10 x − 19)
10
1
+ 6x − sin (10 x − 19)
100
LY
1
− 6 cos (10 x − 19)
1, 000
N
1
+ 0 sin (10 x − 19)
10, 000
O
Differentiate until the derivative of the function is zero.
SE
The solution is given by adding the signed products of the diagonal entries.
x3 3x 2 6x
U
That is, ∫ x sin(10 x − 19) dx =
3
− cos(10 x − 19) + sin(10 x − 19) + cos(10 x − 19) −
10 100 1000 10
6x 6
cos(10 x − 19) − sin(10 x − 19) + c
1, 000 10, 000
E
Therefore,
N
x3 3x 2 3x
∫
3
x sin(10 x − 19) dx =
− cos(10 x − 19) + sin(10 x − 19) + cos(10 x − 19) −
LI
10 100 500
3
N
sin(10 x − 19) + c.
5, 000
O
Example 10.19
e12 x
R
∫ x e dx
Show that= 4 12 x
10,368
( )
864 x 4 − 288 x3 + 72 x 2 − 12 x + 1 + c, where c is
FO
constant of integration.
Solution
Given ∫ x 4 e12 x dx.
4
Let u x=
= and dv e12 x dx
528
Form Five
FOR ONLINE USE ONLY
DO NOT DUPLICATE
Prepare a table consisting of three columns and seven rows as follows.
Alternate signs u and its derivatives v′ and its antiderivatives
+ x4 e12 x
1 12 x
− 4x3 e
12
1 12 x
+ 12x 2 e
144
LY
1 12 x
− 24x e
1, 728
N
1
+ 24 e12 x
O
20, 736
1
− 0
SE e12 x
248,832
The solution is given by adding the signed products of the diagonal entries. That is,
U
x 4 12 x 4 x3 12 x 12 x 2 12 x 24 x 12 x 24
∫
4 12 x
x e dx = e − e + e − e + e12 x + c
12 144 1, 728 20, 736 248,832
E
x 4 12 x x3 12 x x 2 12 x x 12 x 1
= e − e + e − e + e12 x + c
12 36 144 864 10,368
N
864 x 4 e12 x − 288 x 3e12 x + 72 x 2 e12 x − 12 xe12 x + e12 x

LI
+c
10,368
N
e12 x
∫ x e dx 10,368 (864 x − 288 x + 72 x − 12 x + 1) + c.
4 12 x 4 3 2
Therefore,=
O
Examples 10.20
R
FO
∫ (t + 2) cos t dt =(t + 2) sin t ( t + 2 ) − 6  + 3cos t ( t + 2 ) − 2  + c .

3 2 2
Verify that
   
Solution
( t + 2 ) and dv =
3
Let u = cos t dt
529
Form Five
FOR ONLINE USE ONLY
DO NOT DUPLICATE
Prepare a table consisting of three columns and six rows as follows.
Alternate signs u and its derivatives v′ and its anti-derivatives

(t + 2)
3
+ cos t
3(t + 2)
2
− sin t
6 (t + 2)
1
+ − cos t
− 6 − sin t
+ 0 cos t
LY
The solution is given by adding the signed products of the diagonal entries.
That is,
N
∫ (t + 2) cos t dt =( t + 2 ) sin t + 3 ( t + 2 ) cos t − 6 ( t + 2 ) sin t − 6 cos t + c.
3 3 2
O
=( t + 2 ) sin t ( t + 2 ) − 6  + 3cos t ( t + 2 ) − 2  + c
2 2
   
Therefore, ∫ (t + 2)
3

SE
cos t dt =( t + 2 ) sin t ( t + 2 ) − 6  + 3cos t ( t + 2 ) − 2  + c.
2
 
2

(d) Integrals of the form ∫ e ax sin ( bx ) dx

U
or ∫ e ax cos ( bx ) dx, where “a” and Let u = e x .
“b” are constants.
In this case, each part can be either du
Thus, =e x ⇒ du =e x dx.
E
u or dv. This is due to the fact that, dx

N
neither e ax nor sin bx decreases in power Also, let=

dv cos xdx ⇒= v sin x .
during differentiation. Therefore, to get
Apply the formula ∫ udv
= uv − ∫ vdu.
LI
the integral of this type, perform the

integration two times and then combine This gives
N
the results.
∫ e cos xdx e sinx − ∫ e sinxdx ... (i)
x x x
=
O
Example 10.21 The ∫ e sin x dx requires further

x
R
Find ∫ e x cos x dx. integration by parts.
Solution
FO
Use the same type of substitutions for

Given ∫ e cos xdx.
x
the next integration by parts.
du
Let u = e x or u = cos x; either way Let u = e x , then =e x ⇒ du =e x dx.
dx
will work.
530
Form Five
FOR ONLINE USE ONLY
DO NOT DUPLICATE
dv
Also, let =sin x ⇒ v =− cos x .
dx
Thus, ∫ e x sin x dx =−e x cos x −  ∫ − e x cos x dx 
 
∫e − e x cos x + ∫ e x cos x dx ……………..… (ii)

x
sin x dx =
Substitute the integral ∫ e x sinx dx into equation (i):
x dx e sin x − ( −e cos x + ∫ e
∫ e cos=
x x x x
cos x dx )
⇒ ∫ e cos x=
dx e sin x + e cos x − ∫ e
x x x x
cos x dx
LY
Collect like terms of the integral to get;
N
∫ e cos x dx + ∫ e cos x dx = e sin x + e
x x x x
cos x
O
⇒ 2∫ e cos x dx =
x
e (sin x + cos x) x
1 x
∫ e cos x dx
x
e (sinx + cos x) + c .
=
Therefore,
2
SE
Note that;
U
e ax
∫ e sin=
ax
1. bx dx (asin bx − b cos bx) + c .
a 2 + b2
e ax
E
2. e ax cos bx dx (a cos bx+b sin bx) + c .

= ∫ a 2 + b2
N
(e) Integrals of the form ∫ x sin x dx, ∫ x cos x dx or ∫ x tan x dx .

n −1 n −1 n −1
LI
In this case, let the inverse of trigonometric part be the function u and then
N
differentiate. Let the polynomial part of the integral be dv, then integrate it.
O
Example 10.22
R

FO
(a) ∫ sin −1 x dx
(b) ∫ cos
−1
x dx
531
Form Five
FOR ONLINE USE ONLY
DO NOT DUPLICATE
(b) Given ∫ cos x dx.

−1
Solution
(a) Given ∫ sin xdx = ∫ x sin x dx.
−1 0 −1
du −1
Let u = cos −1 x, then = .
dx 1 − x2
From the formula ∫ udv
= uv − ∫ vdu .
1 Also, let v′ = x 0 ⇒ dv = x 0 dx .
Let u = sin x, then du =
−1
dx Integrating both sides gives, v = x
1 − x2
⌠ −1
Also, let dv= 1dx ⇒ v= x ∫ cos xdx
−1
= x cos −1 x −  x × dx
Substituting into the formula gives ⌡ 1 − x2
⌠ xdx
LY
= x cos −1 x + 
⌠ dx ⌡ 1 − x2
∫ sin
−1
= x sin −1 x −  x ×
xdx
⌡ 1 − x2 ⌠ xdx
But  =− 1 − x2
N
⌠ xdx ⌡ 1− x 2
= x sin −1 x − 
⌡ 1 − x2
O
Therefore,
⌠ xdx
∫ cos
−1
But  requires further SE x dx = x cos −1 x − 1 − x 2 + c.
⌡ 1 − x2
integration,
Reduction formula
A reduction formula is regarded as an
U
So, let t = 1 − x 2 ⇒ t 2 =1 − x 2
important method of integration. It helps
⇒ 2tdt =−2 xdx to solve complex integration problems
⇒ tdt =− xdx by relying on recurrence relations and
E
it is used when an expression cannot be

⌠ xdx tdt
= −⌠ integrated directly. It can also be used
N
Thus,  
⌡ 1 − x2 ⌡ t for powers of elementary functions,
LI
= − ∫ dt trigonometrical functions, logarithmic

functions, and exponential functions, as
N
= −t. well as products of two or more complex

functions. The formula enables to reduce
O
t
Substituting back = 1 − x 2 gives the degree of the integrand and calculate
⌠ xdx the integrals in a finite number of steps.
 = − 1 − x2
⌡ 1− x 2
Consider the problem of finding
R
I n = ∫ x n e − x dx for n ≥ 0 . The process

FO
Therefore, of integrating by parts reduces the power

of x by 1, each time. This process will
∫ sin
−1
xdx = x sin −1 x + 1 − x 2 + c.
give a formula for I n . The integral is
integrated as follows.
Let u = x n and dv = e − x dx
532
Form Five
FOR ONLINE USE ONLY
DO NOT DUPLICATE
nx n −1dx and v = ∫ e dx = −e
−x −x
⇒ du =
Applying the integration by parts formula ∫ udv

= uv − ∫ vdu gives
In =− x e + n ∫ x e dx
n −x n −1 − x
∫x
n −1 − x
But e dx = I n −1
Thus, I n =
− x n e − x + nI n −1 .
− x n e − x + nI n −1 is called a reduction formula for I n = ∫ x n e − x dx

Therefore, I n =
for n ≥ 1 .
LY
Example 10.23
N
Use the reduction formula for I n = ∫ x n e − x dx to evaluate ∫x e
4 −x
dx .
O
Solution
SE
Given ∫ x 4 e − x dx . In this case, the reduction formula for I n = ∫ x n e − x dx can be
used.
In = − x n e − x + nI n −1 , n ≥ 1
U
Thus, I 0 =− x 0 e − x + 0 =− e − x
I1 = − x1e − x + I 0 =− e − x ( x + 1)
E
− e− x ( x 2 + 2 x + 2 )
− x 2 e − x + 2 I1 =
I2 =
N
− e− x ( x3 + 3x 2 + 6 x + 6 )
− x 3e − x + 3I 2 =
I3 =
LI
− e − x ( x 4 + 4 x 3 + 12 x 2 + 24 x + 24 ) + c
− x 4e− x + 4 I3 =
I4 =
N
Therefore, ∫x e
4 −x
−e − x ( x 4 + 4 x3 + 12 x 2 + 24 x + 24) + c.
dx =
O
Example 10.24
R
FO
If I n = ∫ sec n x dx , show that

1 n−2
=(a) I n sec n − 2 x tan x + I n−2
n −1 n −1
1 4 4 8
(b) ∫ sec x=
6
dx sec x tan x + sec 2 x tan x + tan x + D.
5 15 15
533
Form Five
FOR ONLINE USE ONLY
DO NOT DUPLICATE
Solution
(a) I n ∫=
= sec n x dx ∫ sec n − 2 x sec 2 x dx
n−2
= Let u sec
= x and dv sec 2 x dx
⇒ du =(n − 2) sec n − 2 x tan x dx and v =tan x
Applying the integration by parts formula, ∫ udv
= uv − ∫ v du , gives
I n sec n − 2 x tan x − ∫ tan x(n − 2) sec n − 2 x tan x dx
=
= sec n − 2 x tan x − (n − 2) ∫ sec n − 2 x tan 2 x dx
LY
= sec n − 2 x tan x − (n − 2) ∫ sec n − 2 x(sec 2 x − 1) dx
= sec n − 2 x tan x − (n − 2) ∫ sec n x dx +(n − 2) ∫ sec n − 2 xdx
N
But ∫ sec n x dx I=
= n and ∫ sec
n−2
x dx I n − 2
O
Thus,
= I n sec n − 2 x tan x − (n − 2) I n + (n − 2) I n − 2
Collecting like terms gives,

SE
(n − 2) I n sec n − 2 x tan x + (n − 2) I n − 2
In + =
U
(n − 1) I n sec n − 2 x tan x + (n − 2) I n − 2
⇒=
1 n−2
Therefore, I n
= sec n − 2 x tan x + I n−2 .
n −1 n −1
E
1 6−2
=(b) I 6 sec6− 2 x tan x + I 6− 2
N
6 −1 6 −1
1 4
LI
= sec 4 x tan x + I 4
5 5
1 4 1 2 
N
=sec 4 x tan x +  sec 2 x tan x + I 2 

5 5 3 3 
O
1 4 8
= sec 4 x tan x + sec 2 x tan x + I 2 . But=I 2 ∫ sec 2 x=
dx tan x + c.
5 15 15
R
1 4 4 8
⇒ I6
= sec x tan x + sec 2 x tan x + [ tan x + c ] .
5 15 15
FO
1 4 4 8 8
⇒ I6
= sec x tan x + sec 2 x tan x + tan x + D, where= D C.
5 15 15 15
1 4 4 8
Therefore, ∫ sec
6
x=
dx sec x tan x + sec 2 x tan x + tan x + D.
5 15 15
534
Form Five
FOR ONLINE USE ONLY
DO NOT DUPLICATE
Example 10.25
Derive a reduction formula for I n in terms of I n − 2 , where I n = ∫ cos n x dx.Hence,

1 4 8
show that ∫ cos5 x=dx cos 4 x sin x + cos 2 x sin x + sin x + A .
5 15 15
Solution
∫=
cos x dx ∫ cos n −1
Given I n
= n
x cos x dx.
=Let u cos
= n −1
x and dv cos x dx
⇒ du =(n − 1) cos n − 2 x(− sin x)dx and v =sin x
LY
Applying integration by parts formula,
∫ udv= uv − ∫ v du gives;
N
=I n cos n −1 x sin x + ∫ (n − 1) cos n − 2 x sin x sin x dx
O
= cos n −1 x sin x + (n − 1) ∫ cos n − 2 x sin 2 x dx
= cos n −1 x sin x + (n − 1) ∫ cos n − 2 x (1 − cos 2 x ) dx
SE
= cos n −1 x sin x + (n − 1) ∫ cos n − 2 x dx − (n − 1) ∫ cos n x dx
= cos n −1 x sin x + (n − 1) I n − 2 − (n − 1) I n
U
Collecting like terms gives:
(n − 1) I n cos n −1 x sin x + (n − 1) I n − 2
In + =
E
⇒ nI n cos n −1 x sin x + (n − 1) I n − 2
=
N
1 n −1
Now, I n
= cos n −1 x sin x + I n−2
n n
LI
1 4
⇒ I5
= cos 4 x sin x + I 3
5 5
N
1 41 2 
=cos 4 x sin x +  cos 2 x sin x + I1 
O
5 53 3 
1 4 8
= cos 4 x sin x + cos 2 x sin x + I1
R
5 15 15
∫ cos x=
FO
But=
I1 dx sin x + c.
1 4 8 8
Thus, I 5 = cos 4 x sin x + cos 2 x sin x + sin x + A, where A = c
5 15 15 15
1 4 8
Therefore, ∫ cos5 x=
dx cos 4 x sin x + cos 2 x sin x + sin x + A.
5 15 15
535
Form Five
FOR ONLINE USE ONLY
DO NOT DUPLICATE
Exercise 10.5 x4 
32 ( ln x ) − 24 ( ln x ) + 12 ln x − 3
3 2
=I3
128  
Evaluate each of the following4 integrals:
x 
− x 32 ( ln x ) − 24 ( ln x ) + 12 ln x − 3 + c
3 2
= I3 
1. ∫ x e dx
2 2x
11. ∫128
e 
sin 2 x dx 
∫ tan 3x dx
−1
2. 12.
1x
26. If I n = ∫ tan n θ dθ , show that
∫ e 2 cos xdx 1
∫ cos ( 0.5x ) dx = In tan n −1 θ − I n − 2 .
−1
3. 13. ∫ e4 x sin 2 x dx n −1
27. Prove that, if
∫ x sin x dx
3
4. 14. ∫ e2 x cos 3x dx
∫ x (1 + x ) dx, then
n 3 7
In
LY
=
5. ∫ x sin x cos xdx 15. ∫ θ sec 2 θ dθ 1  n−2
=In
n + 22 

x (1 + x )
3 8
− (n − 2) I n −3  .

∫x
2
6. cos x dx 16. ∫ x 2 e −3x dx
N
Hence, determine
∫ x ln x dx
3
7. 17. sin −1 2x dx
∫ ∫ x (1 + x ) dx.
O
5 3 7
∫ ( x − 1) ln ( 2 x ) dx ∫x
2
8. 18. ln x dx 28. Show that
⌠ ln x
SE x n +1
[(n + 1) ln x − 1].
9. ∫ ln 3x dx ∫ x ln x=
n
19.  dx dx
( n + 1)
2
⌡ x
⌠ ln x dx
U
10. ∫ e cos x dx 20. 
2x
⌡ x7 Integration using partial fractions
When an integrand is a proper rational
21. ∫ ( x + 1) ln ( 3 x ) dx
2
E
function, it is resolved into partial

22. Obtain a reduction formula for
N
fractions before integrating. The partial

I n = ∫ (ln x) n , hence use it to evaluate
fractions are integrated separately. Table
LI
I4.
10.2 shows some forms of rational
N
23. Obtain a reduction formula for functions, their partial fractions, and
∫ x e dx and use it to find ∫ x e dx.
n x 4 x
corresponding integrals.
O
24. Show that

R
1 2 1 1
∫ x tan=
−1
x dx x tan −1 x − x + tan −1 x + c.
2 2 2
FO
25. Derive a reduction formula

for I n in terms of I n −1 , when
I n = ∫ x3 ( ln x ) n dx.
Hence, verify that
536
Form Five
FOR ONLINE USE ONLY
DO NOT DUPLICATE
Table 10.2: Forms of rational functions, partial fractions, and integrals.

Rational function Partial fraction Integral
px + q
, where a ≠ b
A B ⌠ A B 
( x − a )( x − b)
+  +  dx
x −a x −b ⌡ x −a x −b 
1 A B ⌠ A B 
+  +  dx
x − a2 ⌡ x−a x+a
2
x−a x+a
px + q A B ⌠ A B 
LY
+   x − a + ( x − a ) 2  dx
( x − a)2 x − a ( x − a)2 ⌡ 
N
px 2 + qx + r A B C ⌠ A B C 
+ +  + +  dx
( x − a )( x − b)( x − c) x −a x −b x −c ⌡ x −a x −b x −c 
O
px 2 + qx + r A B SE C ⌠ A B C 
+ 2
+   x − a + ( x − a ) 2 + x − c  dx
( x − a) 2 ( x − c) x − a ( x − a) x−c ⌡ 
U
px 2 + qx + r A Bx + C ⌠ A Bx + C 
+ 2  + 2  dx
( x − a )( x 2 + bx + c) x − a x + bx + c ⌡  x − a x + bx + c 
E
Example 10.26
N
Solving for A and B gives A = −1

LI
2x and B = 3 .
Find ⌠
 2 dx .
⌡ x − 4x + 3 Thus, 2x −1 3
N
= +
( x − 1)( x − 3) x − 1 x − 3
Solution
O
Given Now, the integral becomes,

2x 2x ⌠ 2x ⌠  −1 3 
⌠ ⌠  2 = dx   +  dx
 2 dx =  dx ⌡ x − 4x + 3 ⌡  x −1 x − 3 
R
⌡ x − 4x + 3 ⌡ ( x − 1)( x − 3)
⌠ −1 ⌠ 3
FO
Decompose the integrand into =  dx +  dx

partial fractions as follows: ⌡ ( x − 1) ⌡ ( x − 3)
2x A B =− ln x − 1 + 3ln x − 3 + c
= +
( x − 1)( x − 3) x − 1 x − 3
= 3ln x − 3 − ln x − 1 + c
537
Form Five
FOR ONLINE USE ONLY
DO NOT DUPLICATE
1 1
= ln ( x − 3)3 − ln x − 1 + c
= ln ( x − 3) 6 − ln ( x + 3) 6 + c
( x − 3)3
= ln +c. 1
( x − 1)
( x − 3) 6
= ln 1
+c
Therefore,
( x + 3) 6
⌠ 2x ( x − 3)3
 2 = dx ln +c. 1
⌡ x − 4x + 3 ( x − 1) ( x − 3) 6
Therefore,
= ⌠ dx ln + c.
 2 1
⌡ x −9
( x + 3) 6
Example 10.27
LY
Example 10.28
dx
Determine ⌠
 2 .
N
⌡ x −9 ⌠ 5x − 2
Find  2
dx.
⌡ ( x + 3)
O
Solution
dx ⌠ dx Solution
Given ⌠
 2 = .
⌡ x − 9 ⌡ ( x − 3)( x + 3)
SE ⌠ 5x − 2
Given  2
dx .
Decompose the integrand into partial ⌡ ( x + 3)
fractions as follows: Write the integrand in partial
U
1 A B fractions. That is,
2
= +
x −9 x −3 x +3 5x − 2 A B
= +
1 ( x + 3) 2
( x + 3) ( x + 3) 2
E
Solving for A and B gives, A =

6 Solving for A and B gives, A = 5 and
1
N
and B = − . B = −17. Substitute the values of A

6
1 1
− 16 .
LI
Thus, = 6
+ and B into the partial fractions.
x 2 − 9 ( x − 3) ( x + 3) 5x − 2 5 17
⇒ = −
N
1 1 ( x + 3) 2
( x + 3) ( x + 3) 2
= −
6( x − 3) 6( x + 3)
O
Now, the integral becomes;

Now, the integral becomes, ⌠ 5x − 2 ⌠ 5 17 
 = dx   − 2 
dx
⌠ dx ⌠ 1 1  ⌡ ( x + 3)
2
⌡  ( x + 3) ( x + 3) 
R
=
 2   −  dx
⌡ x − 9 ⌡  6( x − 3) 6( x + 3) 
⌠ 5 ⌠ 17
FO
=  dx −  dx
⌠ 1 ⌠ 1 ⌡ ( x + 3) ⌡ ( x + 3) 2
=  dx −  dx
⌡ 6( x − 3) ⌡ 6( x + 3) ⌠ dx ⌠ dx
= 5 − 17
1 1 ⌡ ( x + 3) ⌡ ( x + 3)
2
= ln x − 3 − ln x + 3 + c
6 6
538
Form Five
FOR ONLINE USE ONLY
DO NOT DUPLICATE
17
= 5ln x + 3 + +c.
( x + 3)
⌠ 5x − 2 17
Therefore,  2
= 5ln x + 3 +
dx + c.
⌡ ( x + 3) ( x + 3)
Example 10.29
⌠ −2 x + 4
LY
Find  2 dx.
⌡ ( x + 1)( x − 1)
Solution
N
⌠ −2 x + 4
Given  2 dx.
O
⌡ ( x + 1)( x − 1)
Write the integrand into partial fractions. SE
−2 x + 4 Ax + B C
That is, 2 = 2
+
( x + 1)( x − 1) ( x + 1) ( x − 1)
Solving for A, B, and C gives A = −1 , B = −3, and C = 1.
U
−2 x + 4 −x − 3 1
Thus, 2 = 2
+ .
( x + 1)( x − 1) ( x + 1) ( x − 1)
E
Now, the integral becomes;

⌠ −2 x + 4 ⌠  −x − 3 1 
N
 2 = dx   2 +  dx
⌡ ( x + 1)( x − 1) ⌡  ( x + 1) ( x − 1) 
LI
⌠ −x − 3 ⌠ 1
=  2 dx +  dx
N
⌡ ( x + 1) ⌡ ( x − 1)
x dx dx ⌠ dx = tan −1 x
−⌠ dx − 3⌠ +⌠
O
= 2  2  but  2
⌡ x +1 ⌡ x +1 ⌡ x −1 ⌡ x +1
1
R
=− ln ( x 2 + 1) − 3 tan −1 x + ln x − 1 + c
2
FO
⌠ −2 x + 4 1
Therefore,  2 dx =− ln ( x 2 + 1) − 3 tan −1 x + ln x − 1 + c.
⌡ ( x + 1)( x − 1) 2
539
Form Five
FOR ONLINE USE ONLY
DO NOT DUPLICATE
Example 10.30
x2 + x − 3
Integrate with respect to x.
( x + 1)( x − 2)( x − 5)
Solution
⌠ x2 + x − 3
Given  ( x + 1)( x − 2)( x − 5) dx.
⌡
Decompose the integrand into partial fractions. That is,
LY
x2 + x − 3 A B C
= + +
( x + 1)( x − 2)( x − 5) ( x + 1) ( x − 2) ( x − 5)
N
1 1 3
Solving for A, B, and C gives A = − , B = − , and C = .
6
O
3 2
x2 + x − 3 − 16 − 13 3
⇒ = + + 2
SE
( x + 1)( x − 2)( x − 5) ( x + 1) ( x − 2) ( x − 5)
Now, the integral becomes,
⌠ x2 + x − 3 ⌠ 1 1 3 
U
 dx =−
  − +  dx
⌡ ( x + 1)( x − 2)( x − 5) ⌡  6( x + 1) 3( x − 2) 2( x − 5) 
1 ⌠ dx 1 ⌠ dx 3 ⌠ dx
=
−  −  + 
E
6 ⌡ ( x + 1) 3 ⌡ ( x − 2) 2 ⌡ ( x − 5)
N
1 1 3
=− ln x + 1 − ln x − 2 + ln x − 5 + c
6 3 2
LI
⌠ x2 + x − 3 1 1 3
Therefore,  dx =− ln x + 1 − ln x − 2 + ln x − 5 + c.
N
⌡ ( x + 1)( x − 2)( x − 5) 6 3 2
O
Exercise 10.6
Evaluate each of the following integrals:

R
⌠ x −9 ⌠ x 2 − 5 x + 16
FO
1.  ( x + 5)( x − 2) dx 3. ⌠ 10 5.  dx
⌡  2 dx 2
⌡ ( x + 9)( x − 1) ⌡ (2 x + 1)( x − 2)
⌠ 1 5 x 2 + 3x − 2
2.  dx 4. ⌠ 1 6. ⌠ dx
2
⌡ ( x + 5) ( x − 1)  2 ds 
⌡ s ( s − 1)
2
⌡ x3 + 2 x 2
540
Form Five
FOR ONLINE USE ONLY
DO NOT DUPLICATE
1
7. ⌠
 2 dx 15. ⌠
 2
5 x − 17
dx
⌡ x −1 ⌡ x − 6x + 9
8. ⌠ 4 y 2 − 7 y − 12
 dy 16. ⌠ 2−t
⌡ y ( y + 2)( y − 3)  2 dt
⌡ t + 5t
⌠ x −1
9.  2 dx 2
⌠ x − 1 dx
⌡ x + 3x + 2 17.  2
⌡ x − 16
10. ⌠ x2 + 2x −1
 dx
⌡ x3 − x 18. ⌠ x 4 + x3 + x 2 + 1
 dx
LY
dt ⌡ x2 + x − 2
11. ⌠

⌡ (t + 4)(t − 1) r 2 + r −1
19. ⌠
 dr
⌠ x+3
N
2
12.  dx ⌡ r (r − 1)
3
⌡ ( x − 1)
O
20. ⌠ x + 14
⌠ x −1  dx
13.  6
dx ⌡ ( x + 5)( x + 2)
⌡ ( x + 3) SE
4 ⌠ x5 + 1
⌠ x 21.  3 dx
14.  4 dx
⌡ x −1 ⌡ x ( x + 2)
U
Integration of trigonometric functions

Integration of trigonometric functions depends on the type of the integrand.
E
N
(a) Integrals of the form ∫ sin ax cos bx dx , ∫ sin ax sin bx dx, or ∫ cos ax cos bx dx ,
where “a” and “b” are constants.
LI
N
Integrals which are in this form are evaluated using the factor formula. The factor
formula is used to transform the integrand which is in the form of the product of two
O
trigonometric functions into a sum of two trigonometric functions. This makes it easier
to integrate the resulting integrands. Table 10.3 shows the factor formulae and their
R
corresponding integrals given that P and Q are angles containing the variable x.
FO
541
Form Five
FOR ONLINE USE ONLY
DO NOT DUPLICATE
Table 10.3: Factor formulae and the corresponding integrals

Factor formula Integral
P+Q  P−Q ⌠  P+Q   P−Q 1

( sin P + sin Q ) dx
2∫
sin P + sin Q =
2sin   cos    sin   cos  =  dx
 2   2  ⌡  2   2 
P+Q P−Q ⌠  P+Q   P − Q  1

( sin P − sin Q ) dx
2∫
sin P − sin Q =
2 cos   sin    cos   sin  =  dx
 2   2  ⌡  2   2 
LY
P +Q P−Q ⌠  P+Q   P−Q 1
cos P + cos Q =
2 cos   cos  ( cos P + cos Q ) dx
2∫
  cos   cos  =  dx
 2   2  ⌡  2   2 
N
P+Q P−Q ⌠  P+Q   P − Q  1
− ∫ ( cos P − cos Q ) dx
cos P − cos Q =
−2sin   sin    sin   sin   dx =
 2   2  ⌡  2   2  2
O
Example 10.31 SE P+Q P−Q
Let = 4 x and = 2x .
2 2
Find ∫ sin 4 x cos 2 x dx. Solving for P and Q gives P = 6x
U
Solution and Q = 2x .
Given ∫ sin 4 x cos 2 x dx . Thus, 2sin 4 x cos = 2 x sin 6 x + sin 2 x
The integrand is the product of sine
E
1
and cosine functions. Thus, it can be ⇒ sin 4 x cos 2 x = ( sin 6 x + sin 2 x )
2
N
expressed as the sum or difference

of two sine functions. In this case, Now,
LI
1
it will be expressed as a sum of two ∫ sin 4 x=cos 2 x dx ⌠  ( sin 6 x + sin 2 x ) dx
⌡2
sine functions because the sine angle
N
is greater than the cosine angle. 1 1

= ∫ sin 6 xdx + ∫ sin 2 xdx
O
2 2
In this case, the factor formula
1  cos 6 x  1  cos 2 x 
P+Q  P−Q = − + − +c
R
sin P + sin Q = 2sin   cos   2 6  2 2 

 2   2 
1 1
FO
can be used. = − cos 6 x − cos 2 x + c

12 4
The values of P and Q are computed
as follows. Therefore,
1 1
∫ sin 4 x cos 2 xdx = − cos 6 x − cos 2 x + c.
12 4
542
Form Five
FOR ONLINE USE ONLY
DO NOT DUPLICATE
Example 10.32
Find ∫ cos 7 x sin 5 x dx.
Solution
Given ∫ cos 7 x sin 5 xdx.
In this case, the cosine angle is greater than the sine angle. Thus, the integrand
can be expressed as the difference of two sine functions using the following
factor formula:
LY
P+Q P−Q
sin P − sin Q = 2 cos   sin  
 2   2 
Compute the values of P and Q as follows:
N
P+Q P−Q
Let = 7 x and = 5 x . Solving for P and Q gives P = 12x and Q = 2x .
O
2 2
Thus, 2 cos 7 x =
sin 5 x sin12 x − sin 2 x SE
1
⇒ cos 7 x sin 5 x =( sin12 x − sin 2 x )
2
1
U
Now, ∫ cos 7=
2∫
x sin 5 x dx (sin12 x − sin 2 x) dx
1⌠ 1
=  sin12 x dx − ∫ sin 2 x dx
2⌡ 2
E
1  cos12 x  1  cos 2 x 
N
= − − − + c
2 12  2  2 
LI
1 1 
=  cos 2 x − cos12 x  + c
4 6 
N
1 1 
Therefore, ∫ cos 7 x sin 5 x dx =  cos 2 x − cos12 x  + c.
O
4 6 
R
Example 10.33
FO
Integrate sin 4 x sin x with respect to x.
543
Form Five
FOR ONLINE USE ONLY
DO NOT DUPLICATE
Solution
Given ∫ sin 4 x sin x dx.
The integrand is a product of sine functions. It can be expressed as the difference
of two cosine functions using the following factor formula:
P+Q P−Q
cos P − cos Q = −2sin   sin  
 2   2 
Compute the values of P and Q as follows:
P+Q P−Q
Let = 4 x and = x . Solving for P and Q gives P = 5x and Q = 3x
LY
2 2
Thus, −2sin 4 x sin x = cos 5 x − cos 3 x
1
( cos 5 x − cos 3x )
N
⇒ sin 4 x sin x = −
2
O
1
⇒ ∫ sin 4 x sin x dx = − ∫ (cos 5 x − cos 3 x)dx
2
1 1 SE
= − ∫ cos 5 x dx + ∫ cos 3 x dx
2 2
1 1
= − sin 5 x + sin 3 x + c
U
10 6
1 1
Therefore, ∫ sin 4 x sin xdx = − sin 5 x + sin 3x + c.
10 6
E
N
(b) Integrals of the form ∫ sin n x dx or ∫ cos n x dx, where n is an odd or even integer
LI
In this form of integrals, the exponent of trigonometric function determines the

approach to be used. Integrals of even exponents of sin x or cos x are integrated
N
with the help of the double angle formula of cosine which reduce the exponent of
O
the given trigonometric function. If the integrand contains odd exponent of sin x
or cos x, the exponent is split, and the remaining part is expressed as an even
R
exponent of sin x or cos x. For instance, sin 3 x = sin 2 x sin x .

FO
Example 10.34
Find ∫ sin 2 x dx.
544
Form Five
FOR ONLINE USE ONLY
DO NOT DUPLICATE
Solution du
Let u = cos x ⇒ = − si n x .
Given ∫ sin 2 x dx . dx
1
Thus, dx = − du .
sinx
From cos 2 x = 1 − 2sin 2 x , it implies
that Substitute these values into
2 1 ∫ sin x cos
2
x dx as follows,
sin = x (1 − cos 2 x) .
2 ⌠ 2  1 
Now, the integral becomes, ∫
cos 2=
x sin x dx  u sin x  − sin x du 
⌡  
1
∫ sin =
2
x dx ⌠  (1 − cos 2 x ) dx
∫ −u du
2
=
⌡2
LY
1⌠ 1 1
=  dx − ∫ cos 2 x dx = − u3 + c
2⌡ 2 3
N
1 1 1
=−x sin 2 x + c Hence, ∫ cos 2 x sin x dx =
− cos3 x + c
O
2 4 3
Therefore, Therefore,
1
∫ sin
2 1
x dx =−x
1
sin 2 x + c.
SE ∫ sin
3
− cos x + cos3 x + c.
x dx =
3
2 4
U
Find ∫ cos x dx.

4
Find ∫ sin x dx.
3
E
N
Solution Solution
Given ∫ sin 3 x dx , then Given ∫ cos 4 x dx.
LI
⇒ ∫ cos 4 x dx = ∫ (cos x) dx
2 2
⇒ ∫ sin 3 x dx =
∫ sin x sin x dx
2
N
1
2
But sin x = 1 − cos x . 2
2
But cos= x (1 + cos 2 x ) .
O
2 2
⌠1 
⇒ ∫ sin 3 x dx =
∫ (1 − cos x) sin x dx
2
⇒ ∫ cos x dx =
4
  (1 + cos 2 x)  dx
⌡2 
R
∫ sin x dx − ∫ sin x cos x dx

2
=
1
(1 + cos 2 x ) dx
2
= ∫
FO
− cos x − ∫ sin x cos x dx

= 2
4
1
∫ sin x cos
2
x dx can be integrated by =
4 ∫ (1 + 2 cos 2 x + cos 2 2 x ) dx
substitution method as follows:
545
Form Five
FOR ONLINE USE ONLY
DO NOT DUPLICATE
1⌠ 2 1
 dx + ∫ cos 2 xdx + ∫ cos 2 x dx
2
=
4⌡ 4 4
1 1 1
=+x sin 2 x + ∫ cos 2 2 x dx
4 4 4
∫ cos
2
2x dx requires further integration as follows:
From cos= 2 x 2 cos 2 x − 1 ⇒ cos

= 4 x 2 cos 2 2 x − 1
1
⇒ cos 2 2 x = (cos 4 x + 1)
2
LY
1
x dx ⌠
Now, ∫ cos 2 2=  (1 + cos 4 x) dx
⌡2
1 1
N
=
2 ∫ dx +
2 ∫ cos 4 x dx
O
1 1
=+x sin 4 x + c
2 8 SE
1 1 11 1 
Hence, ∫ cos 4 x dx =x + sin 2 x +  x + sin 4 x + c  .
4 4 42 8 
U
3 1 1 1
∫ cos
4
Therefore, x dx = x + sin 2 x + sin 4 x + B, where B = c
8 4 32 4
E
Example 10.37
N
Find ∫ sin 2 x cos5 x dx.

LI
Solution
Given ∫ sin 2 x cos5 x dx.
N
⇒ ∫ sin 2 x cos5 x dx = ∫ sin x cos x cos x dx

2 4
O
= ∫ sin 2 x ( cos 2 x ) cos x dx

2
R
∫ sin x (1 − sin x ) cos x dx

2 2 2
=
FO
∫ sin x (1 − 2sin x + sin x ) cos x dx

2 2 4
=
∫ ( sin x − 2sin x + sin x ) cos x dx

2 4 6
=
Let u= sin x ⇒ du= cos x dx
546
Form Five
FOR ONLINE USE ONLY
DO NOT DUPLICATE
∫ ( sin x − 2sin 4 x + sin 6 x ) cos x dx = ∫ (u 2 − 2u 4 + u 6 ) du

2
Thus,
u 3 2u 5 u 7
= − + +c
3 5 7
1 2 1
= sin 3 x − sin 5 x + sin 7 x + c
3 5 7
1 2 1
Therefore, ∫ sin 2 x cos5 x dx = sin 3 x − sin 5 x + sin 7 x + c .
3 5 7
Note that,
LY
1. if the power of sine is an odd positive integer then save one sine factor and
convert the remaining factors to cosine. Then, expand and integrate.
2. If the power of cosine is an odd positive integer, save one cosine factor and
N
convert the remaining factors to sine. Then, expand and integrate.
O
3. If the powers of both the sine and cosine terms are even positive integers,
1 − cos 2 x 1 + cos 2 x
make repeated use of the identities, sin 2 x = and cos 2 x = .
2 SE 2
(c) Integrals of the form ∫ tan n x dx or ∫ sec n x dx where n is an odd or even integer
In this form of integrals, the following approaches can be used:
U
1. If the power of the tangent is an odd positive integer, save a tangent factor and
convert the remaining factors to secant. Expand and integrate the resulting
function.
E
2. If the power of the secant is an even positive integer, save a secant-squared

N
factor and convert the remaining factors to tangent. Expand and integrate the
resulting function.
LI
3. If there is no secant term and the power of the tangent term is an even positive
integer, convert a tangent-squared factor to secant-squared factor. Expand and
N
integrate the resulting function.

4. If the integral is of the form ∫ sec n x dx , where n is odd positive integer, then
O
use integration by parts.

R
Example 10.38
FO
Find ∫ tan 4 θ dθ
Solution
Given ∫ tan 4 θ dθ .
547
Form Five
FOR ONLINE USE ONLY
DO NOT DUPLICATE
∫ tan θ ( tan θ ) dθ
⇒ ∫ tan 4 θ dθ = 2 2
∫ tan θ ( sec θ − 1) dθ
2 2
=
∫ tan θ sec 2 θ dθ − ∫ tan 2 θ dθ

2
=
= ∫ tan
2
θ sec 2 θ dθ − ∫ ( sec 2 θ − 1) dθ
Let u= tan θ ⇒ du= sec 2 θ dθ
LY
⇒ ∫ tan 4 θ dθ =
∫ u du − ∫ sec θ dθ + ∫ dθ
2 2
u3
= − tan θ + θ + c
N
3
1 3
= tan θ − tan θ + θ + c
O
3
1 3
Therefore, ∫ tan 4 θ
= dθ tan θ − tan θ + θ + c.
3 SE
Example 10.39
U
Determine ∫ sec 4 6 x tan 3 6 x dx .
Solution
E
Given ∫ sec 4 6 x tan 3 6 x dx .

N
∫ sec 6 x tan 6 x ( sec 6 x ) dx

⇒ ∫ sec 4 6 x tan 3 6 x dx = 2 3 2
LI
∫ (1 + tan 6 x ) tan 3 6 x sec 2 6 x dx

2
=
N
∫ tan 6 x sec 2 6 x dx + ∫ tan 5 6 x sec 2 6 x dx

3
=
O
1
Let u = tan 6 x ⇒ du = sec 2 6 x dx
6
R
Þ ∫ sec4 6 x tan 3 6 x dx = ∫ u 3 ⋅ 1 du + ∫ u 5 ⋅ 1 du
6 6
FO
1  u4 u6 
= + +c
6  4 6 
1 1
Therefore, ∫ sec 4 6 x tan 3 6 x dx = tan 6 6 x + tan 4 6 x + c.
36 24
548
Form Five
FOR ONLINE USE ONLY
DO NOT DUPLICATE
Exercise 10.7 Trigonometric substitutions

Integrals of rational function whose
Evaluate each of the following integrals: denominators cannot be factorized and
1. ∫ sin 4 x sin 3 x dx cannot be expressed into the form x 2 – a 2
require trigonometric substitutions. The
2. ∫ sin 5 x cos 3 x dx common useful trigonometric substitutions
3. ∫ cos 6 x cos 4 x dx includes tangent, sine, and cosine.
⌠ 1
(a) Integrals of the form  dx ,
4. ∫ cos 4 x sin 2 x dx ⌡ x + a2
2
where “a” is a constant

5. ∫ sin θ sin 2θ sin 3θ dθ
LY
The suitable trigonometric substitution
6. ∫ sin 2θ sin 4θ dθ
for integrals of this kind is the tangent
function.
N
7. ∫ sin 5 2x dx
dx
Let =
x a tan θ ⇒ = a sec 2 θ .
O
8. ∫ sin (2 x − 1) dx
2 dθ
Thus, dx = a sec 2 θ dθ .
9. ∫ cos (3 x + 1) dx
4
Substituting these values into the integral
SE
as follows,
10. ∫ sin 4 3x dx
⌠ 1 dx ⌠
=
1
× a sec 2 θ dθ
 2 
⌡ ( a tan θ ) + a
2 2
11. ∫ cos3 2x dx ⌡ x +a 2
U
a sec 2 θ dθ
12. ∫ 2sin 4 ( x − 1) dx =⌠
 2
⌡ a tan 2 θ + a 2
E
13. ∫ cos3 x dx ⌠ a sec 2 θ dθ

= 2
N
⌡ a (tan θ + 1)
2
14. ∫ sin 5 x dx
LI
1 3 a sec 2 θ dθ
15. ⌠
 sin θ sin θ dθ =⌠ 2
⌡ 2 2 ⌡ a sec 2 θ
N
16. ∫ sin x cos x dx

3 2
1
= ∫ dθ
a
O
17. ∫ sin 4 x cos3 x dx

1
= θ +c
18. ∫ sin 2 2 x cos 2 2 x dx a
R
  x
But= θ tan −1   .
x a tan θ ⇒=
∫ tan x dx
5
19.
FO
a
20. ∫ sin x cos x dx
5 2
Therefore,
⌠= 1 1 −1  x 
21. ∫ tan (3θ ) sec (3θ ) dθ
3 4
 2 2
dx tan   + c.
⌡ x +a a a
549
Form Five
FOR ONLINE USE ONLY
DO NOT DUPLICATE
1 ⌠ 1 dx.
⌠ Find  2
Find  2 dx. ⌡x + 2
⌡ x + 25
Solution
Solution
⌠ 1 1 ⌠ 1 dx = ⌠ 1
Given  2 dx = ⌠
 2 dx. Given  2  dx.
 2
( )
2
⌡ x + 25 ⌡ x + 52 ⌡x + 2 ⌡x + 2
dx
dx Let=x 2 tan θ ⇒ = 2 sec 2 θ .
Let x= 5 tan θ ⇒ = 5sec 2 θ . dθ
dθ
LY
⌠Thus,1dx = 2 sec θ dθ .
2
Thus, dx = 5sec 2 θ dθ .
dxthese values, the integral
Substitute these values into the Substituting

( )
2
2
x +
⌡becomes,2
integral to get;
N
⌠ 1 ⌠ 1
dx  × 5sec 2 θ d=
θ  × 2 sec 2 θ dθ
O
⌡ (5 tan θ ) + 5 
( ) +( 2)
2 2 2
5 2 tan θ
2 2
⌡
5sec θ dθ 2
=⌠
 2 SE⌠ 2 sec 2 θ dθ
⌡ 5 tan 2 θ + 52 =

( 2) ( 2)
2 2
⌡ tan 2 θ +
⌠ 5sec θ dθ 2
= 2
⌡ 5 (tan θ + 1)
2
U
⌠ 2 sec 2 θ dθ
=
5sec θ dθ
( 2 ) ( tan θ + 1)
2
 2
=⌠
2
 2 ⌡
⌡ 5 sec 2 θ
E
1 ⌠ 2 sec 2 θ dθ
= ∫ dθ =
N
5 ⌡ ( )
 2 2 sec 2 θ
1
LI
= θ +c. 1
5 =
2
∫ dθ
N
x
But=x 5 tan θ ⇒= θ tan −1   . 2
O
5 = θ +c
Therefore, 2
⌠= 1 1 −1  x 
 2 dx tan   + c.  2x 
R
⌡ x + 25 5 5 But
= x 2 tan θ =
⇒ θ tan −1   .
 2 
Therefore,
FO
⌠ 1 dx 2  2x 
=
 2 tan −1   + c .
⌡ x +2 2  2 
550
Form Five
FOR ONLINE USE ONLY
DO NOT DUPLICATE
Example 10.42
1 7  7 
Show that ⌠
 2= dx tan −1  ( x + 3)  + c.
⌡ x + 6x + 16 7  7 
Solution
1
Given ⌠
 2 dx .
⌡ x + 6x + 16
By completing the square, the denominator x 2 + 6 x + 16 becomes,
x 2 + 6 x +16 = x 2 +6 x + 32 + 16 − 32
LY
= x 2 + 6 x + 32 + 7
=( x + 3) 2 + 7
N
=( x + 3) 2 + 7
O
⌠ 1 ⌠ 1 ⌠ 1
Thus, = dx = dx  dx

( 7)
2 2 2
⌡ x + 6x + 16 ⌡ ( x + 3) + 7 2
⌡ ( x + 3) +
dx
SE
Let =
x+3 7 tan θ ⇒
= 7 sec 2 θ
dθ
Thus, dx = 7 sec θ dθ .
2
U
Substitute these values into the integral as follows,
⌠ 1 ⌠ 1
=
 dx  × 7 sec 2 θ dθ
E

( ) 
( ) +( 7)
2 2 2
2
⌡ ( x + 3) + 7 ⌡ 7 tan θ
N
⌠ 7 sec 2 θ dθ
=
LI

( 7) ( 7)
2 2
⌡ tan 2 θ +

N
⌠ 7 sec 2 θ dθ
=
O

( 7)
2
⌡ (tan 2 θ + 1)

⌠ 7 sec 2 θ dθ
R
=
( )
 7 2 sec 2 θ
FO
⌡

1
=
7
∫ dθ

551
Form Five
FOR ONLINE USE ONLY
DO NOT DUPLICATE
7
= θ +c
7
 7 
But=
x+3 7 tan θ=⇒ θ tan −1  ( x + 3) 
 7 
⌠ 1 7  7 
Therefore,  2 = dx tan −1  ( x + 3)  + c.
⌡ x + 6 x + 16 7  7 
⌠ 1
(b) Integrals of the form  dx , where “a” is a constant
⌡ a2 − x2
LY
In this case, sine or cosine trigonometric substitutions are suitable for this kind
of integrals.
N
dx
Let x= a sin θ ⇒ = a cos θ .
dθ
O
Thus, dx = a cos θ dθ .
Substituting these values, the integral as follows;
⌠
=
1 ⌠
dx 
1
SE
× a cos θ dθ

⌡ a − x a 2 − ( a sin θ )
2 2 2
⌡
U
⌠ 1
=  × a cos θ dθ
⌡ a − a 2 sin 2 θ
2
⌠
E
1

⌡ a (1 − sin θ )
2 2
N
⌠ 1
LI
⌡ a 2 cos 2 θ
N
a cos θ
=⌠
 dθ
⌡ a cos θ
O
= ∫ dθ
R
= θ +c
FO
x
But=x a sin θ ⇒=
θ sin −1   .
a
⌠ 1 x
Therefore,  = dx sin −1   + c .
⌡ a2 − x2 a
552
Form Five
FOR ONLINE USE ONLY
DO NOT DUPLICATE
⌠ 1
⌠ 1 Find  dx.
Determine  dx. ⌡ 7 − 6 x − x2
⌡ 4 − x2
Solution Solution
⌠ 1 ⌠ 1 ⌠ 1
dx =  dx. Given  dx .
Given  ⌡ 7 − 6 x − x2
⌡ 4 − x2 ⌡ 22 − x 2
By completing the square, the
dx
Let x= 2sin θ ⇒ = 2 cos θ . quadratic equation 7 − 6x − x 2
LY
dθ
becomes,
Thus, dx = 2 cos θ dθ .
7 − 6 x − x 2 =7 − ( x 2 + 6 x)
Substitute these values in the integral
N
to get, = 7 + 9 − ( x 2 + 6 x + 9)
= 16 − ( x + 3) 2
O
⌠ 1 ⌠ 1
=
 dx  × 2 cos θ dθ
⌡ 2 −x
2 2
⌡ 22 − (2 sin θ ) 2 Hence, the integral as follows,
SE ⌠ 1 ⌠ 1
⌠ 1  dx =  dx
 2 2 2 × 2 cos θ dθ ⌡ 7 − 6x − x 2
⌡ 16 − ( x + 3) 2
⌡ 2 − 2 sin θ
⌠ 1
⌠ dx
U
1 =
 × 2 cos θ dθ ⌡ 4 − ( x + 3) 2
2
 2
⌡ 2 (1 − sin θ )
2
dx
Let x =
+ 3 4sin θ ⇒ = 4 cos θ .
dθ
E
⌠ 1
 × 2 cos θ dθ Thus, dx = 4 cos θ dθ .
⌡ 2 1 − sin 2 θ
N
Substitute into the integral as follows,

⌠ 1 ⌠ 1
× cos θ dθ
LI
 dx
⌡ cos 2 θ  2
⌡ 4 − ( x + 3) 2
N
1
= ⌠
 × cos θ dθ ⌠ 1
⌡ cos θ =  × 4 cos θ dθ
O
⌡ 42 − ( 4sin θ )
2
= ∫ dθ
⌠ 1
=  × 4 cos θ dθ
R
= θ +c ⌡ 42 − 42 sin 2 θ
x ⌠ 1
FO
But= θ sin −1   .
x 2sin θ ⇒= =  × 4 cos θ dθ
2    2
⌡ 4 (1 − sin θ )
2
Therefore,
⌠ 1  x ⌠ 1
 = dx sin −1   + c. =  × 4 cos θ dθ
⌡ 4 − x2 2 ⌡ 4 1 − sin 2 θ
553
Form Five
FOR ONLINE USE ONLY
DO NOT DUPLICATE
⌠ 1
=  × cos θ dθ
⌡ cos 2 θ
1
= ⌠
 × cos θ dθ
⌡ cos θ
= ∫ dθ
= θ +c
 x+3
3) 4sin θ ⇒=
But ( x += θ sin −1  .
 4 
LY
⌠ 1  x+3
Therefore,  = dx sin −1   + c.
⌡ 7 − 6x − x 2
 4 
N
(c) Integrals of the form ∫ a − x dx , where “a” is a constant
2 2
In this case, sine or cosine trigonometric substitution is suitable for this kind of
O
integrals.
dx
Let x= a sin θ ⇒ = a cos θ . SE
dθ
Thus, dx = a cos θ dθ .
Substituting these values into the integral as follows,
U
∫ a 2 − x 2 dx = ∫ a 2 − (a sin θ ) 2 × a cos θ dθ
∫ a − a sin θ × a cos θ dθ
2 2 2
=
E
= ∫ a 2 (1 − sin 2 θ ) × a cos θ dθ
N
= ∫ a 1 − sin 2 θ × a cos θ dθ
LI
∫ a cos θ × a cos θ dθ
2
N
a ∫ cos θ × cos θ dθ
O
2
=
1
= a2 ⌠
 (1 + cos 2θ )dθ
⌡2
R
1 2
dθ + ∫ cos 2θ dθ 
2 ∫
= a
FO
1 2 1
= a θ + a 2 sin 2θ + c .
2 4
x
But= θ sin −1   .
x a sin θ ⇒=
a
554
Form Five
FOR ONLINE USE ONLY
DO NOT DUPLICATE
1 2 −1  x  1 2   x 
⇒ ∫ a 2 −=
x 2 dx a sin   + a sin 2  sin −1    + c
2 a 4   a 
From the relation sin 2θ = 2sin θ cos θ , it implies that
  x    x    x 
sin 2  sin −1    = 2sin  sin −1    cos  sin −1   
  a    a    a 
1 2 −1  x  2 2  −1  x     x 
Thus, ∫ a 2 −=
x 2 dx
2
a sin   + a sin  sin    cos  sin −1    + c
a 4   a    a 
1 2 −1  x  1 2  x    x 
LY
= a sin   + a ×   1 − sin 2  sin −1    + c
2 a 2 a   a 
2
1 2 −1  x  1 x
N
= a sin   + ax 1 −   + c
2 a 2 a
O
1 2 −1  x  1 a2 − x2
= a sin   + ax +c
2 a 2 a2 SE
1 2 −1  x  1
= a sin   + x a 2 − x 2 + c
2 a 2
U
1 2 −1  x  1
Therefore, ∫ a sin   + x a 2 − x 2 + c.
2
a= − x 2 dx
2 a 2
E
Example 10.45
N
Find ∫ 36 − x 2 dx.
LI
Solution
N
Given ∫ 36 − x 2 dx = ∫ 62 − x 2 dx .
O
dx
Let x= 6 sin θ ⇒ = 6 cos θ .
dθ
R

FO
62 − x 2 dx = ∫ 62 − ( 6sin θ ) × 6 cos θ dθ
2
∫
∫ 6 − 6 sin θ × 6 cos θ dθ
2 2 2
=
= ∫ 62 (1 − sin 2 θ ) × 6 cos θ dθ
555
Form Five
FOR ONLINE USE ONLY
DO NOT DUPLICATE
= ∫ 6 1 − sin 2 θ × 6 cos θ dθ
∫ 6 cos θ × 6 cos θ dθ
2
=
= 36 ∫ cos θ × cos θ dθ
1
= 36⌠
 (1 + cos 2θ )dθ
⌡2
= 18  ∫ dθ + ∫ cos 2θ dθ 
18θ + 9sin 2θ + c .
=
LY
x
But=x 6sin θ ⇒= θ sin −1  .
6
N
x   x 
Thus, ∫ 36 − x=
2
dx 18sin −1   + 9sin 2  sin −1    + c
O
6   6 
−1  x  1
∫
2
More simplification gives: 36 =
− x dx 18sin
SE   + x 36 − x 2 + c.
6 2
 x 1
Therefore, ∫ − x 2 dx 18sin −1   + x 36 − x 2 + c.
36 =
6 2
U
Example 10.46
E
 x +1  1
∫ x − x 2 dx 2sin −1  2
Show that 3 − 2=  + ( x + 1) 3 − 2 x − x + c.
N
 3  2
LI
Solution
 x +1  1
∫ x − x 2 dx 2sin −1  2
Given 3 − 2=  + ( x + 1) 3 − 2 x − x + c .
N
 3  2
Consider the left-hand side:
O
By completing the square, 3 − 2x − x 2 gives, 3 − 2 x − x 2 = 22 − ( x + 1) 2 .

R

FO
∫ 3 − 2 x − x 2 dx = ∫ 22 − ( x + 1) 2 dx
dx
+ 1 2sin θ ⇒ = 2 cos θ .
Let x=
dθ
556
Form Five
FOR ONLINE USE ONLY
DO NOT DUPLICATE

∫ 22 − ( x + 1=
) 2 dx ∫ 22 − (2sin θ ) 2 × 2 cos θ dθ
∫ 2 − 2 sin θ × 2 cos θ dθ
2 2 2
=
= ∫ 22 (1 − sin 2 θ ) × 2 cos θ dθ
= ∫ 2 (1 − sin 2 θ ) × 2 cos θ dθ
∫ 2 cos θ × 2 cos θ dθ
2
=
LY
= 4 ∫ cos θ × cos θ dθ
N
1
= 4⌠
 (1 + cos 2θ ) dθ
⌡2
O
= 2  ∫ dθ + ∫ cos 2θ dθ 
2θ + sin 2θ + c
=
SE
 x +1 
But x=
+ 1 2sin θ ⇒
= θ sin −1  
 2 
U
 x +1   −1  x + 1  
⇒ ∫ 3 − 2=
x − x 2 dx 2sin −1   + sin 2  sin   + c
 2    2 
E
More simplification gives:

N
 x +1  1
∫ x − x 2 dx 2sin −1  2
3 − 2=  + ( x + 1) 3 − 2 x − x + c.
LI
 2  2
N
 x +1  1
Therefore, ∫ x − x 2 dx 2sin −1  2
3 − 2=  + ( x + 1) 3 − 2 x − x + c.
 2  2
O
Exercise 10.8
R

FO
⌠ 1 dx ⌠ 9 dx ⌠ dy
1.  2 3.  5. 
⌡ x + 49 ⌡ 3 + x2 ⌡ y 9 + 4 y2
⌠ 1 ⌠ 1 ⌠ dz
2.  2 dx 4.  2 dz 
6. ⌡ 2
⌡ 5 x + 81 ⌡ z + 2z + 5 z 4 + z2
557
Form Five
FOR ONLINE USE ONLY
DO NOT DUPLICATE
⌠ 1 dx
7.  1
⌡ 1 + x2 ⌠
21.  2 dx
⌡ x + 4x + 8
⌠ y+3
8.  y 2 + 9 dy 2
⌡ ⌠
22.  2 dx
⌡ x + 10 x + 30
⌠ 14
9.  49 + 16 y 2 dy
⌡ ⌠ 1
23.  dx
⌠ 1 ⌡ 4 − ( x + 2) 2
10.  dx
⌡ 1 − 2 x2 ⌠ 2x − 7
dx
LY
24. 
⌡ 9 − x2
⌠ 12
11.  dx
⌡ 9 − 4 x2 ⌠ 2
25.  dx
N
⌡ 13 − 4 x + x 2
⌠ 1
12.  dx
O
⌡ 5 − x2 ⌠ s3
26.  ds
 3
SE ⌡ (4 s 2 + 9) 2
13. 2 1 − 4x 2 dx
∫
⌠ 2 
27.   7 + 1 − 2 x  dx
14.   1 + x2 4 
∫ 6 − 4x − x 2 dx
U
⌡ 
1 28. Show that

⌠
15.  dx 1 1 a 
E
⌡ x2 9 − x2 ⌠= dx tan −1  x  + c,
 2 2 2
⌡ a x +b ab b 
N
16.
∫ −2x − x 2 dx where a, b, and c are constants.
LI
17.
∫ 5 + 4x − x 2 dx
N
(d) Integrals of the form

⌠ 1
dx where
O

⌠ t3 ⌡ a + bsin 2 x + ccos 2 x
18.  2 dt
⌡ t +9 a, b, and c are constants
R
Integrals of this type are evaluated by

⌠ x2
19.  dx applying the trigonometric substitution
FO
⌡ 4 − x2 t = tan x. Consider a right-angled

triangle with t = tan x as shown in
Figure 10.1.
20. ∫x
2
1 − x 2 dx
558
Form Five
FOR ONLINE USE ONLY
DO NOT DUPLICATE
LY
Figure 10.1: A right-angled triangle
From Figure 10.1, it can be observed that:

t 1
N
If t = tan x ⇒ sin x = 2 and cos x = .
1+ t 1+ t2
O
Differentiate t = tan x with respect to x, and re-write the integral in terms of t as
follows:
dt = sec 2 xdx
SE
But sec 2 x = 1 + tan 2 x .
U
Now, dt = (1 + tan 2 x)dx, dt =
(1 + t 2 )dx
1
Thus, dx = dt .
(1 + t 2 )
E
Substituting these values in the given integral and proceeding with integration
N
leads to the required solution.

LI
Example 10.47
N
⌠ 1
dx.
O
Find 
⌡ 1 + sin 2 x
Solution
R
1
Given ⌠
 dx. In this case, the substitution of t = tan x can be used.
FO
⌡ 1 + sin 2 x
t 1
Let t = tan x ⇒ sin x = and dx = dt .
1+ t 2 (1 + t 2 )
559
Form Five
FOR ONLINE USE ONLY
DO NOT DUPLICATE
⌠
1 1 1
⌠
Thus, =
 dx  × dt
2
⌡ 1 + sin x   2 2
 t  1+ t
⌡ 1+  2

 1+ t 
⌠ 1 1
= 2
× dt
 t 1+ t2
⌡ 1+
1+ t2
1+ t2 1
=⌠
 × dt
⌡ 1 + 2t 1 + t 2
2
LY
1
=⌠
 dt
⌡ 1 + 2t 2
N
⌠ 1
dt
O
=

( )
2
⌡ 1 + 2t
=
1
tan −1 ( 2t ) + c
SE
2
⌠ dx 2
( )
U
=
Therefore,  tan −1 2tan x + c.
⌡ 1 + sin 2 x 2
E
Example 10.48
N
4 4 −1
Show that ⌠ tan ( 3 tan x ) + c.
LI
 =
2 2
dx
⌡ cos x + 9sin x 3
N
Solution
4
Given ⌠
O
 dx . In this case, the substitution of t = tan x can be

⌡ cos x + 9sin 2 x
2
used.
R
t 1 1
Let t = tan x ⇒ sin x = , cos x = , and dx = dt
1+ t 2
1+ t 2 1+ t2
FO
⌠
⌠= 4 4 1
Thus,  dx  × dt
⌡ cos 2 x + 9sin 2 x  1  t  1+ t2
2
⌡ + 9 2 
1+ t2  1+ t 
560
Form Five
FOR ONLINE USE ONLY
DO NOT DUPLICATE
4(1 + t 2 ) 1
= ⌠
 ⋅ dt
⌡ 1 + 9t 2 1 + t 2
dt
= 4⌠

⌡ 1 + 9t 2
1 2
Let 3t= tan θ ⇒ dt= sec θ dθ
3
⌠ 13 sec θ dθ
2
⌠ 4
⇒ dx 4
=
⌡ 1 + tan θ
2 2 2
⌡ cos x + 9sin x
LY
4 ⌠ sec 2 θ dθ
= 
3 ⌡ sec 2 θ
4 4
N
=
3 ∫ θ
d=
3
θ +c
O
=But θ tan
= −1
(3t ) and t tan x
4 4 −1
⇒⌠  2 2
dx = tan (3 tan x) + c SE
⌠ 4 4 −1
Therefore,  2
= 2
dx tan (3 tan x) + c .
U
1
(e) Integrals of the form ⌠
 dx , where a, b and c are constants
E
⌡ a + b sin x + c cos x
Integrals of these type are also evaluated using the trigonometric substitution of
N
x
LI
t = tan   and the double angle formula of tangent of an angle, that is

2
2 tan A
N
tan 2A = .
1 − tan 2 A
O
x
For instance, if A = , then the double angle formula of tangent will be as follows;
2
x
2 tan  
R
x 2
tan 2 =  tan
= x
2 x
FO
1 − tan 2  
2.
x 2t
But tan   = t ⇒ tan x = .
2 1− t2
561
Form Five
FOR ONLINE USE ONLY
DO NOT DUPLICATE
C
2t
The relation tan x = can be represented
1− t2
in a right-angled triangle ABC as shown
in Figure 10.2.
C
A B
Figure 10.3: Right-angled triangle
LY
In Figure 10.3, the ratios of sine and
cosine formulae will be as follows;
2t 1− t2
sin x = and cos x = .
N
1+ t2 1+ t2
x dt 1 2 x
O
A B Also, if t = tan , then = sec .
2 dx 2 2
SE x x
Figure 10.2: Right-angled triangle But sec 2 = 1 + tan 2 .
2 2
In Figure 10.2, the hypotenuse is obtained dt 1  2 x

Now, = 1 + tan  .
U
by Pythagoras’ theorem. That is, dx 2  2
x
( AC ) ( AB) + ( BC ) .
2 2 2
= Substituting t = tan   gives,
2
E
dt 1 2
(1 − t ) + ( 2t )
2 2 2
= (1 + t 2 ) ⇒ dx = dt .
N
dx 2 1+ t2
( )
2
LI
⇒ AC =1 − 2t 2 + t 4 + 4t 2
Example 10.49
N
2 4
= 1 + 2t + t
Show that
O
2 2
= (1 + t )
∫ sec x dx= In sec x + tan x + c.
Therefore, AC = 1 + t 2 .
R
Now, the sides of the triangle can be Solution

FO
represented as shown in Figure 10.3. 1

Given ∫ sec x dx = ∫ dx.
cos x
1− t2
Substituting cos x = and
1+ t2
562
Form Five
FOR ONLINE USE ONLY
DO NOT DUPLICATE
2 1 + tan ( 2x )
dx = dt , the integral becomes,
1+ t2 Hence,
= ∫ sec x dx ln 1 − tan ( 2x )
+ c.
1+ t2 2
= ⌠
 × dt More simplification gives,
⌡ 1− t 1 + t2
2
sin ( 2x )
2 1+
=⌠
 dt cos ( 2x )
⌡ 1− t2 ∫
= sec x dx ln
sin ( 2x )
+c
1 1−
= 2⌠
 dt cos ( 2x )
⌡ 1− t2
1 1 cos ( 2x ) + sin ( 2x )
But = .
LY
1− t 2
(1 − t )(1 + t ) cos 2x
= ln +c
cos ( 2x ) − sin ( 2x )
Decompose the fraction into partial
cos ( 2x )
N
fractions. That is,
1 A B cos ( 2x ) + sin ( 2x )
O
= + = ln +c
(1 − t )(1 + t ) (1 − t ) (1 + t )
cos ( 2x ) − sin ( 2x )
Solving for A and B gives SE
Multiplying the numerator and
1 1
=A = and B . denominator by cos ( 2x ) + sin ( 2x ) gives,
2 2
1 1
U
1 cos ( 2x ) + sin ( 2x )  cos ( 2x ) + sin ( 2x ) 
Thus, = 2 + 2
=(1 − t )(1 + t ) 1 − t 1 + t ln +c
cos ( 2x ) − sin ( 2x )  cos ( 2x ) + sin ( 2x ) 
1 1
E
= +
2(1 − t ) 2(1 + t ) cos 2 ( 2x ) + 2sin ( 2x ) cos ( 2x ) + sin 2 ( 2x )
= ln +c
N
Now, the integral becomes; cos 2 ( 2x ) − sin 2 ( 2x )

⌠ 1 1 
LI
cos 2 ( 2x ) + sin 2 ( 2x ) + 2sin ( 2x ) cos ( 2x )

∫ sec xdx
=
= 2  +
⌡  2(1 − t ) 2(1 + t ) 
 dt ln +c
cos 2 ( 2x ) − sin 2 ( 2x )
N
1 1
=⌠  dt + ⌠
 dt 1 + sin x
⌡ 1− t ⌡ 1+ t = ln
O
+c
cos x
=− ln 1 − t + ln 1 + t + c
1 sin x
R
= ln + +c
= ln 1 + t − ln 1 − t + c cos x cos x
FO
1+ t Therefore,
= ln +c
1− t
x ∫ sec xdx= ln sec x + tan x + c.
But t = tan .
2
563
Form Five
FOR ONLINE USE ONLY
DO NOT DUPLICATE
Alternatively,
Given ∫ sec x dx.
Mutliplying by sec x + tan x both the numerator and denominator gives,

⌠  sec x + tan x 
∫ sec x dx = ⌡ sec x  sec x + tan x  dx
⌠ sec 2 x + sec x tan x
= dx
⌡ sec x + tan x
LY
Let u = sec x + tan x ⇒ du = (sec x tan x + sec 2 x)dx
du
⇒ dx = 2
N
sec x + sec x tan x
O
sec 2 x + sec x tan x du
Thus, ∫ sec x dx ⌠
=  × 2
⌡ u sec x + sec x tan x
1 SE
=⌠ du
⌡u
= ln u + c
U
But
= u sec x + tan x
⇒ ∫ sec x dx= ln sec x + tan x + c.
E
Therefore, ∫ sec x dx= ln sec x + tan x + c.

N
LI
Example 10.50
N
Verify that ∫ cosec x=

dx ln cosec x − cot x + c.
O
Solution
1
Given ∫ cosec x dx = ⌠ dx.
R

⌡ sin x
FO
2t 2
Substituting sin x = 2
and dx = dt , the integral as follows,
1+ t 1+ t2
⌠ 1+ t2 2
∫ cosec
= x dx  ×
⌡ 2t 1 + t 2
dt
564
Form Five
FOR ONLINE USE ONLY
DO NOT DUPLICATE
1 ⌠
=⌠
 dt ⌠ 3 dx 3 2 dt
⌡t =
  ×
⌡ 15 + 9 cos x   1− t  1+ t2
2
= ln t + c ⌡ 15 + 9  2 
 1+ t 
x ⌠ 1+ t2 dt
= ln tan   + c
2 = 6 ×
⌡ 15 (1 + t ) + 9 (1 − t ) 1 + t
2 2 2
sin ( 2x ) sin ( 2x )
= ln × +c ⌠ dt
= 6= ⌠ dt
cos ( 2x ) sin ( 2x )  2 
⌡ 6t + 24 ⌡ t 2 + 4
sin 2 ( 2x ) Let=t 2 tan θ ⇒ =
dt 2sec 2 θ dθ
LY
= ln +c
cos ( 2x ) sin ( 2x )
⌠ 2sec θ dθ
2
⌠ 3 dx
Thus,  = 
⌡ 15 + 9 cos x ⌡ 4 tan θ + 4
2
1 − cos x
N
= ln 2 +c 1 ⌠ sec 2 θ 1
O
2∫
sin x = = dθ dθ
2 ⌡ sec θ
2
2
1
SE
1 − cos x = θ + c.
= ln +c 2
sin x t
But θ = tan −1  
= ln cosecx − cot x + c 2
U
Therefore, ⌠ 3 dx 1 t
⇒ = tan −1   + c
⌡ 15 + 9 cos x 2 2
∫ cos ec x =
dx ln cosecx − cot x + c .
E
x
where t = tan  
N
Example 10.51 2

LI
Therefore,
⌠ 3 dx  x
Find  15 + 9 cos x . tan 
N
⌡ ⌠ 3 dx 1  2 + c.
=
 tan −1  
⌡ 15 + 9 cos x 2 2
O
 
Solution  
⌠ 3 dx
Given  .
R
⌡ 15 + 9 cos x Exercise 10.9

FO
Substituting
1− t2 2 Evaluate each of the following integrals:
=cos x = 2
and dx dt , the
1+ t 1+ t2 ⌠ 1 ⌠ 1
1.  dx 2.  dθ
integral becomes, ⌡ 1 + cos x ⌡ 5 + 4 cos θ
565
Form Five
FOR ONLINE USE ONLY
DO NOT DUPLICATE
⌠ 1 1
dx ⌠
3. 
⌡ 1 + sin 2 x 19.  dx
⌡ 4 + 5cos x
⌠ 1 ⌠ 1
4.  dx 20.  cosec x dx
⌡ 1 + cos 2 x ⌡ 2
⌠ sin x dx ⌠ 1
5.  21.  dy
⌡ 1 − cos 2 x ⌡ 1 + cos y
⌠ cosec x cot x dx ⌠ 1
6.  22.  dx
⌡ 1 + cosec 2 x ⌡ 1 + 2sin 2 x
LY
⌠ sin 2 x dx dx
7. 
⌡ 1 + cos 2 x 23. ⌠

⌡ 2 − sin x
N
1 dx
8. ⌠
 dx 24. ⌠

⌡ cos 2 x + 3sin 2 x
O
⌡ 2 + sin x
1
9. ⌠
 dx ⌠
25. 
1
dθ
⌡ 1 − 10sin 2 x
⌡ 5 + 3cos ( θ2 )
1
SE
10. ⌠ dθ sin x
⌡ 1 + cos 2θ 26. ⌠
 2
dx
⌡ cos x − 3cos x
U
sec x tan x
11. ⌠
 dx
1
⌡ sec x + sec 2 x 27. ⌠
 dθ
sec x ⌡ 2 + 2sin θ + cos θ
12. ⌠ dx
E

⌡ tan x ⌠ dx
28. 
N
1 ⌡ 2 + cos x
13. ⌠
 dx
⌡ 1 + 10sin 2 x 29. ⌠ cos x
LI
 2 dx
1 ⌡ sin x − 3sin x + 2
14. ⌠
 dθ
N
⌡ cos 2θ − sin 2 2θ
2
⌠ sec 2 x
30.  dx
1 ⌡ tan 2 x + 2 tan x + 2
15. ⌠
O
 dθ
⌡ 5 + 4 cos θ 3 + cos θ
31. ⌠
 dθ
⌠ cos x ⌡ 2 − cos θ
R
16.  dx
1
⌡ 4 − sin 2 x 32. ⌠
 dx
FO
cos 2 x ⌡ 2 + 2 cos x + sin x

17. ⌠
 dx
⌡ cos x ⌠ 1 + sin x
33.  dx
⌠ 1 ⌡ sec x
18.  dx
⌡ 3 + 5cos ( 2x )
566
Form Five
FOR ONLINE USE ONLY
DO NOT DUPLICATE
Integration by splitting the numerator

If an integrand is a rational function with a quadratic denominator which cannot
be expressed in simple partial fractions, then it can be expressed in terms of two
fractions by splitting its numerator in the following form:
d
=Numerator A ( denominator ) + B,
dx
d
where A and B are constants which split the numerator and (denominator) is
dx
the derivative of the denominator with respect to the given variable.
LY
Example 10.52
1 x
= ln ( 4 + x 2 ) + tan −1   + c
N
2+ x 2 2
Determine ⌠
 dx.
⌡ 4 + x2
O
Therefore,
Solution ⌠ 2 + x= x 1
dx tan −1   + ln ( 4 + x 2 ) + c.
 2
⌠ 2 + x dx ⌡ 4+ x 2 2
Given 
⌡ 4 + x2
.
SE
Split the numerator of the integrand Example 10.53
U
that is,
d 5x + 7
=Numerator A ( denominator ) + B Find ⌠
 2 dx .
dx ⌡ x + 4x + 8
E
d
⇒ 2= + x A ( 4 + x2 ) + B
Solution
N
dx
⇒ 2 + x= 2Ax + B 5x + 7
Given ⌠
 2 dx.
LI
Comparing the coefficients of x and ⌡ x + 4x + 8

for constants of the two sides, gives Split the numerator of the integrand.
N
1 That is,
=A = and B 2.
O
2 d
Numerator A ( denominator ) + B
=
Now, the integral becomes, dx
R
⌠ 2 + x dx = ⌠ 2 (2 x) + 2 dx
1 d
  ⇒ 5 x= + 7 A ( x 2 + 4 x + 8) + B
⌡ 4+ x 2
⌡ 4+ x 2
dx
FO
⇒ 5 x + 7= (2 x + 4)A + B
= ⌠
x
dx + ⌠ 2 dx
  ⇒ 5 x + 7= 2Ax + 4A + B
⌡ 4 + x2 ⌡ 4 + x2
567
Form Five
FOR ONLINE USE ONLY
DO NOT DUPLICATE
Comparing the coefficients of x and for constants of the two sides, gives
5
A = and B = −3.
2
⌠= 5x + 7 ⌠  5 (2 x + 4) 3 
 2 dx   22 − 2  dx
⌡ x + 4x + 8 ⌡  x + 4x + 8 x + 4x + 8 
2 (2 x + 4) 3
5
= ⌠
 2 dx − ⌠
 2 dx
⌡ x + 4x + 8 ⌡ x + 4x + 8
LY
5 3  x+2
= ln x 2 + 4 x + 8 − tan −1  +c
2 2  2 
N
⌠ 5x + 7 = 5 3  x+2
ln x 2 + 4 x + 8 − tan −1 
Therefore,  2 dx  + c.
⌡ x + 4x + 8 2 2  2 
O
a cos x ± b sin x
Integrals of the form ⌠
 dx. SE
⌡ p cos x ± q sin x
The integral in this form can be easily integrated by splitting the numerator of
the integrand. In this case, the numerator is expressed into the following form:
U
d
=Numerator A ( denominator ) + B ( denominator )
dx
E
The constants A and B are determined by comparing both sides of the equation.
N
Example 10.54
LI
2 cos x + 3sin x
Determine ⌠
 dx.
N
⌡ cos x + sin x
O
Solution
2 cos x + 3sin x
Given ⌠
 dx.
R
⌡ cos x + sin x
Split the numerator of the integrand as follows:

FO
d
Numerator A (denominator) + B(denominator).
=
dx
d
Thus, 2 cos x + 3sin
= x A ( cos x + sin x ) + B ( cos x + sin x )
dx
568
Form Five
FOR ONLINE USE ONLY
DO NOT DUPLICATE
⇒ 2 cos x + 3sin x =
(− sin x + cos x)A + B(cos x + sin x)
Comparing the coefficients of cosines and sines from both sides gives,
2= A + B.............................(i)
3 =−A + B..........................(ii)
Solving equations (i) and (ii) simultaneously gives,
1 5
A= − and B = .
2 2
LY
⌠ 2 cos x + 3sin x dx ⌠ − 2 ( − sin x + cos x ) dx + ⌠ 2 ( cos x + sin x ) dx
1 5
=
  
⌡ cos x + sin x ⌡ cos x + sin x ⌡ cos x + sin x
N
1 5
=− ln cos x + sin x + x + c
2 2
O
⌠ 2 cos x + 3sin x dx =1 5
− ln cos x + sin x + x + c.
Therefore, 
⌡ cos x + sin x 2 SE 2
Example 10.55
U
2 cos x + 5sin x 17 1
Show that ⌠
 − ln 3cos x − sin x + x + c.
dx =
⌡ 3cos x − sin x 10 10
E
Solution
⌠ 2 cos x + 5sin x dx.
N
Given 
⌡ 3cos x − sin x
LI
Split the numerator of the integrand as follows:

N
d
2 cos x + 5sin
= x A ( 3cos x − sin x ) + B ( 3cos x − sin x )
dx
O
A ( −3sin x − cos x ) + B ( 3cos x − sin x )

⇒ 2 cos x + 5sin x =
comparing the coefficients of cosines and sines on both sides gives,
R
−A + 3B =2........................ (i)
FO
−3A − B =
5........................ (ii)
17 1
Solving equations (i) and (ii) simultaneously gives, A =
− and B = .
10 10
Thus, the integral becomes,
569
Form Five
FOR ONLINE USE ONLY
DO NOT DUPLICATE
⌠ 2 cos x + 5sin x dx =17 −3sin x − cos x

− ⌠
1 3cos x − sin x
dx + ⌠ dx
  
⌡ 3cos x − sin x 10 ⌡ 3cos x − sin x 10 ⌡ 3cos x − sin x
17 1
=− ln 3cos x − sin x + x + c
10 10
2 cos x + 5sin x 17 1
Therefore, ⌠
 − ln 3cos x − sin x + x + c.
dx =
⌡ 3cos x − sin x 10 10
Exercise 10.10
LY
⌠ x + 7 dx ⌠ 3u + 8 du
N
1.  2 7.  2
⌡ x +5 ⌡ u + 2u + 5
O
x+2
2. ⌠
 2 dx ⌠ 2 cos θ − 3sin θ dθ
8. 
⌡ 2x + 6x + 5 ⌡ cos θ + 4sin θ
⌠
3. 
sin θ
dθ
SE ⌠ cos θ
9.  dθ
⌡ cos θ + sin θ ⌡ cos θ + sin θ
U
⌠ 2sin θ − cos θ dθ ⌠ 3cos x − 2sin x dx
4.  10. 
⌡ sin θ + 3cos θ ⌡ cos x + sin x
⌠ 2 x + 3 dx 1
E
5.  2 ⌠ dθ
⌡ x + 2 x + 10 11. 
⌡ 2 + 3 tan θ
N
⌠ y+4
6.  2 dy ⌠ sin 2 x − 5cos 2 x dx
12. 
LI
⌡ y + 6y + 9 ⌡ 7 cos 2 x − 2sin 2 x
N
Integrals of exponential functions of the form ∫ a x dx

O
Integrals of this type, where x is a variable and a is a constant are easily evaluated
by substitution method, with the application of natural logarithms.
Given ∫ a x dx .
R
Let u = a x .
FO
Applying natural logarithm on both sides gives,

ln u = ln a x
⇒ ln u = x ln a
Differentiating with respect to x on both sides of the equation gives,
570
Form Five
FOR ONLINE USE ONLY
DO NOT DUPLICATE
1 du
= ln a ⇒ dx =
1
du But u = 3 x .
u dx u ln a 3x
Therefore, ∫ 3 x=
dx + c.
Substituting these values, the integral ln 3
becomes,
x dx ⌠ u × 1 du Example 10.57
∫a = 
⌡ u ln a
1 Find ∫ 24 x +3 dx.
ln a ∫
= du
1 Solution
= u+c Given ∫ 24 x +3 dx.
LY
ln a
But u = a x .
Let u = 24 x +3 .
1 x
a xdx
Therefore, ∫= a +c. Apply natural logarithm on both
N
ln a
sides of the equation to get,
O
Example 10.56 ln u = ln 24 x +3
ln=u (4 x + 3) ln 2
Determine ∫ 3 x dx.
SE
Differentiate with respect to x on both
Solution sides of the equation to get,
Given ∫ 3 x dx . 1 du 1
U
= 4 ln 2 ⇒ dx= du
Let u = 3x. u dx 4u ln 2
Apply natural logarithm on both Substitute these values into the
E
sides of the equation to get, integral as follows,

ln u = ln 3 x 1
N
4 x +3
∫2 = dx ⌠u × du
⇒ ln u = x ln 3 ⌡ 4u ln 2
LI
Differentiating with respect to x on 1

4 ln 2 ∫
= du
both sides of the equation gives,
N
1 du 1 1
= ln 3 ⇒ dx = du = u+c
O
u dx u ln 3 4 ln 2
Now, the integral becomes, But u = 24 x +3.
R
⌠ u × 1 du 2(4 x +3)
 4 x +3
⌡ u ln 3 Therefore, ∫ 2 =dx + c.
FO
4 ln 2
1
ln 3 ∫
= du
1
= u+c
ln 3
571
Form Five
FOR ONLINE USE ONLY
DO NOT DUPLICATE
Integrals of logarithmic functions of the

Example 10.58
form ∫ log ax dx, where a is a constant
Integrals of logarithmic functions of the Find ∫ log 4 x dx.
form ∫ log ax dx are determined by the
method of integration by parts. This is Solution
achieved after converting the function Given ∫ log 4x dx .
from logarithm of base 10 to natural Convert the integral into natural
logarithm. The integration of ∫ log ax dx logarithmic form as follows:
can be evaluated as follows. 1
Convert ∫ log ax dx to natural logarithmic
∫ log4 x dx = ln10 ∫ ln4 x dx
LY
form as follows: Let u = 4 x ⇒ du = 4dx .
⌠ ln ax 1
∫ log ax dx = ⌡ ln10 dx ⇒ dx =du
N
4
1 Substitute these values into the integral
ln10 ∫
O
= ln ax dx
as follows,
Let u = ax ⇒ du = a dx . 1 1 
∫ log 4 x dx = ln10 ∫ ln u
⇒ dx =du
1
SE  du 
4 
a
1
4 ln10 ∫
Now, the integral becomes, = ln u du
U
1 1 
og ax dx =
ln10 ∫ (ln u )  du 
1
a  =
4 ln10
( u ln u − u ) + c
1
E
a ln10 ∫
= ln u du
1
= u ( ln u − 1) + c
N
4 ln10
But ∫ lnu du
= uln u − u + c
But u = 4 x.
LI
1 Thus,
∫ log axdx
⇒= u (ln u − 1) + c
N
a ln10 1
∫ log4 xdx
= × 4 x ( ln 4 x − 1) + c
But u = ax. 4 ln10
O
Thus, Therefore,
1
∫ log ax=
dx × ax ( ln ax − 1) + c . x
∫ log
= 4 x dx ( ln 4 x − 1) + c.
R
a ln10 ln10
Therefore,
FO
1 Example 10.59
∫=
log ax dx x ( ln ax − 1) + c.
ln10
⌠ log 3 2 x dx.
Determine 
⌡ 5x
572
Form Five
FOR ONLINE USE ONLY
DO NOT DUPLICATE
∫ 3 (8 ) dx
x
3.
Solution −2 x
log 3 2 x ⌠ log 2 x
4. ∫ log(e ) dx
Given ⌠
 dx =  dx. 2x
⌡ 5x ⌡ 5 x log 3 5. ∫3 dx
Convert the integral into natural 1−2 y
logarithmic form as follows:
6. ∫6 dy
−x
⌠ ln 2 x 7. ∫4 dx
⌠ log 3 2 x dx =  ln10 dx
  3−7 x
ln 3
⌡ 5x
 5x 8. ∫ 9 dx
LY
⌡ ln10
x −1
9. ∫ 10 dx
1 ⌠ ln 2 x
=  dx
5ln 3 ⌡ x 10. ∫ log 3xdx
N
1 log 2 x
Let u= ln 2 x ⇒ du= dx . 11. ⌠ dx
O

x ⌡ x
log 3 ( 2 x ) 1 12. ∫ (2 x + log 5 x) dx
Thus, ⌠
5ln 3 ∫

⌡ 5x
dx = udu
SE
13. ∫ log(2 x + 1) dx
1 u  2
=  +c 14. ∫ (2 x + 1) log( x 2 + x − 1) dx
U
5ln 3  2 
log 2 x
1 15. ⌠
 dx
= u2 + c ⌡ 6
10 ln 3
E
3
16. ⌠
 log x dx
⌡ 4
N
But u = ln 2 x
Therefore, x
⌠1
LI
17.    dx
⌠ log 3 ( 2 x ) 1
⌡3
( ln 2 x ) + c.
2
= dx
⌡ 5x 10 ln 3
N
log(tan x)
18. ⌠
 dx
⌡ cos 2 x
O
Exercise 10.11
19. ∫ log 2 x dx
R
Determine each of the following ⌠ log 5 3 x dx

integrals: 20. 
⌡ 2x
FO
1. 7 x dx
∫ Definite integrals
⌠ log x dx When a function is integrated over a
2. 
⌡ x specified interval, then the integral is
referred to as a definite integral.
573
Form Five
FOR ONLINE USE ONLY
DO NOT DUPLICATE
Suppose that a function f ( x) is integrated over a ≤ x ≤ b or [a, b] , then the integral

b
is represented as ∫ a
f ( x)dx. In this integral, a and b are called the boundaries or
limits of the integral, where a is the lower limit and b is the upper limit.
Definite integrals of polynomial, trigonometric, exponential, logarithmic, and

rational functions
A definite integral defines the area of the region bounded by a curve or curves,
the lines x = a, x = b , and the x-axis. Figure 10.4 shows the bounded region of
LY
the function y = f ( x) on the interval [ a, b ] on the xy-plane.
N
y
O
y=f(x)
SE
U
O x=a x=b x
E
Figure 10.4: Bounded region of the function y = f ( x)

b
N
The area of the region defined by the integral ∫a f ( x)dx over the interval a ≤ x ≤ b
is evaluated as follows:
LI
b b
∫a [ F ( x=
) ]a
N
f ( x=
)dx F (b) − F (a ) .
O
That is, the value of the integral is obtained by taking the difference between the
values of the integral of the given function f (x) for an upper limit b and a lower
R
limit a of the variable x.

FO
Example 10.60
∫ (x )
2
Evaluate 3
+ 2 x 2 + x − 1 dx.
0
574
Form Five
FOR ONLINE USE ONLY
DO NOT DUPLICATE
Solution
∫ (x )
2
3
Given + 2 x 2 + x − 1 dx.
0
Integrate the function and substitute the given limits,

2
 x 4 2 x3 x 2 
∫ ( )
2
3 2
x + 2 x + x − 1 dx=  + + − x
0
4 3 2 0
 24 2(2)3 (2) 2   ( 0 ) 2(0)3 (0) 2
4

=  + + − 2 −  + + − 0 
 4 3 2   4 3 2 

28
LY
=
3
28
(x )
2
Therefore, ∫ 3
+ 2 x 2 + x − 1 dx = .
N
0 3
O
Example 10.61
2
x3 + 4 x 2 + 3x − 2 3 5
Show that ⌠
 2
dx= + ln   . SE
⌡1 x + 4x + 3 2 6
Solution
U
23 2
⌠ x + 4 x + 3 x − 2 dx.
Given 
⌡1 x2 + 4 x + 3
The integrand is an improper fraction.
E
By division,
N
x3 + 4 x 2 + 3x − 2 2
2
= x− 2
x + 4x + 3 x + 4x + 3
LI
2
= x−
( x + 1)( x + 3)
N
2 A B
O
Let = +
( x + 1)( x + 3) x + 1 x + 3
Solving for A and B gives A = 1 and B = −1 .
R
2 1 1
Þ = −
FO
( x + 1)( x + 3) x + 1 x + 3
Thus,
23 2 2 2
⌠ x + 4 x + 3 x − 2 dx = 2
⌠ 1 dx + ⌠ 1 dx

⌡1 x2 + 4 x + 3 ∫1 x dx − 
⌡1 x + 1

⌡1 x + 3
575
Form Five
FOR ONLINE USE ONLY
DO NOT DUPLICATE
1 
2 Since the lower limit in terms of x is
=  x 2 − ln x + 1 + ln x + 3  π , then its limit in terms of u will
2 1
4
π 2
1 x+3 
2
=
be u sin
= .
=  x 2 + ln 4 2
2 x + 1 1
Also, the upper limit in term of x is
1  5   1  4  π , then its limit in terms of u will
=  (4) + ln    −  (1) + ln    2
2  3   2  2 
π
5 1 be
= = 1.
u sin
=+2 ln − ln 2 − 2
LY
3 2
3 5  1 1
=+ ln  ÷ 2  ⌠ cos x 1 ⌠ 1
N
2 3   × du =
 du
⌡ 2 u2 cos x ⌡ 2 u2
2 2
3 5
O
= + ln   1
2 6 =∫ 2 u −2 du
2
Therefore,
23 2
SE  1
= − 
1
⌠ x + 4 x + 3 x − 2 dx= 3 + ln  5  .  u 2
   2
⌡1 x2 + 4 x + 3 2 6
U
  1 
 1
=  −  −  −  
 1   2  
Example 10.62   2 
E
2
π = − 1= 2 − 1
N
⌠ 2 cos x dx. 2
Evaluate 
⌡π4 sin 2 x π
LI
⌠ 2 cos x dx
= 2 − 1.
Therefore, 
Solution ⌡π sin 2 x
N
4
π
⌠2 cos x Alternatively, the integral is
Given  dx.
O
⌡π sin 2 x evaluated as an indefinite integral

4
du and the limits are applied after
Let u = sin x ⇒ = cos x
R
dx integration where the constant term

du is not considered. That is;
⇒ dx =
FO
cos x π
2 cos x
Change the limits of integration into Given ⌠
 dx.
⌡π4 sin 2 x
the variable u as follows:
576
Form Five
FOR ONLINE USE ONLY
DO NOT DUPLICATE
Let u = sin x ⇒ du = cos x 2u

⇒ 2u du= e x dx ⇔ dx= du
cos x ex
Thus, ⌠ ⌠ du
 2 dx =  2
⌡ sin x ⌡u 2u 2
1 ⇒ dx
= du ⇒ dx= du
= − . u 2
u
u Change the limits of integration into
Substitute back u = sinx. the variable u as follows:
⌠ cos x 1 x ln 4 ln 9
Thus,  2 dx = −
⌡ sin x sin x u 2 3
Now, introduce the limits:
LY
π π
2 cos x  1 2
3 3
⌠ u × 2 du = 1
⇒⌠
π  − sin x  π .
dx =  2⌠
 du
2
⌡ sin x ⌡2 1 + u u ⌡2 1 + u
N
4 4 3
= 2 ln 1 + u  2
O
  
 1  −1  = 2 [ ln 4 − ln 3]
=
− − 
 sin π  sin π  SE = 2 ln ( 43 )
 2  4  
2 Therefore,
= − 1= 2 −1
U
2 ln9
π ⌠ ex 4
⌠2 cos x  dx = 2 ln   .
Therefore,  dx
= 2 − 1. ⌡ln 4 1 + e
x
3
⌡π sin 2 x
E
4
N

LI
ln9 1
⌠ ex 4 ∫ x 4 ln 2 x dx correct to
N
Show that  dx = 2 ln   . Evaluate 1
⌡ln 4 1 + e
x
3 2
O
five significant figures.

Solution
ln9
⌠ ex Solution
R
Given  dx
⌡ln 4 1 + e
x
1 4
Given ∫ 12 x ln 2 x dx .
FO
Let u = e ⇒u = e .
x 2 x
577
Form Five
FOR ONLINE USE ONLY
DO NOT DUPLICATE
1 x5
Let =
u ln 2 x ⇒ du
= = x 4 dx ⇒ =
dx and dv v
x 5
Using the method of integration by parts, the integral becomes,
1 1
11 44  x 5   ⌠  1   x5 
=∫
11
22
x ln 2 x dx   ln 2 x  −      dx
 5   1 ⌡1  x   5 
2 2
1 1
11  x 5   1  x 5  
∫∫1212 xx lnln 22xxdx
44
= dx   ln 2 x  −   
 5   1 5  5   1
LY
2 2
5  1   1 5 
11 44 1 1
∫∫
11 xx ln
ln 22xxdx
dx = 1 × ln 2 −   ln1 − 1 −   
N
22 5  2  25   2  
O
5
1 1  1 
= [1 × ln 2] − 1 −   
5 25   2   SE
1 1 1
= ln 2 − +
5 25 800
U
1 31
= ln 2 −
E
5 800
N
= 0.099879436
LI
1
Therefore, ∫ 1 x 4 ln 2 x dx = 0.099879.
N
2
O
Exercise 10.12
R

FO
3 4 ln 2
1. ∫ −1 (6 − 2 x)dx 3. ∫0 (x
3
− 2 x − 3 x )dx 5. ∫0 (7e− x + 4e x ) dx
2
∫ (x + x + 1) dx 4.
0 6
2 ⌠ y3 + 1
2. −4 ∫2 (3t 2 − 2t + 1)dt 6. 
⌡1 y
2
dy
578
Form Five
FOR ONLINE USE ONLY
DO NOT DUPLICATE
4 π
⌠ dx ⌠  π
7.  21. π tan  θ +  dθ
⌡  4
⌡2 x 2
π dx 4
4sin x
⌠4 22. ⌠

8.  dx ⌡1 2 x − 1
⌡0 3 tan x
1 1 3−4 x
⌠  3 π 
9.   x + 7 x − 3cos x  dx
23. ∫ −2 e dx
⌡−1  2  π
4 24. ⌠
2 1 
⌠  x 4 − x3 + x − 1   5sin  x − 1 dx
⌡0  2 
10.   2  dx
x
LY
⌡1   ln 4 x
2 62
25.
∫ ln 2
e dx
⌠ t + 5t − 4
11.  dt
N
⌡1 t3 1 2x − 2
26. ∫0 e dx
O
2
⌠  1 1  4
12.   3r + 2 − 4  dr ⌠ 1 4 x5 dx
⌡1  r r  27. 
SE ⌡2 4
1 8
∫
1
13. 0 (6 x − 9) dx 28. ∫0 x
3
1 − x 2 dx
U
4
0 3 ⌠ 2t + 1 dt
14. ⌠ (1 − 2 x) 2 dx 29. 
⌡−2 t 2 + t + 3
⌡−1
E
2
⌠ 1
3 −3 30.  2 dt
15. ∫1 (3t − 1) dt
N
⌡ 0 t − 6t + 9
LI
∫
−1 31. 2
cos θ dθ
∫ −3 3(1 − x)
−1
16. dx 0
N
π
∫ 3sin θ dθ
x
3 32.
O
17. ∫ 0
e dx3
0
1 π
⌠ 3 dt 33. ∫ (cos 2θ + sin 2θ ) dθ
2
R
18.  0
⌡0 4 − 3t e
⌠ 1 + ln x dx
FO
π 34. 
⌡1 x
19. ∫ 02 6cos(π − 3x) dx
2 3
3
35. ⌠ x3
⌠ dx  dx
20. 
⌡1 5 − 7 x ⌡0 16 − x 2
579
Form Five
FOR ONLINE USE ONLY
DO NOT DUPLICATE
π
0
ln( x + 2) 50. ∫
2
sin 5 xdx
36. ⌠
 dx π
3
⌡−1 2 x + 4
π
π 51. ⌠ 1 3
 sin θ sin θ dθ
∫ 04 4cos θ dθ
4
37. ⌡0 2 2
π
∫
2
9 52. sin 4 x cos3 xdx
⌠ x 0
38.  dx π
⌡0 1 + x
∫ sin 3 x cos 2 xdx
2
53.
0
10
39. ∫1 x x 2 − 1 dx 2π
LY
54. ∫ 0
cos 2 3xdx
1
ln π 2 2
⌠ 5
40. ∫ xe x cos(3e x ) dx 55.  2 dx
N
ln π2
⌡0 x + 2 x + 1
1
1
O
1 x2 +4 x ⌠
56.  dx
41. ∫ 0 ( x + 2)e dx
⌡0 1 + x 2
1
SE ⌠ 1
ln 8
⌠ 1 − e dt
t
57.  2 dx
42.  ⌡0 x + 4 x + 8
⌡ln 2 1 + et 3
⌠ 4
58.  dx
U
e5 ⌡2 13 − 4 x + x 2
⌠ dx
43.  π
⌡e2 x(ln x)
2 2 sin θ
59. ⌠
 dθ
⌡0 cos θ + sin θ
E
9
⌠ ln x ⌠ 2x − 7
1
44.  dx
N
⌡1 x 60.  dx
⌡0 9 − x 2
LI
e
⌠ ln x dx
45.  7 Applications of integration
⌡1 x
N
Definite integrals can be used to find the

2
46. ∫ ( x + 1)2 ln x dx area under a curve and area between two
O
1
curves, volume of solid of revolution
3
⌠ 1 about x-axis, about y-axis, and about any
47.  2 dx
line, length of an arc and to determine
R
⌡2 x − 1
1
area of a sector.
FO
⌠ x −1
48.  2 dx Area under a curve and area between
⌡0 x + 3 x + 2
two curves
2π Integration can be used to find the
∫ cos3 xdx
3
49. area under the curve and area enclosed
0
between two curves.
580
Form Five
FOR ONLINE USE ONLY
DO NOT DUPLICATE
Area under a curve and the x-axis

When calculating the area under a curve, the first step is to make a sketch of the
curve. Remember that the area lying above the x-axis will have a positive value,
whereas the area lying below the x-axis will have a negative value. In some cases,
the required area at the same time may lie on above and below the x-axis.
Consider Figure 10.5 which shows the curve y = f(x), enclosing the shaded area
with the positive x-axis. If the area is denoted by A, then it is given by
b c
A= ∫a f ( x ) dx − ∫b f ( x)dx
LY
where a, b, and c are values of x. These values are usually referred to as limits
when evaluating the area under the curve and between two curves.
N
Note that, the area under the curve is taken as the magnitude of A. When calculating
O
the area under a curve y = f (x), follow the following steps:
1. Sketch the area and identify the area enclosed.
2. Determine the limits of integration if not given.
SE
3. Set up the definite integral.
4. Integrate to get the area.
U
y
E
N
y=f(x)
LI
N
O a b c x
O
R
Figure 10.5: Area under a curve

FO
Example 10.65
Determine the area between the curve f ( x) =− x 2 − 2 x and the x–axis.
581
Form Five
FOR ONLINE USE ONLY
DO NOT DUPLICATE
Solution
The curve intersect the x-axis where f(x) = 0.
2
That is, f ( x) =−x − 2x
⇒ − x( x + 2) =0
Either –x = 0 or x + 2 = 0
Þx = 0 or x = -2
Hence, f(x) intersects the x-axis at x = 0 and x = -2.
The coefficient of x2 is negative. Thus, the curve for f (x) opens downwards as
shown in the following figure.
LY
y
2
N
O
1
SE x
-2 -1 0 1 2
U
-1 f(x)=-x2-2x
E
-2
N
LI
From the figure, the area between the curve and the x-axis is shaded and given by;
N
b
From A = ∫ a f ( x)dx
O
∫ (−x − 2x ) dx
0
2
= −2
R
0
 −1 
=  x3 − x 2 
FO
3  −2
 1   1
3 2 
=  − (0) − (0)  −  − (−2) − (−2) 
 3   3 
8 
− − 4
=
 3 
582
Form Five
FOR ONLINE USE ONLY
DO NOT DUPLICATE
 4
=−  − 
 3
4
= square units.
3
4
Therefore, the area is square units.
3
Example 10.66
LY
Find the area between the curve y = x(4 − x ) and the x–axis from x = 0 to x = 5.
Solution
N
The following is a sketch of the curve y = x(4 − x ) .
O
y
A1
SE A2
U
2 0 x
1 1 2 3 4 5
y=x(4-x)
E
N
The sketch shows that the required area is divided in two parts. One part lies
LI
above the x-axis and hence has positive area. The other part lies below the
x-axis and has negative area.
N
b
Using A = ∫ y dx, and calculating the two areas separately gives,
O
a
4
A1
= ∫ 0 x ( 4 − x ) dx
R
4
 2 x3 
FO
= 2 x − 3 
 0
 64 
=  32 − 3  − 0
 
583
Form Five
FOR ONLINE USE ONLY
DO NOT DUPLICATE
32
=
3
2
= 10 square units.
3
32
Thus, A1 = square units .
3
5
A2
= ∫ x ( 4 − x ) dx
4
5
 2 x3 
= 2 x − 
LY
 3 4
 125   64 
=  50 −  −  32 − 
N
 3   3 
 64 125 
O
= ( 50 − 32 ) +  − 
 3 3 
 61 
= 18 +  − 
 3
SE
1
= −2
3
U
−7 7
Thus, A 2 = = square units.
3 3
E
The total area under the curve between x = 0 and x = 5 is the sum of the
numerical values of the two areas A1 and A 2 . That is,
N
LI
32 7
A= + square units
3 3
N
=13 square units

O
Therefore, the area is 13 square units.
5
R
Note that, it is possible to evaluate the area=

as A ∫ x ( 4 − x ) dx but this would
0
not give the correct answer for the required area.

FO
584
Form Five
FOR ONLINE USE ONLY
DO NOT DUPLICATE
Area under a curve and the y-axis

Suppose it is required to find the area Solution
between a curve y = f (x) and the b
y-axis, from y = a to y = b .
Given that A = ∫ a y dx , where a and
Consider a sketch of y = f (x) as shown b are the limits or bounding values
in Figure 10.6. of the variable. Replacing y by 2at
b
y gives A = ∫ a 2at dx .
But, it is not possible to integrate a
y=f(x)
LY
function of t with respect to x directly.
y=b Therefore, change the variable of the
A integral.
N
y=a
Given x = at 2,
O
dx
⇒= 2at, so = dx 2at dt
dt
0 x Now, the integral becomes,

SE 2
A= ∫1 ( 2at ) .( 2at ) dt
U
2 2 2
= ∫1 4a t dt
Figure 10.6: Area between a curve y = f (x)
2
E
and the y-axis  t3 

2
= 4a  
 3 1
N
The enclosed area between the curve

y = f (x) and the y-axis, from y = a
LI
2 8 1 28a 2
to y = b is given by: = 4a  −  =
3 3 3
N
b
A = ∫ x dy , where x is a function of y.
a
Therefore, the area bounded by the
O
2
Example 10.67 curve is 28a square units.
3
R
A curve is defined by the parametric

FO
2 Example 10.68
equations
= x at= and y 2at . Find
the area bounded by the curve, the
Find the area enclosed between the
x-axis and the ordinates at t = 1 and 2
t = 2. curve y = 4 − x and the y-axis.
585
Form Five
FOR ONLINE USE ONLY
DO NOT DUPLICATE
 8
Solution = 0 −  −8 + 
 3
2
Sketch the curve of y = 4 − x .
 16  16
The curve crosses the y-axis at (0, 2) =−  −  =
 3 3
and (0, − 2) , and crosses the x– axis
2
at (4, 0) as shown in the following ∫ 0 ( 4 − y ) dy
2
A2
=
figure.
2
 y3 
= 4 y − 
y
 3 0
LY
3
8
(0, 2) = 4 ( 2) −
2 y2=4-x 3
16
N
1 A1
(4, 0) =square units.
3
O
-1 0 1 2 3 4 5 x
16 16 32
-1 A2 Hence, = + = square units.
3 3 3
-2 SE
(0,-2)
Therefore, the area enclosed is
-3
32
square units.
3
U
From the figure, the area A enclosed Area of a region between two curves
between the curve and the y-axis is The area of a region enclosed between
E
given by: the curves is obtained by determining

y =2
N
A =∫ x dy the integral of the difference between the

y =−2
two functions using common limits. The
LI
In this case, the required area common limits are obtained from the
is lying below the x-axis and points of intersection of the two curves.
N
above x axis. Thus, the required In Figure 10.7, the area enclosed between
O
area A is divided into two areas, the two curves f(x) and g(x) is given by:
0 2
=A1 ∫=
−2
x dy and A ∫ x dy.
0 2 b
∫ a [ f ( x) − g ( x)] dx
R
=A
From y 2 = 4 − y2.
4 − x, x =
FO
where a and b are the points at which

∫ ( 4 − y ) dy
0
Thus, =
A1 2
−2 f(x) and g(x) intersect. In this case, the
0
 y3  function f (x) is a higher function and
= 4 y −  g (x) is a lower function.
 3  −2
586
Form Five
FOR ONLINE USE ONLY
DO NOT DUPLICATE
LY
N
Figure 10.7: Area enclosed between two curves
O
Example 10.69
SE
Determine the area enclosed between the curve y = (x – 1)2 and the straight
line y = x + 1.
U
Solution
The limits of the enclosed area are given by the x-values at the points of
intersection. These can be obtained by solving the two equations simultaneously.
E
That is,
N
( x − 1) 2 =x + 1
LI
⇒ x2 − 2x + 1 = x + 1
⇒ x 2 − 3x =
0
N
⇒ x( x − 3) =
0
O
⇒
= x 0 or x =
−3 0
Hence, the curve and the line meet at x = 0 and x = 3.
R
The area enclosed between the curve and the straight line at x = 0 and x = 3 is
FO
the shaded region shown in the following figure.
587
Form Five
FOR ONLINE USE ONLY
DO NOT DUPLICATE
y
y=x+1
5
4 (3, 4)
2 y=(x-1)2
1 (0,1)
-3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5 x
LY
-1
-2
N
O
From the figure, the area A enclosed between the curve and the straight line
is given by,
∫0 (( x )
A=
3
+ 1) − ( x − 1) dx
2
SE
∫ (x +1− x )
3
2
= − 1 + 2x dx
U
0
∫ ( 3x − x )
3
2
= 0
dx
E
3
3 2 x3 
=  x −
N

2 3 0
LI
3 3
=  ( 3)2 −
( 3)
 − [ 0 − 0]
 2 3 
N

3 27
O
=   (9) − − 0
2 3
9
R
=
2
FO
= 4.5 square units
Therefore, the area enclosed between the curve and the straight line is 4.5
square units.
588
Form Five
FOR ONLINE USE ONLY
DO NOT DUPLICATE
Example 10.70
Find the area enclosed between the curves representing the functions
x 2 + 2 x + 2 and g ( x) =
f ( x) = − x 2 + 2 x + 10.
Solution
The limits of the enclosed area are given by the x-values at the points of
intersection. These can be obtained by solving the two equations simultaneously.
That is,
LY
x2 + 2 x + 2 =− x 2 + 2 x + 10
⇒ 2x2 − 8 =0
⇒ ( x − 2)( x + 2) =
0
N
⇒x= 2 and x =−2.
O
Hence, the two curves intersect at x = 2 and x = −2.
The area enclosed between the two curves within x = 2 and x = −2 is the shaded
SE
region as shown in the following figure.
U
E
N
LI
N
O
R
FO
589
Form Five
FOR ONLINE USE ONLY
DO NOT DUPLICATE
From the figure, the area A enclosed between the two curves given by;
∫ ( − x ) ( )
2
A= 2
+ 2 x + 10 − x 2 + 2 x + 2  dx
−2
( −2 x )
2 2
=∫ 2
 23x + 8 x 
3
+ 8 dx =−
 
−2 −2
 16   16  32 32
=−
 + 16  −  − 16  = +
 3   3  3 3
64
= square units
3
LY
64
Therefore, the area of the region enclosed between the two curves is square
3
units.
N
Length of an arc
O
The length of a curve can be obtained by taking the sum of the lengths of small
chords P1P2 , P2 P3 , on the curve as shown in Figure 10.8. SE
U
E
N
LI
N
O
Figure 10.8: Length of an arc of a function

R
FO
If dx and dy are the small increments in x and y, respectively, from Pr −1 to Pr as

shown in Figure 10.9, then by Pythagoras' theorem,
2
( Pr−1=
Pr ) (δ x )
2 2
+ (δ y ) . But Pr −1Pr = δ s.
2
Factorizing (δ x ) to obtain,
590
Form Five
FOR ONLINE USE ONLY
DO NOT DUPLICATE
  δ y 2  ⌠
b
  dy  
2 2 2
(δ s ) = 1 +    (δ x ) (10.1)
=S  1 +    dx if y = f ( x),
  δ x     dx  
⌡a 
d
For an equation of the form y = f(x), ⌠   dx  
2
it is convenient to use the variable x. and S 

a ≤ x ≤ b, = 1 +    dy
   dy  
Equation (10.1) can be written as, ⌡c 
 δ y  
2
if x = h( y ), c ≤ y ≤ d .
 (δ x )
2
δs
= 1 +  
  δ x  

Length of an arc with parametric
LY
 δ y  2 equations
δs
Hence, = 1 +  δ x.
  δ x   Suppose that the curve is in parametric
 
form, x f=
= (t ) and y g (t ) . It is more
N
y convenient to find the length of an arc
y=f(x)
O
when the integral is evaluated with respect
d Pn to t.
Pr
SE
From equation (10.1) in the previous
δs section, the variable t is introduced in the
Pr-1 δy
equation as follows:
U
δx (δ=
2
s ) (δ x )
2
+ (δ y )
2
c
P0   δ x 2  δ y 2 
=   δ t  +  δ t   × (δ t )
2
E
O a b x
 
N
  δ x 2  δ y 2 
Thus,
= δs   +  δ t.
LI
Figure 10.9: Length of an arc

  δ t   δ t  
 
The sum of the δs of all the chords
N
gives the length of the arc . That is, The sum of the δs of all the chords gives
the length of the arc. That is,
O
b
⌠   dy  
2
=S  1 +    dx , t
   dx   ⌠ 2  dx 2  dy 2
⌡a 
R
= S    +   dt
where a and b are values of x at the end ⌡t1  dt   dt 
FO
points of the arc.

Therefore, the arc length to any point x where t1, t2 are the values of t corresponding
on the curve is given by, to the arc ends.
591
Form Five
FOR ONLINE USE ONLY
DO NOT DUPLICATE
Length of an arc in polar coordinates

If r = f (θ ) describes a polar curve, the arc of this curve swept out as the angle θ
varies from θ1 to θ 2 can be derived as follows:
Suppose r = f (θ ) is a given polar curve where the angle θ varies over the interval
θ1 < θ < θ 2 . By converting to cartesion coordinates, the following parametric form
can be obtained:
x (θ ) r=
= cos θ f (θ ) cos θ
(10.2)
y (θ ) r=
= sin θ f (θ ) sin θ
(10.3)
LY
Differentiating equations (10.2) and (10.3) with respect to θ gives;
N
x′(θ ) f ′(θ ) cos θ − f (θ ) sin θ
=
(10.4)
O
y′(θ ) f ′(θ ) sin θ + f (θ ) cos θ
=
(10.5)
Squaring and adding equations (10.4) and (10.5) gives, SE

x′(θ ) 2 + y′(θ ) 2 = [ f ′(θ ) cos θ − f (θ ) sin θ ] + [ f ′(θ ) sin θ + f (θ ) cos θ ]
2 2
= f ′(θ ) 2 cos 2 θ − 2 f ′(θ ) f (θ ) sin θ cos θ + f (θ ) 2 sin 2 θ + f ′(θ ) 2 sin 2 θ +

U
2 f ′(θ ) f (θ ) sin θ cos θ + f (θ ) 2 cos 2 θ
( )
= f ′(θ ) 2 + f (θ ) 2 sin 2 θ +  f ′(θ ) 2 + f (θ ) 2  cos 2 θ
E
( f ′(θ )
= 2
+ f (θ ) )( sin
2 2
θ + cos 2 θ )
N
⇒ x′(θ ) 2 + y′(θ ) 2 = f ′(θ ) 2 + f (θ ) 2

LI
Using the formula for parametric arc length, the arc length of this curve can be
N
obtained as,
θ2 θ2
O
S= ∫θ
1
x′(θ ) 2 + y′(θ ) 2 dθ = ∫θ 1
f ′(θ ) 2 + f (θ ) 2 dθ
θ2
= ∫θ f ′(θ ) 2 + r 2 dθ
R
θ2 2
FO
⌠  dr 
=  r2 +   dθ
⌡θ1  dθ 
θ2 2
⌠  dr 
Therefore, the length of an arc is given
= as S  2
r +  dθ .
⌡θ1  dθ 
592
Form Five
FOR ONLINE USE ONLY
DO NOT DUPLICATE
Example10.71 Example 10.72
Find the length of an arc in the first Find the length of an arc of the cardioid
3 π π
quadrant of the curve y = from 2x 2 , r = 1 + sin θ from θ = − to θ = .
2 2
1
x = 0 to x = . Solution
3
Solution The length of the arc is given by
The length of the arc is given by, θ2 2
⌠  dr 
⌠
b =S  r2 +   dθ
  dy  
2
 dθ 
LY
⌡θ1
=S  1 +    dx
  dx   dr
⌡a  Given r = 1 + sin θ then = cos θ
dθ
N
3
dy 3 3 −1 Thus,
Given y = 2x , then =
2
2× x2
dx 2 π
O
∫ π (1 + sin θ )
1 2
dy S= 2
+ cos 2 θ dθ
= 3x 2 −
dx 2
1
⌠3 2
SE
= ∫π
π
2
1 + 2sin θ + sin 2 θ + cos 2 θ dθ
  1 −
2
Thus,
= S  1 +  3 x  dx 2
π
   ∫π
2
⌡0 = 2(1 + sin θ ) dθ
U
−
2
1 π
⌠ 2 1 + sin θ ⋅ 1 − sin θ
= ∫ 3
0
1 + 9x dx = 2 dθ
E
⌡− π2 1 − sin θ
1
 3 3
N
2 (1 + 9 x ) 2
cos θ
π
= 
= 2⌠
2
   dθ ,
27 ⌡− π2 1 − sin θ
LI
  0
Let u = 1 − sin θ ⇒ u 2 =−
1 sin θ
N
 3

2   1  2 3
= 1 + 9    − (1 + 0 ) 2 
27   3   − cos θ dθ
⇒ 2u du =
O
 
⇒ −2udu =cos θ dθ
2
(8 − 1)
R
=
27 By changing limits;
FO
14
= . π π
27 θ −
2 2
Therefore, the length of the arc is
14 u 2 0
units.
27
593
Form Five
FOR ONLINE USE ONLY
DO NOT DUPLICATE
0 =[9 × 2π ] − [9(0) ]
−2u
⇒ S =2 ⌠
 du
⌡2 u = 18π .
0 Therefore, the length of the curve is
−2 2 [u ] 2
0
−2 2 ∫ du =
=
2 18π units.
−2 2 0 − 2 
=
Example 10.74
=4
Therefore, the length of the arc is Find the length of the arc of the
4 units. curve 6 xy= 3 + x 4 between the
LY
points whose abscissae are 1 and 4.
Example 10.73
N
Solution
Determine the length of the curve 1 x3
O
Given 6 xy =3 + x 4 ⇒ y = +
given by the parametric equations 2x 6
x = 3sin(3t ) and y = 3cos(3t ),
0 ≤ t ≤ 2π .
SE dy 1 x2 1  2 1 
⇒ =
− 2+ = x − 2 
dx 2x 2 2 x 
Solution 2 2
Given  dy  1  1 
U
⇒ 1 +   = 1 +   x2 − 2 
x = 3sin(3t ) and y = 3cos(3t ),  dx  2  x 
dx 1 1 
⇒ = 9 cos (3t ) , =1 +  x 4 − 2 + 4 
E
dt 4 x 
N
dy 2
and = − 9sin (3t ), 1  1 
dt =   x2 + 2 
2  x 
LI
The length of the curve is given by;

2π The length of the curve is given by;
N
2 2
⌠  dx   dy  b
=S    +   dt ⌠  dy 
2
⌡0  dt   dt  =S  1 +   dx
O
⌡a  dx 
2π
= ∫0 (9 cos3t ) 2 + (−9sin3t ) 2 dt 4
( )
2
= ⌠
R
  12 x 2 + 1
dx
2π ⌡1  x2
∫0
2
( 2 2
9 cos 3t + sin 3t dt )
FO
∫ (x ) dx
4
2
2π
= 1
+ 1
1 2 x2
=∫ 9 dt
0 4
1  x3 1 
2π =  − 
= [9t ]0 2  3 x 1
594
Form Five
FOR ONLINE USE ONLY
DO NOT DUPLICATE
1  64 1   1  
=  −  −  − 1
2  3 4   3  
7
= 10 units
8
7
Therefore, the length of the arc is 10 units.
8
Exercise 10.13
LY
1. y 2 x − x2 .
Find the area of the region enclosed by the parabolas y = x 2 and =
If x a=
2. = sin θ , y bcosθ , find the area under the curves between
N
= θ 0= and θ π .
O
If x –=
3. = sin θ , y 1 – cos θ , find the area under the curve between
= θ 0= and θ π .
4. curves y 3=
Find the area bounded by the=
SE
e 2 x and y 3e − x , and the ordinates
at x = 1 and x = 2.
5. Determine the area of a region enclosed between the curves
U
1 2
x= y − 3 and the straight line y = x − 1.
2
πt
E
6. The parametric equations of a curve are x= 2 + 2t –and y θ= 2 sin

2cos . Find the
10
area under the curve between
= t 0= and t 10.
N
7. cycloid, x θ=
Determine the area of an arc of the= – sinθ , y 1 – cosθ between
LI
θ = 0 and θ = 2π .
N
8. Find the area enclosed by the= curves y sin

= x and y sin 2 x, between x = 0
O
and x = π .
3
9. Find the area of the region enclosed between the two curves, y = x 3 − 6 x 2 + 8 x
R
and y = x 2 − 4 x.
FO
10. Show that the area enclosed by = the curves, x a= ( 2t – sin 2t ) , y 2a sin 2t
2
and the x-axis between t = 0 and t = π is 3π a square units.
3
11. Find the length of the curve y = 16 x 2 in the interval 0 ≤ x ≤ 1 .
595
Form Five
FOR ONLINE USE ONLY
DO NOT DUPLICATE
2 2
12. Find the length of an arc of the curve x + y = 4, between the lines x = 4
3 3
and x = 8.
13. Find the length of an arc of the curve y 2 = 8x 3 , between the lines x = 1 and
x = 3.
14. Find the length of an arc of the curve x 2 + y 2 = r 2, between the points whose
abscissae are x = 0 and x = r.
15. Determine the length of the curve with parametric equations
= x t sin
= t , y t cos t ; 0 ≤ t ≤ 2π , correct to 4 decimal places.
LY
16. Compute the length of the curve defined by x = 2 cos 2 θ and y = 2cos θ sin θ ,
between 0 and π .
N
17. The region A is bounded by the curve = y x 2 + 2, the x and y-axes, and the line
joining the points (2, 6) and (26, 0) as shown in the figure. Find the area A.
O
y SE
10 y=x2+2
8
(2, 6)
U
6
2 A
E
(26, 0)
-4 -2 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26 28 x
N
-2
LI
-4
N
θ
18. Find the length of the curve r = a sin
=
from
3
θ 0= to θ 3π .
3
O
19. Prove that the length of the curve r = ae kθ from

= θ 0=to θ 2π is
a 1 + k 2 2π k
( )
R
e −1 .
k
FO
Verify that the length of a curve x = 2 cos3 θ and y = 2sin θ between the
3
20.
π
point corresponding to θ = 0 to θ = is 3 units.
2
596
Form Five
FOR ONLINE USE ONLY
DO NOT DUPLICATE
Volumes of solid of revolution

Suppose the plane in Figure 10.10(a) is bounded by the curve y = f(x), the x-axis
and the lines x = a and x = b is rotated through a complete revolution about the
x-axis, it will generate a solid symmetric about the x-axis.
y
y=f(x)
B
LY
O a b x
N
Figure 10.10 (a): The curve and its boundaries
O
y
y=f(x)
v
SE
O x
U
Figure 10.10 (b): Solid rotated through a complete revolution about the x-axis
E
Let V be the volume of the solid of revolution obtained after rotating a complete
N
revolution about the x-axis. To find V in Figure 10.10(b), consider a thin strip
LI
of the original plane as in Figure 10.11(a).

y
N
y
O
y=f(x) δv
y
R
O
FO
O x
x δx
x δx
Figure 10.11(a):Thin strip of the plain Figure 10.11(b): Solid sliced into small cylinders
597
Form Five
FOR ONLINE USE ONLY
DO NOT DUPLICATE
The volume generated by the strip is approximately equal to the volume generated
by the rectangle, that is δ v = y 2δ x. Since the solid generated is a flat cylinder,
divide the plane into a number of such strips. Each strip will contribute its own
flat disc with volume πy2 δx as shown in Figure 10.12.
A B
y
y=f(x)
B
O x
LY
x
N
O
O
Figure 10.12(a): Slices of a rotated solid Figure 10.12(b): A rotated solid
SE
The total volume, V of the slices of the solid generated is approximately given by;
(10.6)
U
The error in approximation is due to the areas of the rectangles in Figure 10.12(a)
causes the step formation in the solid as shown in Figure 10.12(b). The error
E
disappears when ® 0. Therefore, the volume of revolution of the solid

b
N
V = ∫ π y 2 dx
a
LI
The volume of the solid of revolution formed by rotating an area through one
revolution about the y-axis can be found in a similar way. In this case, the volume
N
b
is V = ∫ π x 2 dy (10.7)
a
O
Note that, the integration in (10.7) will be with respect to y, and hence the limits
of integration will be values of y.
R
FO
Example 10.75
Find the volume of the solid generated by rotating about the y-axis the area in
the first quadrant enclosed by=y x 2 ,=y 1,= y 4 and the y-axis.
598
Form Five
FOR ONLINE USE ONLY
DO NOT DUPLICATE
Solution
The volume generated will be obtained by rotating the shaded area about the
y-axis as shown in the following figure.
LY
N
O
SE
The element of volume = π x 2δ y = π yδ y
U
Example 10.76
4 2
The required volume = ∫1 π x dy but x 2 = y
E
Find the volume generated

4
= ∫1 π ydy when the plane bounded
N
by y = 5cos 2 x , the x-axis

4
π y2 
LI
and ordinates at x = 0 and

= 
 2 1 x =
π
rotates about the
N
4
π 2 2
= ( 4 −1 ) x-axis through a complete
O
2 revolution.
15π Solution
= cubic units.
R
2 Given the curve y = 5cos2x,

FO
15π then the volume generated

Therefore, the volume (V) = cubic units.
2 is shown in the following
figure.
599
Form Five
FOR ONLINE USE ONLY
DO NOT DUPLICATE
y Example 10.77
5 The parametric equations of a curve

δx are x = 3t2 and y = 3t – t2. Find the
y volume generated when the plane
π x bounded by the curve, the x-axis
4 and the ordinates corresponding
to t = 0 and t = 2, rotates about the
–5 x-axis (give your answer correct to
3 significant figures).
LY
The volume generated is given by; Solution
N
b The volume generated is given by;
V = ∫ a π y dx
2
b
∫a π y dx
O
π π V= 2
4 π y 2 dx
= ∫
0 0
2
= 25 π ∫ 4 cos 2xdx
But x = 3t2 and y = 3t – t2.
SE
2
Express cos 2x in terms of double dx
angle. That is, ⇒ = 6t ⇔ dx = 6tdt
dt
1
cos 2 =
2x (1 + cos 4 x )
U
Thus,
2
t=2
Thus, V= ∫t = 0 π (3t − t
2
) 2 6tdt
E
π
4 1
=V 25π ⌠
 (1 + cos 4 x ) dx
( )
2
⌡0 2 = π ∫ 9t 2 − 6t 3 + t 4 6tdt
N
0
π
25π 2
∫ (1 +
4 cos 4 x ) dx = 6π ∫ (9t 3 − 6t 4 + t 5 )dt
LI
=
2 0 0
π 2
N
25π  sin 4 x  4  9t 4 6t 5 t 6 
= x + = 6π  − + 
2  4  0  4 5 6 0
O
25π   π    192 64 
= 6π 36 − + 
= 2   4 + 0  − ( 0 + 0 )   5 6
R
25π 2 248
π = 155.8229956  156
FO
= cubic units. =
8 5
Therefore, the volume is
Therefore, the volume is
2
25π approximately 156 cubic units.
cubic units.
8
600
Form Five
FOR ONLINE USE ONLY
DO NOT DUPLICATE
In case the limits are given, it is possible

Alternatively, the volume can also be obtained
to evaluate the volume generated
by rotating about the y-axis the shaded region
when the plane bounded by the curve,
as shown in the following figure.
y = f(x), the x-axis and the ordinates x = a
y
and x = b rotates completely about the
15
y-axis by evaluating the definite integral
b
14
V = 2π ∫ xydx (10.9) 13
a
y=x 2 +5 12
11
Example 10.78
10
LY
9
Find the volume generated when the plane 8
bounded by the curve, = y x 2 + 5 , the 7 A
N
x-axis and the ordinates x = 1 and x = 3 6
5
rotates about y-axis through a complete
O
4
revolution. 3 B
Solution
SE 2
1
y x2 + 5 .
Given the curve =
b -4-3
-4-3-2-1 0
-2-1 1 2 3 4 5 x
From V = 2π ∫ xydx. -1
U
a -2
3
⇒ V 2π ∫ x ( x 2 + 5 ) dx
= Thus,
1
E
( )
14  2
y − 5  dy
3 2
= 2π ∫ ( x3 + 5 x)dx VA = ∫6 π ( 3) − π
N
1 
3 14
 x4 5x2 
LI
= 2π  +  = π ∫6 ( 9 − y + 5 ) dy
4 2 1
14
N
Thus, = π ∫6 (14 − y ) dy
14
O
 34 5(32 )   14 5(1) 2    y2 
V = 2 π  + = π 14 y − 
−  +  2 6
 4 2  4 2   
= π [ (196 − 98) − (84 − 18) ]
R
 81 45 1 5
= 2π  + − −
2  = 32π
FO
4 2 4
6 2 2
= 80π VB = ∫0 π ( 3) − π (1)  dy

Therefore, the volume generated is 6
80π cubic units.

= ∫0 ( 9π − π ) dy
601
Form Five
FOR ONLINE USE ONLY
DO NOT DUPLICATE
6 6
= 8π ∫0 dy = 8π [ y ]0
= 48π
Thus, total volume = VA + VB = 32π + 48π
= 80π
Therefore, the total volume is 80π cubic units.
Volume of solid of revolution about any line

(a) Disk method
In this case, the volume of a solid of revolution is given by,
LY
b 2 2
V π ∫  f ( x) − ( axis of rotation )  =
b
= dx or V π ∫  f ( y ) − ( axis of rotation )  dy
a a
N
Example 10.79
O
The area enclosed by the graphs y = x 2 − 2, y =−2, and x =
2 is rotated about
the line y = −2. Find the volume of the resulting solid.
SE
Solution
Given y = x 2 − 2, y =
−2.
U
2
Point of intersection will be; x − 2 =−2 ⇒ x =0
Since the rotation is about the horizontal axis, then the cross-sectional area
will be a function of x.
E
N
LI
N
O
R
FO
Before Rotation
602
Form Five
FOR ONLINE USE ONLY
DO NOT DUPLICATE
LY
N
O
After Rotation
SE
b 2
Using disk method,
= V π ∫ [ f ( x) − axis of rotation ] dx.
a
2 2
⇒V π∫
= ( f ( x) − axis of rotation ) dx
U
0
2
= π ∫ ( x 2 − 2 ) − ( −2 )  dx
2
0
E
= π ∫ ( x 2 ) dx
2 2
0
N
2
= π ∫ x 4 dx
0
LI
2
 x5 
=  π
N
 5 0
O
32
= π cubic units
5
32
R
Therefore, the volume is π cubic units.

5
FO
(b) Washer method

In this case the volume of solid of revolution is given by,
b
V π ∫ ( outer curve − axis of rotation ) − ( inner curve − axis of rotation )  dx.
2 2
=
a 


603
Form Five
FOR ONLINE USE ONLY
DO NOT DUPLICATE
A similar formula hold when the region that lies between the two curves is revolved
about the y-axis that is,
b
V π ∫ ( outer curve − axis of rotation ) − ( inner curve − axis of rotation )  dy.
2 2
=
a  
Example 10.80
The region enclosed
= by y x= and y x 2 is rotated about the line y = 2. Find
the volume of the resulting solid.
Solution
LY
The volume generated will be obtained by rotating the shaded region as shown
in the following figure.
N
O
SE
U
E
N
LI
Given
= y x=, and y x 2.
N
Points of intersection will be;

x 2 = x ⇒ x( x − 1) = 0 ⇒ x = 0, x = 1
O
2
Outer radius = x − 2
R
Inner radius = x − 2
b
⌠ ( outer curve-axis of rotation )2 
FO
ÞV = π    dx.
  − ( inner curve-axis of rotation )2 
⌡a  
1
 ( x 2 − 2 ) − ( x − 2 )  dx
V π⌠
2 2
Thus,
=
⌡0  
604
Form Five
FOR ONLINE USE ONLY
DO NOT DUPLICATE
= π ∫ ( x 4 − 4 x 2 + 4 ) − ( x 2 − 4 x + 4 )  dx
1
= π ∫ ( x 4 − 5 x 2 + 4 x ) dx
1
1
 x5 5 x3 
= π − + 2x2 
5 3 0
 15 5(1)3   05 5(0)3 
= π  − + 2(1) 2  −  − + 2(0) 2  
 5 3  5 3 
1 5 
= π  − + 2  = 8 π cubic units .
5 3  15
LY
8
15
N
Example 10.81
O
Calculate the volume of the solid obtained by rotating the region bounded by the
curve=
SE
y 2 x − 1 and the straight line y= x − 1 about the line x = −1.
Solution
U
Since the rotation is made about a vertical axis, the cross-sectional area will be a
function of y.
y2
Given y= 2 x − 1 ⇒ x= +1
E
4
N
and y = x − 1 ⇒ x = y + 1
Points of intersection will be;
LI
y2
+1 = y +1
N
4
2
Þ y = 4y
O
Þ y2 − 4 y = 0
R
Þ y ( y − 4) =0
Þ= y 0,= y 4.
FO
The solid region obtained after rotation is shown in the figure.

b
⇒ V π ∫ ( outer curve − axis of rotation ) − ( inner curve − axis of rotation ) dy
2 2
=
a  
605
Form Five
FOR ONLINE USE ONLY
4 DO NOT DUPLICATE
⌠   y2  
2 The limits of integration are
( y + 1 + 1) −  + 1 + 1  dy
2
⇒ V π
= = x 0= and x 1. The outer radius
   4  
⌡0 R( x) = 1 − (−1) = 2 and the inner
4
⌠    radius r ( x) = x − (−1) = x + 1.
2
 y2
( y + 2 ) −  + 2   dy
2
= π
   4   Thus,
⌡0
4 1
⌠  y4  Volume
= V π ∫ ( R 2 − r 2 ) dx
= π   4 y −  dy 0
⌡0  16  1
4 = π ∫ (22 − ( x + 1) 2 ) dx
 y  5
0
= π 2 y 2 − 
 80  0 1
= π ∫ (3 − 2 x − x 2 ) dx
0
LY
 (4)5   (0)5   1
= π  2(4) 2 − −
  2(0) 2
−   x3 
 80   80   = π 3 x − x 2 − 
 3 0
96
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= π cubic units
5  13  
= π  3 − 12 −  − ( 0 ) 
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96  3 
5
π 5π
SE = 2π − =
Example 10.82 3 3
5π
Find the volume of the solid of revolution Therefore, the volume is cubic
3
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generated by revolving the region bounded units.
by the lines= y x=, y 1, and= x 0 about
the line y = −1 .
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(c) Shell method

Solution
Consider the solid of revolution
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The region generated is as shown in the obtained by revolving about the y-axis
following figure.
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the region R in the first quadrant

between the x-axis and the curve
y = f ( x) and lying between x = a and
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x = b.
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R
FO
606
Form Five
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In this case, the volume of the solid of revolution is given by,

b
V = 2π ∫ ( shell radius )( height of the shell ) dx
a
b
V 2π ∫ ( x-axis of rotation )( top curve − bottom curve ) dx
a
A similar formula holds when the region R is rotated in the first quadrant between
the y-axis and the curve x = f ( y ) lying between y = a and y = b. That is,
b
V 2π ∫ ( shell radius ) × ( height of the shell ) dx
a
b
⇒
= V 2π ∫
a
( y − axis of rotation ) × ( top curve − bottom curve ) dy
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Example 10.83
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The region enclosed
= by y x= and y x 2 is rotated about the line x = −1. Find
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the volume of the resulting solid.
Solution SE
The volume generated is obtained by rotating the shaded region in the following
figure.
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E
N
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N
O
R
Given
= y x= and y x 2 .
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Points of intersection of the curve and the line are obtained as follows.
x 2 = x ⇒ x( x − 1) = 0 ⇒ x = 0, x = 1
b
Thus, V 2π ∫ ( x-axis of rotation )( top curve − bottom curve ) dx.
a
607
Form Five
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⇒ V 2π ∫ ( x − (−1) ) ( x − x 2 ) dx
1
=  12 14   02 04  
0 =
V 2π  −  −  −  
 2 4   2 4  
= 2π ∫ ( x + 1) ( x − x 2 ) dx
1
0
 2 −1 
= 2π 
= 2π ∫ ( x 2 − x 3 + x − x 2 ) dx 
1
0  4 
π
= 2π ∫ ( x − x 3 ) dx
1
= cubic units .
0
2
1
 x2 x4  π
= 2π  −  Therefore, the volume is cubic units.
 2 4 0 2
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Area of a sector
Consider a sector OPR in Figure 10.13 with the central angle θ and radius r . Suppose
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that a small sector OPQ with the central angle δθ and radius r + δ r is partitioned.
O
SE
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E
Figure 10.13: A sector OPR

 
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In Figure 10.13, the radius vectors OP and OQ are r and r + δ r , respectively.

The angles between the radius vectors and the fixed line OR are q and θ + δθ ,
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respectively. If δ q is small, the area of the sector OPQ is approximately equal

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to the area of the triangle.

1
Area of the sector OPQ= r (r + δ r ) sin δθ
O
2
1 2 1
= r sin δθ + rδ r sin δθ
R
2 2
3
(δθ )
FO
By Maclaurin’s series, sin δθ =

δθ − + and the product δ r sin δθ is
3!
small compared with δθ .
Thus, the area of the sector OPQ up to terms in δθ is given by;
1
Area of the sector OPQ = r 2δθ
2
608
Form Five
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Here, it is assumed that the difference between the sector OPQ and the triangle
OPQ is small compared to δ θ.
Summing all elements in the sector and proceeding to the limit, the area A of a
β
1 2
sector becomes; A =⌠
 r dθ
⌡α 2
where α and β are the values of θ corresponding to the bounding radius vectors
of the sector.
Example 10.84
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π π
Find the area of the cardioid r = 1 + sin θ bounded between θ = and θ = ,
as in the following figure. 6 3
N
O
SE
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E
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Solution
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The formula for the area of a sector is given by;

1 b
Area = ∫ r 2 dθ
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2 a
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1 π3
2 ∫6
π (1 + sin θ ) dθ
2
=
R
1 π3
= ∫π
2 6
(1 + 2sin θ + sin 2 θ )dθ
FO
π
1⌠3 1 − cos 2θ 
=  1 + 2sin θ +  dθ
2 ⌡π  2 
6
609
Form Five
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π
1  3θ 1 3
=  − sin 2θ − 2 cos θ 
2 2 4 π
6
1 π 1  3   1  π 1  3   3 
= −   − (1)  −  −   − 2   
2  2 4  2   2  4 4  2   2  
1 π 
=  3 + − 1
2 4 
1 π 
Therefore, the area of the cardioid
=is  3 + − 1 square units.
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2 4 
Example 10.85
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π 3π
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Find the area of the cardioid r= 3 + 4 cos 2θ bounded between
= θ = and θ .
4 4
Solution SE
The formula for the area A of a sector is given by,
1 b 2
A = ∫a r dθ
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2
1 34π 2
( )
2 ∫π4
= 3 + 4 cos 2θ dθ
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1 34π
(
= ∫π 9 + 24 cos 2θ + 16 cos 2 2θ dθ
2 4
)
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3π
1⌠ 4   1 + cos 4θ 
=  9 + 24 cos 2θ + 16    dθ
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2 ⌡π   2 
4
N
1 34π
(17 + 24 cos 2θ + 8cos 4θ ) dθ
2 ∫π4
=
O
1
= [17θ + 12sin 2θ + 2sin 4θ ]π4
3π
2 4
R
1  51π   17π 
=   − 12 + 0  −  + 12 + 0  
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2  4   4 
17π
= − 12
4
 17π 
Therefore, the area of the cardioid is  − 12  square units.
 4 
610
Form Five
FOR ONLINE USE ONLY
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Exercise 10.14 7. Find the volume generated when

the region bounded by the curve,
1. The parametric equations of a x2 y 2
curve are x = 3t2 and y = 3t – t2. + = 1 (an ellipse of length
a 2 b2
Find the volume generated when 2a and height 2b) rotates through
the plane bounded by the curve, 180° about,
the x-axis and the ordinates (a) x-axis
corresponding to t = 0 and t = 2 (b) y-axis
rotates about the y-axis.
8. Find the volume of the solid
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2. The part of the curve y = x3 from
obtained by rotating about the
x = 1 to x = 2 is rotated completely
y-axis the region bounded by the
around the y-axis. Find the
curve y = 2x2 – x3 and the x-axis.
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volume of the solid generated.
9. Find the volume generated by
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3. Find the volume generated
revolving the area bounded by
when the plane figure bounded
the curve, y = 2x2, from y = 0 and
by y = 5cos 2 x, the x-axis and SE
π x = 5 about the line y = 0.
abscissae x = 0 and x =
4 10. Find the volume generated by
rotates about the x-axis through revolving the area cut off from
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2π radians. the parabola y = 4x– x2 by the
4. Find the volume generated by x-axis about the line y = 3.
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revolving the area bounded by 11. The region R is bounded by

the parabola y2 = 8x and its latus
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2
the curve 4 y = x and the lines,
rectum x = 2 in the first quadrant = x 4,= y 1. Find the volume
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about the x-axis. of the solid formed when R is

5. Find the volume generated when rotated completely about the
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the area enclosed between the (a) x-axis

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line y = x + 2, the x-axis, from (b) y-axis

x = –2 to x = 2 is rotated about (c) line y = 1
the x-axis.
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(d) line x = 4.
6. The region bounded by the y-axis,
12. Find the volume generated when
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the line y = 27 and the curve

the area bounded by the x and
x3
y = is rotated completely y-axes, the line x = 1, and the
8 x
about the y-axis. Find the volume curve y = e is rotated through
generated. one revolution about the x-axis.
611
Form Five
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13. Find the volume of the solid 16. Find the area of the cardioid
formed by revolving the r = cos θ bounded between
region bounded by the graph π π .
= θ = and θ
= of y = x and y x 2 about the 6 3
x-axis. 17. Find the area of the curve
14. Find the volume of the solid π
r = sin 4 θ , where ≤ θ ≤ π .
generated by rotating about the 2
x-axis the region bounded by 18. Determine the area of a sector
4 bounded by r = 1 − cos θ , where
the curve y = and the line
x π
y= 5 − x . 0 ≤θ ≤ .
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3
15. Find the area of the region that
lies inside the circle r = 1 and
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outside the cardioid r = 1 – cosθ.
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Chapter summary
SE
1. The reverse process of differentiation is called integration.
2. An indefinite integral of a function f ( x) is a differentiable function F ( x) such
that its derivative gives the original function f ( x).
U
3. Integration by substitution method is used in reversing the chain rule. It is
sometimes called chain rule backward.
4. If u ( x) and v( x) are any two differentiable functions, then ∫ udv = uv − ∫ vdu
E
is a formula for integrating by parts.

N
5. The area enclosed between two curves f ( x) and g ( x) is given by

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b
=A ∫ [ f ( x) − g ( x)] dx .
a
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6. Integrals of the form ∫ sinx dx or ∫ cos n x dx, where n is odd or even, the power
n
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of the trigonometric function determines the approach to be used.

2 b
⌠  dy 
are s  1 +   dx,
7. The formulae for the length of an arc =
R
⌡a  dx 
FO
2 2 2 2 2
b  dy  b  dx  t2  dx   dy  θ2  dr 
∫ a  dx 
= 1 +   dx , s ∫ a  dy=
= 1 +  dy, s

∫ t1   +   dt=
 dt   dt 
and s ∫θ1
r2 +   dθ
 dθ 
1
8. Integrals of the form ⌠
 dx are evaluated by applying the
⌡ a + bcos x + csin 2 x
2
trigonometric substitution t = tan x.
612
Form Five
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9. Integration by splitting the numerator, the numerator of the integrand is
expressed in the form:
d
Numerator A
= ( denominator ) + B, for rational polynomial function.
dx
d
Numerator =A (denominator) + B(denominator), for rational
dx
trigonometric function.
10. The volume of the solid of revolution formed by rotating an area through one
b b
revolution about the x- axis is v = π ∫ y 2 dx and y-axis is v = π ∫ π x 2 dy .
a a
1 2 β
11. The volume of a sector A = ∫ r dθ where α and β are the values of
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2 α
θ corresponding to the bounding radius vectors of the sector.

12. A function which is integrated over a specified interval, its integral is
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b
referred to as a definite integral and given by ∫ f ( x)dx.
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a
Revision exercise 10 SE
1. Determine each of the following:
ex
U
(a) ∫ 3 x − 1 dx (c) ⌠
 x − x dx (e) ∫x x − 1 dx
⌡ e +e
(b) ∫ ( x 2 + 3) x 2 dx (d) ∫ x ( x + 4 ) dx
3
E
2
⌠ dx
2. Use the substitution x = secθ to evaluate  .
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⌡ 2 x x2 −1
π
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2 cos x
3. Use the substitution u = sin x to evaluate ⌠
 dx.
⌡0 3 + cos 2 x
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4. Find each of the following:

4
O
(a) ∫1 (1 − x ) x dx (c) ∫θ 2θ − 3 dθ
⌠ dθ 2 x
(b)  (d) ∫x e
R
dx
⌡ 5 + 4 cos θ 2
1 ⌠ dx
FO
2
5. By using the substitution x = , evaluate  to 4 decimal
 2
places.
u ⌡1 x (5x 2
−1 )
π
⌠ 2 cos θ + 11sin θ
6. Show that  dθ = 2π .
⌡0 3cos θ + 4 sin θ
613
Form Five
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7. Evaluate each of the following integrals:

π
⌠ 2 dθ ⌠ dθ
(a)  (e) 
⌡0 5sin θ + 3 ⌡ 5 + sin θ + cos θ
⌠ dx dθ
(b)  2 (f) ⌠
 2
⌡ x − x2 + 4 ⌡ θ − 6θ + 13
1
⌠ dθ
(c) ∫ sin4 x sin3 x d x (g) 
⌡−1 1 + sin θ cos θ
x
(d) ∫e sin x dx
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π
1
8. Show that ∫
cosec2 x dx = ln 3.
π
6
3
2
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(a) 2 x cos( x 2 − 5) dx (h) ∫ cos3t sin 8t dt
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∫
2 3 2
(b) ∫ (3x − 4 x) sin( x − 2 x + 1) dx (i)
SE 5
∫ tan x dx
⌠ 32  42 
(c)
∫ 1 − cos x dx (j)  sin  x  cos  x  dx
⌡ 3  3 
U
8
3 z cos5 3 z dz (k) ∫ (cosx)e
4 +sin x
(d) ∫ sin dx
π
4
(e) ∫ cos 2t dt (l) ∫π sin 8 x sin x dx
4
E
6
2π
⌠ 1  1 
N
(f) ∫ sin3 x sin(cos 3 x)dx (m)  cos3  w  sin 5  w  dw

⌡0 2  2 
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(g) 6 2 (n) ∫ (sin x + cos x)(sin x − cos x)5 dx

∫ sec 3 y tan 3 y dy
N
10. Derive the reduction formula for I n n

= ∫ sin x dx (n ≥ 2) and use it to find
O
I 6 and I 7 .
R

⌠ dx x +1
FO
(a) ⌠ 1 + ln x
(c) dx (e)⌠
 2 dx
⌡ (1 + x )
2 2 ⌡ x + 4x + 8
⌡ x
⌠ dx ⌠ xdx
(b) (d)
⌡ x +1 − x ⌡ x −1
614
Form Five
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12. The portion of the curve y = x2 18. Show that the area of a sector
between x = 0 and x = 2 is rotated in polar form is given by
completely about the x-axis. Find 2 1 θ
the volume of the solid created.

A=⌠  r 2 dθ , where r is the
⌡θ1 2
13. Find the volume generated by radius and θ is the measure of the
rotating the straight line y = x + 1 central angle in radians.
from x = 1 to x = 2 completely 19. Show that
around the x-axis. 1
dx 1
14. Show that the area enclosed ⌠3
 =
⌡0 3 − sin x + cos x
ln
4
(5+ 3 )
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by the curves x = 2(2t – sin2t),
y = 2asin2t and the x-axis, 20. Determine each of the following:
between t = 0 and t = π is 3πa2
(a) ⌠ x 2 − 25 ,
N
sq. units.  dx x > 5
⌡ x
15. Evaluate each of the following:
O
3
(b)
(a) ⌠
e
1  1  ∫1 x tan −1 x dx
 2 1 + dx
⌡2 x ln x  ln x 
SE (c) ⌠
100
dx

π ⌡1 x(ln x)(ln x)
dx
(b) ⌠
2
U
π
⌡ tan x − sin x
3 21. Determine each of the following:
43 2
⌠ x − 2x − 4 (a) ∫ cos x sin x 1 − sin 4 x dx
E
(c)  3 2
dx
⌡3 x − 2 x
N
⌠ e x−2
2 (b )  dx
⌠ xdx ⌡ x−2
LI
(d) 
⌡0 4x2 + 9 ⌠ dx
(c)  x
N
16. Find the area swept out by the ⌡3 x

radius vector of the equiangular x +1
O
kθ (d) ⌠
 2 dx
spiral r = ae as θ increases ⌡ x + 2x + 5
from − π to π, where a and k are ⌠ x3 + x 2 + 2 x + 1
R
constants. (e)  2 2
dx
⌡ ( x + 1)( x + 2)
FO
17. A curve has parametric equations 3

⌠ x − 4 x − 10 dx
x= t 2 − 2t , and y =
t + 1. Find (f)  3
⌡ x − x−6
the area bounded by the curve, ⌠ x2 − 2 x −1
the x-axis and the ordinates at (g)  2 2
dx
⌡ ( x − 1) ( x + 1)
t = − 1 and t = 3.
615
Form Five
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DO NOT DUPLICATE
⌠ x2 + x + 1 ⌠ ln x ⌠ dx
(h)  2 dx (j)  dx (l) 
⌡ ( x + 1)
2
⌡ x(1 + ln x) ⌡ x +1 − x −1
⌠ dx ⌠ 2 x2
(i)  (k)  3 2
dx
⌡ 14 − 12 x − 2 x 2 ⌡ ( x + 1)
 π
22. Find the arc length of the curve y = ln ( cos x ) over the interval  0,  .
 4
23. (a) Find the area of the region enclosed by the curve y = ln x, the lines x = 1 and
x = e, and the x-axis.
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(b) Find the volume of the solid generated when the region in part (a) is revolved
about the x-axis.
24. A particle moving along the x-axis has velocity function v ( t ) = t 2e−t . How far
N
does the particle travel from
= t 0= to t 5?
O
25. Show that the volume generated by rotating about the x – axis the area inscribed
π ( a − b )5
between the x-axis and the curve cy = ( x − a ) ( x − b ) is 30 c 2 , where a and
SE
b are the limits and c is a constant.
π
by s (t ) 1500sin
26. The trend of sales of a certain bookshop is given= (t − 7) + 2000,
U
6
where t is the time in months and t = 0 represents 1st January. Estimate the total
sales over the four month period beginning 1st March.
E
27. Find the area of the cardioid r = 1 + sin 2θ bounded by θ π= π.

N
= and θ
6 3
LI
28. Find the length of the curve 24 xy= x + 48 from x = 2 to x = 4.

4
N
29. Prove that the arc length of the curve ( y − 1) =

3
x 2 over the interval 0 ≤ x ≤ 8 is
9.0734 units.
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9 x2
30. The line y = 4 x meets the curve y = at the origin and at points P and Q.
25 − x 2
R
Find:
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(a) The coordinates of the points P and Q.

(b) The area enclosed by the curve and the line in the first quadrant.
616
Form Five
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Answers Chapter One
Exercise 1.1 3. (a) 1.320789186 rad

(b) 1.592721078 rad
1. (a) 6.752 ×10 −1
(e) 1.507 ×10 −2
(c) 56.94°
(b) 2.335 ×100 (f) 2.897 ×10−1 (d) 88.81°
(c) 1.079 × 102 (g) (e) 1.815432093 rad

1.291×1033
(f) 1.871007926 rad
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(d) 6.731×100 (h) 9.498 ×10−1
(g) 292.01°
2. (a) 0.1215 (f) 0.041279 (h) 7.55826 rad
N
(b) 1.65 ×10−4 (g) 0.6819
O
(c) 3.32515 ×107 (h) 2.7
Exercise 1.3
(d) 3.3474 (i) −0.630587 SE
(e) 9.0450 ×10−5 (j) 0.57536 1. (a) 0.501233882 (f) 1.051462224
(b) 0.707106781
U
Exercise 1.2 (c) 60° (g)
2
3
(d) 60° (h) 180°
E
1. (a) 0.785398163 (e) 9.427032344

(e) 53.13° (i) 45°6′27′′
N
(b) 0.523598775 (f) 1.363213653

2. (a) 0.7754 (f) −0.191255
LI
(c) 6.283185307 (g) 0.002298017

(b) 3.659 (g) 0.390016994
(d) 0.331612557 (h) 0.785485430
N
(c) 0.96641 (h) 0.561901978

O
2. (a) 120° (e) 17.19° (d) 0.219

(b) 300° (f) 7.076° (e) 2.54067
R
(c) 540° (g) 44.69°

3. (a) 4.0851°
(d) 45° (h) 45.034°
FO
(b) 0.0713 rad
617
Form Five
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Exercise 1.4 3. (a) 0.80234 (b) 0.08426

(c) 0.91574 (d) 0.44696
(e) 0.93319
1. (a) 0.2 (d) 1.228398574
(b) 3 11 (e) 7.019313087 Exercise 1.7

84
(f) 4.228814214 1. x = 0 , x = 8, x = 15
(c)1.639794667
2. x = 3.333333333, x = 12
(g) 0.173384
2. (a) 4.17 ×10 −5
3. x = 2 , x = −1 , x = 1
(b) 10.3282 (h) 1.096
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4. x = 1.414213562
(c) 0.3886 (i) 6.878
5.
5. x = −0.5 ± 0.707106781i
(d) 0.0021 (j) 4.4
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6. x = −1, y = 2
(e) 2.344 (k) 2.23758
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7. x = 1, y = 2, z =3
(f) 1.95 (l) 3.4421 8. x = 3, y = −5
SE
9. x = 1.16, y = 2.04
Exercise 1.5 10. x = 1.783, y = 1.39, z = 4.52
1. 2.1
U
11. x=3 y = −2 z = 4
2. (a) 53.5, 374.5, 20287.75, 6, 36
(b) 0.9083! , 5.45, 4.9591, 12. x =1 y=3 z=2
E
0.0380, 1.4472 ×10− 3

(c) 122.82, 12282, 1508600,
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Exercise 1.8
1.1170, 1.2476
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(d) 29.54, 7385, 218775, ⎛1 1 1⎞

⎜ T
1. (a) det A = –2, A = ⎜ 1 0 1 ⎟
⎟
1.5775, 2.4884
N
3. 30.5833 km/h, 5.7729 km/h2 ⎜ 0 −1 2 ⎟

⎝ ⎠
O
4. 4.6, 2
⎛ − 0.5 1 0.5 ⎞
5. 27.1176, 13.0170 ⎜
−1 ⎟
(b) A = ⎜ 1.5 −1 − 0.5 ⎟
R
7. 6745, 455803, 67.45

⎜ − 0.5 0 0.5 ⎟
⎝ ⎠
FO
Exercise 1.6 ⎛ 0.5 2 0.5 ⎞

⎜ −1 ⎟
(c) A + A = ⎜ 2.5 −1 −1.5 ⎟
1. (a) 120 (b) 5038 (c) 0.125 ⎜ 0.5 1 2.5 ⎟
⎝ ⎠
2. (a) 945 (b) 350
618
Form Five
FOR ONLINE USE ONLY
DO NOT DUPLICATE
⎛ 2 1 −1 ⎞ Exercise 1.12
⎜ ⎟
(d) A 2 = ⎜ 0 0 −2 ⎟ 1. (a) 7.845265319 (b)471.8513119
⎜4 3 3 ⎟ 2. (a) 2.234828456
⎝ ⎠
(b) –0.662496845
2. (a) −236
3. x = 39.69230769, ∑x 2
= 30370, δ x = 27.58032
⎛ 21 24 −5 ⎞
x = 39.69230769, ∑ x2 = 30370, δ x = 27.58032915
(b) ⎜⎜ 4 −4 40 ⎟⎟
⎜ 10 20 15 ⎟ 4. (a) 1.047197551 (b) 404685.6m2
⎝ ⎠
LY
(c) 0.001 m3 (d) 1 litre
⎛ 213 62 241 ⎞ 5. (a) 0.34, 17.71, 124
⎜
(d) ⎜ 80 496 288 ⎟ ⎟
(b) 31.31, 1633.86, 11437
N
⎜ 161 268 355 ⎟ (c) 17.98, 938.43, 6569
⎝ ⎠
O
Exercise 1.13
Exercise 1.9 SE
1. (a) Excel sheet showing active
1. 1.3734 3. 72 5. 0.7854 cells P, Q, R , and S.
2 . – 6. 873 4. 1.292707 6. 1.4833 (b) A3, F1, C6, D4
U
Exercise 1.10 3. (a) −20.4 (c) 9.95548

(b) 425.5 (d) 1
E
1. (a) 3i + 2 j + 5k (b) −i − 4 j − 3k 6. Mean = 49.6111

N
2. (a) −11 (b) 12i + 2 j + 16k

(c) 20.09975124 Median = 53
LI
3. −10i + 15 j − 15k Mode = 73

N
Variance = 718.12654
Exercise 1.11 Standard deviation = 26.79788
O
1. (a) 5 + 3i (b) 11 + 10i Revision exercise 1

R
(c) −0.5 + 2.5i (d) −32.08 − 22.38i

1. (a)3166757.638
FO
2. (a) 3.16 (b) −108.4° (c) 0.7 − 0.1i

(b) 7.87915876
(c) 35305373.83
2. (a) – 3.17929
(b) 1.024295
619
Form Five
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3. (a) 17.367 14. (a) 52.5

(b) 30.83333333 (b) 22.78
4. (a) x = 30, y = 50 (c) 655, 000
(b) x = 60, y = 90 15. (a) 157.2°C
5. (a) x = 1, y = 3, z = 3
(b) 643.74 km
(b) x = 3, y = −2 , z = 1
(c) 576 km/h
6. (a) x1 = 0.833333, x2 = 0.75
(b) x1 = 16 , x2 = −25 125
16. (a) −
2
LY
(c) x1 = 12 , x2 = −9, x3 = 2 3
(b) − 2 i − 4 j + 11k
(d) x1 = 3 , x = − 2 , x3 =
1
N
2 2
5 3 (c) 11.80042372
(d) 84i − 59 j − 10k
O
7. (a) 62.1 (b) 26.3522
(c) 12420 (d) 910170 17. (a) −16 − 63i
10. (a) 53.46666 (b) 23.1845
SE 56 33
(c) 50943.06 (d) 802 (b) − i
25 25
11. (a) –0.094920908
(c) 48.83646179
U
(b) 4330
(c) 75750.50703 (d) −30.51023745°
(d) 1772776810
E
(e) −16 + 63i

12. (a) 0.885756084
N
18. (a) 0.4286

(b) 1.000473295
LI
(c) x 161,
= = δ x 19.5115 (b) 0.09259
N
⎛106 90 −46 ⎞ (c) 2.546

⎜
13. (a) AB = ⎜ 11
⎟
9 27 ⎟
O
⎜ 50 −72 14 ⎟
⎝ ⎠
R
⎛ 0.059 0.393 0.103 ⎞

⎜ ⎟
(b) A −1 + B−1 = ⎜ 0.077 − 0.227 0.193 ⎟
FO
⎜ 0.187 0.062 −0.057 ⎟

⎝ ⎠
⎛ 106 11 50 ⎞
(c) ( AB )
T ⎜ ⎟
= ⎜ 90 9 −72 ⎟
⎜ − 46 27 14 ⎟
⎝ ⎠
620
Form Five
FOR ONLINE USE ONLY
DO NOT DUPLICATE
Answers Chapter Two
Exercise 2.1
1. (a) A = { x : x is a cube of a natural number}
(b) B = { x : x is a multiple of three}
(c) C { x : x is an integer from − 4 to 4 inclusive}
(d) D = {x : x is a domestic animal}
2.=(a) A { x : x 2 , x ∈ } =(b) B { x : x3 , x ∈ } (c) C = {x : x = 3} .
−3 and x =
LY
(d)=D { x : x ∈ } (e) E = { x : x is a positive even number}
(f) F = {x : x ∈ whole numbers}
3. (a) A = {−1,1} (b) B = {3, 4,5,6,...} (c) C = {1, 3}
N
O
Exercise 2.2
1. (a) Infinite set – Number of all plants on the earth is uncountable
SE
(b) Infinite – Real numbers between 10 and 30 are uncountable
(c) Infinite numbers between 10 and 20 inclusive are uncountable
2. T and R are equivalent
U
T and R are equal
H and T are unequal
H and R are unequal
E
3. (a) True (b) False (c) True (d) False (e) False
N
4. (a) {}, {a}, {b}, {c}, {d }, {a, b}, {a, c}, {a, d }, {b, c}, {b, d }, {c, d },
LI
{a, b, c}, {a, b, d }, {b, c, d }, {a, c, d }, {a, b, c, d }.

(b) n(k ) = 16.
N
5. (a) p ( J ) = {{ } , {Dog} , {Cat} , {Lion} , {Zebra} , {Dog, Cat} , {Dog, Lion}

O
{Cat, zebra} , {Dog, zebra} , {Cat, Lion} , {Lion, zebra} , {Dog, Cat, Lion} ,
R
{Dog, Cat, Zebra} , { Cat, Lion, Zebra} , {Dog, Lion, Zebra} , {Dog, Cat, Lion, Zebra}
FO
{Dog, Cat, Lion, Zebra}}

(b) n  p ( J ) = 16
6. U = {2,3, 4,5,6,7,8,10,11,13, 14,17,19}
621
Form Five
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Exercise 2.3 15. A ∪ B = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10}

1. A ∪ B = {a, b, c, d , e, f , g , h} 16. (a) A ∩ B′ = {3, 4}
A ∩ B = {a, b, c, d , e} {5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10,11,12,13}
(b) B ∪ A′ =
{3, 4, 7, 8, 9,10, 11, 12, 13}
(c) B′ ∩ A′ =
2. A ∪ B = {Counting numbers}
(d) A′ ∩ B = {7,8}
A ∩ B = {Even numbers}
17. (a) F (b) T (c) F (d) F
3. G ∪ H = {20, 25,30, 45}
G∩H = {25} 18. A′ = {magenta, red, blue}
LY
4. J ∪ K = {0, ∆,3} 19. (a) A ∩ B = {a, d , e}
J ∩ K ={∆}
(b) A ∪ B = {a, b, c, d , e, f }
N
{4, 6,8,12,16,18, 20, 24, 28, 30,
5. A ∪ B =
(c) A′ ∩ B = { }
O
32, 36, 40, 42, 44, 48, 54}
A ∩ B = {12, 24,36} (d) A ∩ B′ = {b, c, f }
{14,16,18, 20}
6. W ∪ Z =
SE {g, h, i, j}
(e) A′ ∩ B′ =
W ∩=
Z { } or ∅ {b, c, f, g, h, i, j}
(f) A′ ∪ B′ =
7. A ∪ B = {94,110,120,131,140, 265}
U
{22, 24, 26, 28,30}
20. (a) A ∪ F =
A ∩ B = {94,110}
8. A ∪ B = {2,3,5}
{24, 26}
A∩F =
E
(b) Y ∪ W = {2 < x < 23}

A ∩ B = {3}
N
Y ∩ W = {7 ≤ x ≤ 18}
{2, 3, 4, 6, 8, 9, 10, 12, 14, 15,
9. A ∪ B =
LI
16, 18, 20, 21, 22, 24, 26} 21. (a) A − B = {13}
{6, 12, 18, 24}
N
A∩B = (b) B − A = {16,17,18}

10. A ∪ B ∪ C = {a, b, c, d , e}
O
22. (a) M − K = {32, 42}

A ∩B∩C = { }
(b) K − M = {33,35,37}
R
11. M ∩ N = {}
12. Disjoint sets (c) ( M − K ) ∪ ( K − M ) = {32,33,35,37, 42}
FO
13. M′ = {5, 6, 7,8,9,10,11,12} 23. (a) P − R = {8,10,12}

N′ = {2, 4,5, 6,8,10,12} (b) R − P = {14,16,18}
(c) Q − P = {14,16,18, 20, 22}
14. A = {Orange,cabbage,pineapple}
622
Form Five
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24. (a) B − A = {3,5,9} (b) ( A − B)′ = {1, 3, 5, 9, 11, 17, 19}
25. X − Y = {2, 4,6,8,10}

26. x = 9 and y = 12
Exercise 2.4
1. (a) A′ A’ A’
-4 -2 0 2 4 6 8 10 12
LY
B’
(b) B′
-2 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14
(A∪B)’
N
(c) ( A ∪ B)′
-2 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14
O
(A∩B)’ (A∩B)’
(d) ( A ∩ B)′ SE
-2 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14
A B’
U
(e) A − B -2 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14
A-B=A∩B’=ø
B-A B-A
E
(f) B − A
N
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14
LI
A-B’
(g) A − B′
N
-2 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14
(A-B’ )’ (A-B’ )’
O
(h) ( A − B′ )′
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14
R
(A-B)’
(i) ( A − B )′
FO
-2 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14
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(A∪B)’ Δ(B-A) (A∪B)’ Δ(B-A)

2. (g) ( A ∪ B)′ Δ ( B − A )
-4 0 4 8 12 16 20 24 28
[(AΔB)’ ∪(A∩B)]’ [(AΔB)’ ∪(A∩B)]’

′
(h) ⎡( AΔB )′ ∪ ( A ∩ B )⎤
⎢⎣ ⎥⎦ -2 0 4 8 12 16 20 24 28
(A’ ΔB)’ (A’ ΔB)’

(j) ( A′ΔB)′
-4 0 4 8 12 16 20 24 28
LY
(A-B)’ (A-B’ )’
3. (a) ( A − B )′
N
-10 -5 0 5 10 15 20 25
(A-B)’
O
(b) ( B − A )′
0 2 4
SE 6 8 10 12 14
(A-B’ )’ (A-B’ )’
(c) ( A − B′)′
U
-6 0 6 12 18 24 30
Exercise 2.5
E
3. (a) A ∪ ( B ∩ C ) (b) ( A ∪ B)′ (c) A (d) ∅

N
(e) A′ ∪ B (f) ∅ (g) A ∪ B′

(h) ( P ∩ M′) ∩ H′ (i) B (j) ∅
LI
Exercise 2.6
N
O
1.
R
FO
( A ∪ B)′ ∩ ( A ∪ C)
624
Form Five
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2.
3. (a) n ( A ∩ B ) =
0 (c) n ( A ∪ B ) =
3
(b) n ( A ∆ B ) =
3 (d) n ( A − B ) =
1
4. (a) n ( A ∩ B ) =
1 (c) n ( A ∪ B ) =
3
( A ∪ B)′ (b) n ( A ∆ B ) =
2 (d) n ( A − B ) =
0
5. (a) n ( A ∩ B ) =
1 (c) n ( A ∪ B ) =
2
3.
(b) n ( A∆B ) =
1 (d) n(A − B) =
1
6. n ( A ∩ B )′ =
LY
7
A′ ∩ B′ 7. (a) n(A) =150 (b) n(B) = 100
5.
N
8. All three diseases = 20 patient
9. (a) 5 (b) 131 (c) 138 (d) 145
O
Revision exercise 2
SE
A−B 1. (a) A ∪ B ∪ C= {0, 2, 4,6,8,12,16,18}
6. (b) A ∩ B ∩ C= {0}
U
U
(c) (i) n ( A ∪ B ∪ C ) =
8
A B
(ii) n ( A ∩ B ∩ C ) =1
E
3. (a) 8 (b) 16 (c) 16

N
C 4. (i) B − A′
LI
( A − B) ∪ ( A − C ) ∪ ( B − C )
N
Exercise 2.7
O
1. (a) n ( A ∩ B ) =
3 (c) n ( A ∪ B ) =
5
(ii) ( A ∩ B) ∪ ( B′ ∩ C )
R
(b) n ( A∆B ) =
2 (d) n ( A − B ) =
1
FO
2. (a) n ( A ∩ B ) =
4 (c) n ( A ∪ B ) =
10
(b) n ( A∆B ) =
6 (d) n ( A − B ) =
4
625
Form Five
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(iii) A ∩ B′ ∩ C (vii) A′ ∩ ( B ∪ C )
(viii) A′ ∩ B′ ∩ C
LY
(iv) A ∩ B ∩ C′
N
O
SE
(ix) A ∩ ( B′ ∪ C )
(v) ( A ∪ B) ∩ C′
U
E
N
LI
5. (a) ( B − C) = {b,c}
N
(b) ( A − C) = {a, b, c}
(vi) A′ ∩ B′ ∩ C′
O
(c) ( A − B) = {a}
(d) ( C − B) = {e, f , g}
R
(e) ( B − A ) = {d}
FO
(f) ( C − A ) = {d, e, f , g}
626
Form Five
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7. (a) False (b) True (c) True (d) True

(e) False (f) False (g) False (h) False
8. (a) (i) A= {5, 10, 15, 20, 25, 30, 35, 40, 45}
B= {4, 8, 12, 16, 20, 24, 28, 32, 36, 40, 44, 48 } A ∩ B= {20, 40}
A ∪ B= {4, 5, 8, 10, 12, 15, 16, 20, 24, 25, 28, 30, 32,
35, 36, 40, 44, 45, 48}
(ii) A ∩ B= {positive integers less than 50, which are both multiples of 4 and 5}
(iii) n(A) = 9, n(B) = 12, n ( A ∩ B ) =2
LY
(b) A= {q, r , s}, B= {q, r , p}, C= {s, t , q}
10. (a) U (b) ∅ (c) A (d) B (e) A′ ∪ B
N
(f) A ∩ B′ (g) C (h) X ∪ Y′ (i) ∅ (j) A ∪ B
11. (a) ∅
O
14. (a) 240 (b) 504 (c) 304 (d)40
15. (a) 11 (b) 3 (c) 12
SE(d) 8
16. (a) 5 (b) 42 (c) 87
17. (a) 5% (b) 35% (c) 60%
U
18. (a) 83.8% (b) 16.2% (c) 95.6%.
19. 19. (a) 6 (b) 18 (c) 33
20. (a) Maximum 25, Minimum 15
E
(b) Maximum 10, Minimum 0.

N
21. (a) 5 (b) 12 (c) 43 (d) 22

22. (a) B (b) A′ ∩ B′ (c) A ∩ B (d) B
LI
25. (a) 15 (b) 10 (c) 45 (d) 40.

N
O
R
FO
627
Form Five
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Answers Chapter Three
Exercise 3.1 4. (a) Pili is a woman.

1. a, b, c, e. (b) It is not raining now.
2. (a) Simple statement (c) Masai do not maintain their
(b) Compound statement culture.
(c) Simple statement (d) Summer does not come after
(d) Compound statement spring.
(e) Compound statement (e) Industries are not friendly to the
3. (a) environment.
LY
(f) Tomorrow is not Saturday.
p q r
T T T
Exercise 3.2
N
T T F
T F T
O
1. (a) False (b) False (c) True
T F F
2. (a) p ∧ q (d) ~ q ∧ ~ p
F T T
F T F
(b) p ∧ ~ q (e) p ∨ (~ p ∧ q )
SE
F F T (c) ~ (~ p ∨ q)
F F F 3. Let a ≡~ p ↔ ~ q and b ≡~ ( p → q)
U
(b)
p q r s p q ~ p ~ q ~ p ↔~ q p → q ~ ( p → q) a ↔ b
E
T T T T T T F F T T F F
T T T F T F F T F F T F
N
T T F T F T T F F T F T
T T F F F F T T T T F F
LI
T F T T 4. (a) p → q
N
T F T F
T F F T (b) q → p
O
T F F F (c) ~ (~ p ↔~ q)
F T T T 5. (a) You like Physics or Chemistry
but not Biology
R
F T T F
F T F T (b) You like Physics and Chemistry
FO
F T F F or you do not like Physics and

F F T T Biology
F F T F (c) It is not true that you like Physics
F F F T but not Biology.
F F F F
628
Form Five
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(e) If Halima is not poor, then she

6.
doesn’t work hard.
p q p ∧ q p ∨ q ( p ∧ q) → ( p ∨ q)
(f) Halima is not poor or she
T T T T T doesn’t work hard.
T F F T T (g) Halima works hard if and only
F T F T T if she is poor.
F F F F T (h) Halima does not work hard
or she is poor and she works
7. (a) ~ ( p ∧ ~ q) (b) ~ p ∨ ~ q
hard.
LY
8.
p q r ~ p q → r ~ p ↔ (q → r ) 12. (a) Swimming in the poor has danger.
N
T T T F T F (b) It is not true that few people have
T T F F F T been drawn in the swimming
O
pool if and only if Swimming
T F T F T F
in the pool has no danger.
T F F F T F SE(c) If swimming in the pool has a
F T T T T T
danger, then few people have
F T F T F F
been drawn in the Swimming
F F T T T T
U
pool.
F F F T T T
13. (a)
E
9. (a) False (b) False (c) True

p q p ∧ q  ( p ∧ q ) ( p ∧ q)∧  ( p ∧ q)
N
10. (a) (~ P ∧ Q) ∨ ( P ∧ ~ Q)
T T T F F
LI
(b) [ ( P → Q) ∧ (Q ↔ R) ] → (~ R ∧ ~ Q)
T F F T F
N
11. (a) Halima works hard or she is F T F T F

poor. F F F T F
O
(b) It is not true that Halima is

(b)
poor and she works hard.
R
(c) If Halima is poor, then she p q q → p p → q (q → p) ↔ ( p → q)

FO
works hard.
T T T T T
(d) Halima is poor and she works
T F T F F
hard. F T F T F
F F T T T
629
Form Five
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(c) (d)
p q r p∨q ( p ∨ q) ∧ r p q r r p∨q ( p ∨ q) →  r
T T T F T F
T T T T T
T T F T T T
T T F T F
T F T F T F
T F T T T
T F F T T T
T F F T F
F T T F T F
F T T T T
F T F T T T
F T F T F
F F T F F T
F F T F F
F F F T F T
LY
F F F F F
(e)
N
p q r t p  p↔q ( p ↔ q) ∧ r (  p ↔ q )  ∧ r → t
O
T T T T F F F T
T T T F F F FSE T
T T F T F F F T
T T F F F F F T
T F T T F T T T
U
T F T F F T T F
T F F T F T F T
T F F F F T F T
E
F T T T T T T T
N
F T T F T T T F
F T F T T T F T
LI
F T F F T T F T
F F T T T F F T
N
F F T F T F F T
F F F T T F F T
O
F F F F T F F T
R
FO
630
Form Five
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Exercise 3.3 (d) Inverse: If ABC is not an

equilateral triangle, then it is not
1.(a) Inverse:If tomorrow is not a right-angled triangle.
Saturday, then Paul will not Converse: If ABC is a right-
go to the beach. angled triangle, then it is an
Converse: If Paul will go to equilateral triangle.
the beach, then tomorrow is Contrapositive: If ABC is not a
Saturday. right-angled triangle, then it is
Contrapositive: If Paul will not an equilateral triangle.
LY
not go to the beach then (e) Inverse: If f (x) is not a rational
tomorrow is not Saturday. function, then it has no
(b) Inverse: If it is not raining,
N
asymptotes.
then the shop is not closed. Converse: If f (x) has asymptotes,
O
Converse: If the shop is then it is a rational function.
closed, then it is raining. SE Contrapositive: If f (x) has no
Contrapositive: If the shop asymptotes, then it is not a
is not closed, then it is not rational function.
raining.
U
(c) Inverse: Industries are not 2. (a)
environmentally friendly, if
E
they are not in harmony with

p q ~ p q →~ p ( q → ~ p ) → p
the surroundings.
N
Converse: If the industries T T F F T

LI
are environmentally friendly, T F F T T

then they are in harmony F T T T F
N
with the surroundings. F F T T F

O
Contrapositive: If
the industries are
R
not environmentally
friendly, then they are
FO
not in harmony with the

surroundings.
631
Form Five
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(b)
p q ~ p q →~ p ~ (q →~ p) ~ (q → ~ p) →~ p
T T F F T F
T F F T F T
F T T T F T
F F T T F T
3. (a) If two vectors are not orthogonal

then their dot product is not zero. Exercise 3.5
LY
(b) If the dot product of two vectors 1. (a) Tautology (b)Tautology
is zero then they are orthogonal. (c) Tautology (d) Not a tautology
(c) If the dot product of two vectors (e) Tautology
N
2.  ( pvq )
is not zero then the two vectors
4. (a) p ∨ ~ q
O
(c) p
are not orthogonal.
(b) ~ p (d) T
4. (a) If Halima wont win, then she has
5. Tautology.
SE
no courage.
(b) One cannot be a sailor if one is
Exercise 3.6
not strong.
U
(c) If a geometrical figure is not a
1. Not valid 6. Not valid
rectangle, then it is not a square.
2. Not valid 7. Valid
5. Converse (q ∧ r ) → p
E
3. Valid 8. Valid
Inverse ~ p →~ (q ∧ r ) 4. Not valid 9. Valid
N
Contrapositive ~ (q ∧ r ) →~ p 5. Not valid 10. Valid

LI
6. (a) q → p
(b) ~ (q →~ r ) → p Exercise 3.7
N
(c) ~ ( p ↔ q) →~ (~ p ↔~ r )
1. (a) p ∧ q
O
Exercise 3.4
R
1. Equivalent 2. Not equivalent

(b) p ∧  q
FO
3. Equivalent 4. Equivalent
9. Equivalent 10. Not equivalent
632
Form Five
FOR ONLINE USE ONLY
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Revision exercise 3
(c) p ∧ ( q ∨ r ) ∨ s
1. Not a mathematical statement.

2. (a) Converse: If a person is an adult,
then a person is 20 years old.
Contrapositive: If a person is not an
adult, then a person is not 20 years
old.
3 (a) ( p ∧ q ) ∨  q∨  r Inverse: If a person is not 20 years
LY
(b) [~ p ∨ ( ( p ∧ q)∧  q )] ∧ [r ∨  r ] old then a person is not an adult.
(c) ( p ∨ q ∨ s) ∧ r
N
(b) Converse: If I have a test today
5.
O
then, today is Friday.
Contrapositive: If I have no test

SE today then, today is not Friday.
Inverse: If today is not Friday, then
U
I have no test.
Exercise 3.8 (c) Converse: If you are attractive,

E
then you bought our clothes.

N
1. p∧  q
Contrapositive: If you are not
2. ( p ∧ q ) ∨ (  p ∧  q )
LI
attractive then you did not buy our

3.  p ∧  q
clothes.
4. ( p ∧ q ) ∨ ( p ∧  q) ∨ ( p ∧  q )
N
5. p ∧ q
O
Inverse: If you did not buy our

6. s1 : ( p ∧ ~ q ∧ r ) ∨ (~ p ∧ ~ q ∧ r ) clothes then you are not attractive.
≡~ q ∨ r
R
s2 : ( p ∧ q ∧ r ) ∨ (~ p ∧ q ∧ r ) s1 : q ∧ r
FO
633
Form Five
FOR ONLINE USE ONLY
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3. (c)
q r q∨r ~ (q ∨ r ) ~ q ~ q∧r ~ (q ∨ r ) ↔ (~ q ∧ r )
T T T F F F T
T F T F F F T
F T T F T T F
F F F T T F F
LY
4. (a) Not a tautology (b) Tautology (c) Tautology (d) Tautology
5. They have the same truth values (They are equivalent).
N
6. (a) Tautology (b) Tautology (c) Not a tautology (d) Tautology
(e) Not a tautology (f) Not a tautology (g) Tautology (h) Tautology
O
(i) Not a tautology (j) Tautology
7. (a), (b), (c), and (e) SE
9. (a) Not logically equivalent (b) Logically equivalent (c ) Logically equivalent
(d) Logically equivalent
U
10. (d) and (f )
12. (a) Not a tautology (b) Not a tautology
13. (a) (i) ( p ∧ q ) ∨ r ≡Lightness is clever and polite or she is humble.

E
(ii)  p ∨ q ≡ Lightness is not clever or she is humble.

N
(b) (i) ( p ∨ q ) ∧ p → q (ii) ( q ∨ r ) ∧  p (iii) (  q ∨  r ) → p

LI
14. (a) Valid (b) Valid (c) Not valid (d) Valid (e) Valid
N
(f) Not valid (g) Not valid (h) Not valid (i) Not valid (j) Not valid
O
16. (a) p ∧ ( q ∨ r ) ∧ s (b) p ∧ (  q ∧ r ) ∨ ( p ∨ r )  (c) p ∨ q ∨ r
17. (a) ( p ∧  q ) ∨ (  p ∧ q ) (b) ( p ∧ q ∧ r ) ∨ (  p ∧ q ∧ r ) ∨ (  p∧  q∧  r )

R
FO
634
Form Five
FOR ONLINE USE ONLY
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Answers Chapter Four
Exercise 4.2
(c) 3x + 4 y = 2 x − y − 1 , 3x + 4 y = −2 x + y + 1
5 5 5 5
3. B(6,1)
2. 2 x + 2 y + 15 =0
2
4. y = −2 x and y = − x
5 4. 4 x − 7 y + 3= 0; 2 x + 3 y= 5; x − 3 y + 2= 0;
5. (c) 32.5 square units
3 x + y=
+ 1 0; 15 x − 10 y=
+ 8 0; and
6. (1, –1)
49 x + 28 − 12 =
0
Exercise 4.3
Exercise 4.6
LY
1. 109.4° 2. 78.7° 1. (a) x = 4 (b) y = 5
3. (a) 36.9°, 40.6°, 102.5° 2 2
(c) x + y = 25
N
(b) 40.6°, 63.4°, 76° 2 2
(d) x + y + 4 x + 6 y − 51 = 0
O
(c) 17.7°, 60.3°, 102° (e) x 2 + y 2 − 8 x + 12 = 0
4. x − 3 y + 7 = 0 SE(f) x 2 − 3 y 2 + 32 y − 64 = 0
(g) 3x 2 + 4 y 2 + 6 x − 9 = 0
18 22
5. m =and n =, θ = 53.6° or 126.4° 3
5 15 (h) x =
8
U
2
6. θ =47.7° and θ =132.3° 2. 8 x − 6 y − 7 = 0 3. y = 4ax
2 2
Exercise 4.4 4. y − 3x + 34 x = 91
5. 3x −
= 11 y 0 and 11x=
+ 3y 0
E
1. (a) 1 unit (b) 2.55 units

N
3 2h + 4k Exercise 4.7
(c) a units (d) units
5 5
32 
LI

(e) 0 units, the point lies on the line 1. (a)  −5,  and (7, 40)
 5 
N
2. P = −9 ± 2 units (b) (−1, 3), no external division

3 32 

O
(c) units
 −5,  and (7, 40)
= 4. PR 5.06= units, QS 0.95 =
units and RS 0.32  5 
S 0.95 =
units and RS 0.32 units (d) ⎛ 19 , 6 ⎞ and (8, 6)
R
⎜ ⎟
⎝3 ⎠
FO
Exercise 4.5 2. C(20, 22) 3. 0.48 units

4. P(−41, − 83), Q(22, 43)
1. (a) 3x − y − 2 = 0, 3x + 9 y − 12 = 0
(b)=x 0,= y 0 m 3,=
5. = p 4,=
n 2 6.= q 5
6. 2 : 9
635
Form Five
FOR ONLINE USE ONLY
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Exercise 4.8 (b) Tangent 3x = =

− 4 y + 25 0; Normal 4x + 3y 0
2 2
1. (a) x + y − 4 y − 12 = 0 3x =
− 4 y + 25 0; Normal= 4 x + 3 y 0.
2 2
(b) x + y + 4 x − 4 y − 17 = 0 (c) Tangent 2 x − y − 9 = 0; Normal x + 2 y + 3 =
2 2
(c) x + y − 4 = 0 2 x − y − 9 = 0; Normal x + 2 y + 3 = 0
(d) 4 x 2 + 4 y 2 + 4 x − 40 y − 299 = 0 (d) Tangent 2=x + 4 y − 7 0; Normal= 2x − y − 2
(e) 8x + 8 y − 32 x + 48 y + 103 =2=
2 2 x0+ 4 y − 7 0; Normal= 2x − y − 2 0
2. (a) Centre (1, − 2), radius = 45 (e) Tangen 2 x + 3 y − 22 = 0; Normal 3x − 2 y − 7

(b) Centre (0, 0), radius = 5 2 x + 3 y − 22 = 0; Normal 3x − 2 y − 7 = 0
LY
(c) Centre (0, 2) , radius = 2 (f) Tangent 2 x + 3 y = 0; Normal 3x − 2 y = 0
(d) Centre (−1, 0), radius = 2 2 x + 3 y = 0; Normal 3x − 2 y = 0 .
⎛1 3⎞ 2. (3, − 1)
(e) Centre ⎜ , − ⎟ , radius = 1
N
⎝2 2⎠ 3. k = 40, or k = −10
4. x + 2 y − 3 = 0
O
3. x + y − 8x − 8 y + 16 = 0
2 2
4. ( x + 41) +( y + 161) =
2 2
144 7. x + y − 5 = 0
2 2
5. 4 x + 4 y + 40 x − 16 y + 67 = 0 8. 5 x + 2 y =
SE − 21 0 and 5 x + 2 y =
+ 28 0
10. 4 x − 3 y =
+ 25 0 and 4 x − 3 y =
− 25 0
Exercise 4.9
11. 2 x + y + 4 = 0 and 2 x + y − 6 = 0
U
2 2
1. (a) x + y + 7 x − 5 y + 16 = 0 13. x + 2 y − 4 = 0 and x + 2 y + 6 = 0
(b) x 2 + y 2 − 4 x + 4 y − 17 = 0 14. 5 units
E
2 2
(c) x + y + x + 2 y − 3 = 0 15. x 2 + y 2 + 6 x + 10 y + 9 =0.
N
2 2
(d) x + y − x + 4 y − 53 = 0
2 2 Exercise 4.11
(e) x + y + 4 x − 3 y = 0
LI
2 2
2. (a) x + y − 6 x + 4 y − 12 = 0 3. y = −2 x
N
2 2
(b) x + y − x + 4 y − 12 = 0
2 2
4. (0, 0)
(c) x + y − 14 x + 10 y − 95 = 0
O
 
5.  27 + 8 43 , 23 − 2 43 
2 2
(d) x + y − 10 x − 8 y + 16 = 0
 17 17 
2 2
(e) x + y − 13x + 3 y + 2 = 0  
R
3. x 2 + y 2 − 5 x − 6 y =
0  27 − 8 43 23 + 2 43 
FO
and  , 
Exercise 4.10  17 17 
1. (a) Tangent 6 x − 2 y − 5 = 0; Normal x +6.
2 2
3 y x= 0+ y − 4 x + 2 y −=
2 0; (5, − 5)
6 x − 2 y − 5 = 0; Normal x + 3 y = 0
636
Form Five
FOR ONLINE USE ONLY
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Exercise 4.12 13. 3 square units

2 2 14. x + 6 y − 34= 0, x − y + =
1 0,
2. x + y − 10 x − 2 y + 9 = 0
A = 5 85 square units
3. (a) k 47
= = (b) k 34 15. 5.9 units
4. x 2 + y 2 − 4 x − 2 y + 3 =0 16. 53.13°
2 2
5. (a) 5 x + 5 y + 24 x − 36 y =
0;
17. 2 x − y − 4= 0, x + 2 y − 7= 0
(b) 2 x − 3 y =
0.
18. x − 3 y + 3 = 0, 3x + y − 11 = 0
LY
Exercise 4.13 19. 47.7° 20. (a, b) = (6, 0)
2 2
21. x + y − 2 x + 2 y − 23 = 0
1. 11.58 units 2. 12 cm
23. x + y − 4 x + 6 y + 8 =
2 2
0
N
3. 2 units 4. 6 units
5. 7 units 7. x 2 + y 2 − 10 x − 4 y − 2 =0 24. C(−4, 8) 25. B(6, 4)
O
26. x 2 + y 2 − 2 x − 2 y + 1 =0
Revision exercise 4 SE
1. k = 5 27. 3x − y − 2 = 0, x + 3 y − 4 = 0
⎛ 25 ⎞
2. M(3, 6), L(6, 3), N ⎜ ,1⎟ 28. 18 x + 12 y + 69 =
0
U
⎝ 4 ⎠
3. 3 square units 29. 16 x 2 + 9 y 2 + 24 xy − 156 x − 42 y + 249 = 0
E
2
2 2 30. x − 4 x + 2 y − 3 = 0
5. x + y + 6 x + 6 y + 2 =0
N
2 2
31. x + y − 10 x − 8 y + 16 = 0
6.=m 2,= m 8
LI
2 2
⎛ 8 24 ⎞ 33. 3 x + 3 y + 40 x − 40 y − 28 =
0
7. ⎜ , ⎟ , (16, 12)
N
⎝5 5 ⎠ 2 2
34. x + y − 4 x − 8 y + 15 = 0
O
⎛ 18 14 ⎞
8. (a) ⎜ , ⎟ (b) (6, − 2) a 2,=
35.= b 0 36. (1, 2)
⎝5 5⎠
R
9. 14 x + 112 y =
43 37. x 2 + y 2 − 12 x − 10 y + 36 = 0
FO
10. 4 x + 3 y − 25 =
0; (4, 3) 38. centre (−2, 4), radius = 4,
11. L(4, 4), M(7, 6) length of tangent = 5 units
12. 9.5 square units 39. 2 x 2 + 2 y 2 − 8x − 12 y + 25 = 0
637
Form Five
FOR ONLINE USE ONLY
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40. y = 2 x 46. 6.08 units
42. c = −32 47. 3.46 units
43. x − y − 2 = 0, x + 7 y + 10 = 0 49. 4 x − 3 y − 18 = 0;
Area = 13.5 square units
44. 12 x + 5 y + 119
= 0; 12 y − 5 x + 49
= 0
y 2 x; 22 x + 19=
45. = y 0
LY
N
O
SE
U
E
N
LI
N
O
R
FO
638
Form Five
FOR ONLINE USE ONLY
DO NOT DUPLICATE
Answers Chapter Five
Exercise 5.1 4.
1.
LY
N
O
2.
5.
SE
U
E
N
LI
3.
N
6.
O
R
FO
639
Form Five
FOR ONLINE USE ONLY
DO NOT DUPLICATE
7. y 10.
4
3
1
f (x) =8x-
2 3
-3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 x
-1
LY
-2
-3
Exercise 5.2
N
-4
1.
O
8.
SE
U
E
2.
N
LI
9.
N
O
R
FO
640
Form Five
FOR ONLINE USE ONLY
DO NOT DUPLICATE
3. 5.
LY
N
O
4. 6.
SE
U
E
N
LI
N
O
R
FO
641
Form Five
FOR ONLINE USE ONLY
DO NOT DUPLICATE
7. 10.
LY
N
8.
O
Exercise 5.3
SE
1.
U
E
N
LI
9.
N
O
R
Domain
= {x : x ∈ }
FO
Range
= { y : y ∈ }
642
Form Five
FOR ONLINE USE ONLY
DO NOT DUPLICATE
2. 4.
LY
N
Domain
= {x : x ∈ }
Domain
= {x : x ∈ }
O
Range
= { y : y ∈ }
Range
= { y : y ∈ }
5.SE y
3. 12
10
U
8
6
f(x)=-(x 3-7x+3)
4
E
2
N
-6 -4 -2 0 2 4 6 8 x
LI
-2
-4
N
Domain
= {x : x ∈ } Domain
= {x : x ∈ }
O
Range
= { y : y ∈ } Range
= { y : y ∈ }
R
FO
643
Form Five
FOR ONLINE USE ONLY
DO NOT DUPLICATE
6. y
9.
10
8
f(x)=x (x 2 +3x)+4
6
-6 -4 -2 0 2 4 6 8 x
-2
-4
LY
Domain
= {x : x ∈ }
Range
= { y : y ∈ }
N
7. Domain
= {x : x ∈ }
O
Range
= { y : y ∈ }
Exercise 5.4
SE
1. x = −1, 0, 1, 2
U
2.
E
Domain
= {x : x ∈ }
N
Range
= { y : y ∈ }
8.
LI
N
O
R
FO
Domain
= {x : x ∈ }
Domain
= {x : x ∈ } Range
= { y : y ≥ −15}
Range
= { y : y ∈ }
644
Form Five
FOR ONLINE USE ONLY
DO NOT DUPLICATE
3. (a) 4.
LY
(b) Exercise 5.5
N
1.
O
SE
U
E
Domain
= {x : x ∈ , x ≠ −3, x ≠ 2}
N
Range
= { y : y ∈ }
(c)
LI
2.
N
O
R
FO
Domain
= { x : x ∈ , x ≠ −3, x ≠ 2}
Range
= { y : y ∈ }
645
Form Five
FOR ONLINE USE ONLY
DO NOT DUPLICATE
3. 6.
Domain
= { x : x ∈ , x ≠ −3, x ≠ 3}
Range
= { y : y ∈ }
LY
4.
Domain
= { x : x ∈ , x ≠ −1, x ≠ 1}
Range { y : y ∈ }
N
=
7.
O
SE
U
Domain = { x : x ∈ , x ≠ 0, x ≠ 4}
E
Range
= { y : y ∈ }
5.
Domain = { x : x ∈ , x ≠ 1}
N
Range
= { y : y ∈ }
LI
8.
N
O
R
FO
Domain
= { x : x ∈ , x ≠ −3, x ≠ 3} Domain
= { x : x ∈ , x ≠ −3, x ≠ 3}
Range
= { y : y ∈ } Range
= { y : y ∈ }
646
Form Five
FOR ONLINE USE ONLY
DO NOT DUPLICATE
9.
4. (a) ( f  g ) ( x) = x 2 + 6 x + 7
(b) ( f  g ) ( x=) x 2 − 7
(c) ( f  g ) ( x=
3
) ex − 2
(d) f  g = x
6. −7 7. x = ±5
8. (a) 34 (b) 112
(c) 584 (d) 130
LY
(e) 2706 (f) x − 2 x + 3
2
2
Domain
= { x : x ∈ , x ≠ −1, x ≠ 1} 9. (a) 32 x − 312 x + 685
N
Range = { y : y ∈ , y ≠ 1, y ≠ 2} (b) 512 x 3 − 4576 x + 10149
10. (a)
= f  g {(7, 5), (−5, 8)}
O
10.
and g  f = {(3, 10), (2, 7), (4, 3)}
11. g  f= {(−2, 1), (0,3)}
SE
12. f  g = {(2, 6), (4, 7)}
U
Exercise 5.7
E
1.
N
Domain
= { x : x ∈ , x ≠ −2, x ≠ 2}
LI
Range
= { y : y ∈ }
N
Exercise 5.6
O
1. f ( g ( x)) = −3x + 17,

g ( f ( x)) = −3x − 1. Is not
R
commutative.
1 7
FO
2. f  =
2 2
3. ( g  f ) ( x)= {(−1, 1), (0, 5)} Domain
= {x : x ∈ }
Domain={x : −1, 0}, Range = { y : y ∈ , y ≥ 5}
Range = { y :1, 5}
647
Form Five
FOR ONLINE USE ONLY
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2. g ( x) = x − 3 and g ( x) = − x + 1 1 2
11. (a) x − x +1 (b) 7.5
3. ( f  g )( x) = {(3, 6)} 4
4. 12. (a) ( f ! g ) ( x ) = x + 9 and ( g ! f ) ( x ) = x + 9
(b) ( f ! g )( x ) = x + 2 and ( g ! f )( x ) = x
2 2
+2
(c) ( f ! g ) ( x ) = −9x + 19
and ( g ! f ) ( x ) = 3− 9x
Exercise 5.8
LY
1. Domain = {x : x ∈ }
Range = { y : y ∈ , y > 0}
N
2
5. −1+ 3x + 10x + 15
(a) Domain = {x : x ∈ } , Range = (-4,∞)
O
or − 1− 3x 2 + 10x + 15
x +1 5 (b) Domain = { x : x ∈ } , Range = (-∞,0)
6. f ( x) = 2 7. k =
x − 2x + 5 3 (c) Domain = {x : x ∈ } , Range = (-3,∞)
SE
8. x = ±4 or x = ±2
(d) Domain = {x : x ∈ } , Range = (-∞,1)
9. x-intercept ( x, y ) = (1, 0)
 1 (e) Domain = {x : x ∈ } , Range = (3,∞)
U
y -intercept ( x, =
y )  0, − 
 2
Exercise 5.9
Vertical asymptote x = −2
E
Horizontal asymptote y = 1 1. (a)

10. (a) 3 x 2 + 4
N
(b) 9 x 2 + 24 x + 16
LI
N
O
R
FO
Domain = {x : x ∈ , x > 1}
Range
= { y : y ∈ }
648
Form Five
FOR ONLINE USE ONLY
DO NOT DUPLICATE
(b) (e)
 14 
Domain =  x : x ∈ , x > 
LY
 3 Domain = {x : x ∈ , x > 2}
Range
= { y : y ∈ } Range
= { y : y ∈ }
N
(c)
2.
O
SE
U
E
Domain = {x : x ∈ , x > 1}
N
3.
Range
= { y : y ∈ }
LI
(d)
N
O
R
FO
Domain
= {x : x ∈ , x > −2}
Range
= { y : y ∈ }
649
Form Five
FOR ONLINE USE ONLY
DO NOT DUPLICATE
4. 7.
LY
Domain={x : x ≥ 0}, Range ={ y : y ∈ }
(a) Domain={x : x ∈ } ,
5.
N
Range ={ y : y > − 6}
(b) x-intercept = ( −0.7,0 )
O
SE y-intercept = ( 0, 10)
Revision exercise 5
U
1.
E
6.
N
LI
N
O
R
Domain={x : x ∈ }, Range ={ y : y ≤ 1}.

FO
650
Form Five
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DO NOT DUPLICATE
2. (a) 3. (a)
LY
(b)
N
O
(b)
SE
U
E
The point is (9, 4).

Domain={x : x ∈ } , range ={ y : y ≥ −1}
N
(c) (c)
LI
N
O
R
FO
{ x : x 1=
4. Domain== and x 2}
651
Form Five
FOR ONLINE USE ONLY
DO NOT DUPLICATE
5. (a) 6. (a)
LY
Domain ={x : x ∈ }
Range
= { y : y ∈ }
N
(b)
(b)
O
SE
U
E
Domain ={x : x ∈ , − 4 ≤ x ≤ 4}
N
Range
= { y : y ∈ , − 20 ≤ y ≤ 36}
(c)
LI
(c)
N
O
R
FO
Domain ={x : x ∈ }
Range
= { y : y ∈ }
652
Form Five
FOR ONLINE USE ONLY
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(d) (c)
LY
7. (a) Domain={x : x ∈ , x ≠ −3, x ≠ −1}
(d)
N
O
SE
U
Domain = {x : x ∈ , x ≠ − 4.27, x ≠ 3.27}
(b)
Domain
= { x : x ∈ , x ≠ ± 3 }
E
(e)
N
LI
N
O
R
FO
Domain
= { x : x ∈ , x ≠ ± 2 } Domain = {x : x ∈ , x ≠ −1, x ≠ 2}
653
Form Five
FOR ONLINE USE ONLY
DO NOT DUPLICATE
(f) (i)
LY
Domain = {x : x ∈ , x ≠ −2, x ≠ 1} Domain={x : x ∈ , x ≠ −2, x ≠ 0, x ≠ 1}
(j)
N
(g)
O
SE
U
E
Domain={x : x ∈ , x ≠ −3, x ≠ 1}
Domain={x : x ∈ , x ≠ −3, x ≠ 1}
N
(k)
LI
(h)
N
O
R
FO
Domain={x : x ∈ , x ≠ −4, − 3, x ≠ 1} Domain={x : x ∈ , x ≠ −1, x ≠ 2}
654
Form Five
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(m) (e)
LY
Domain={x : x ∈ , x ≠ −3, x ≠ 3} 14. x = ± 2.91
N
3 − 3x 1
O
8. (a) f  g (=
x) {(2, − 2), (3, 2)} 15. (a) (b)
x2 + 4x + 4 4
(b) g  f ( x) = {(3, 1), (4, 6)}. SE
16. (a) 2 (b) 4
9. (a) f=
 g ( x) {(7,12), (−1,19), (9,15)} 17. (b)
(b) g  f ( x) = {(1,3), (2, 4)}
U
10. (a) f  g ( x) = x 2 − 6 x + 10
E
(b) g  f ( x) = x 2 + 2 x − 2
N
(c) g  f  h( x) = cos 2 x + 2 cos x − 2

LI
−5 ± 144 x 2 − 23
11. f ( x) =
4
N
−2 x + 14
13. (a) ( f  g ) ( x) =
O
x−2
5
(b) ( g  f ) ( x) =
R
2x − 4
FO
(c) ( f  g )(3) = 8 Domain ={x : x ∈ }

5 Range ={ y : y > 0}
(d) ( g  f ) ( x) =
4
655
Form Five
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(c) (f)
LY
Domain = {x : x ∈ }
Domain={x : x ∈ }
Range={ y : y > −1}
Range
= { y : y ≥ 0}
N
(d)
18. (a)
O
SE
U
E
Range={ y : y > 2}
N
(b)
LI
(e)
N
O
R
FO
Range = { y : y > 0}
656
Form Five
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19. (a) (b)
LY
20.
N
O
SE
U
E
N
LI
N
O
R
FO
657
Form Five
FOR ONLINE USE ONLY
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Answers Chapter Six
Exercise 6.1
1. (a) n = 3 (b) x = −2 (c) u = 1 (d) x = 3

p 9
(2 ± 2 )
−5
2. = 3.=x 2,=y 0 4. 36 x
5. =
q 16
1
6. x = 3 7. x = 1 8. x = 2 9. x = −
2
10. y =−1 and y =
3
LY
Exercise 6.2
N
1. (a) m = 3 (b) y = 3 (c) x = 0.9061
2
O
(d) z 3=
= and z 27 (e) x = 0.8830 (f) x =
3
3. (m, n) (2,
= = 8) or (m, n) (8, 2)
SE
4. (a) x = 50.0035
(b) x = 11.6927
 1
5. g ( f , g ) =  65536,  6. (a) 0.7177 (b) 5.1127 (c) 0.6881
 4
1
U
7. x 4=
= and y 8. p 3=
= or p 27
2
10. z = − 4 or z = 3
E
Exercise 6.3
N
5 14 k −1 11
7
1
LI
1. (a) ∑ (3k + 5) (b) ∑ 2k (c) ∑ 32   ∑k 2

(d)
k =1 k =1 k =1 2 k =1
N
6
1 n
(e) ∑ 2k ∑ ( −1)
k
(f) k2
O
k =1 k =1
2. (a) 4 + 5 + 6 + 7 + 8 + 9 (b) 29 + 70 + 145

(c) −2 − 10 − 24 − 44 − 70 − 102 − 140
R
(d) −3 − 7 − 15 − 31 − 63 − 127 − 255

1 1
(e) + + 1 + 2 + 4 + 8 + 16 + 32 + 64 + 128
FO
4 2
63 42
3. (a) 156 (b) (c) (d) 380 (e) 1
2 5
1 1
4. (a) 2n(n + 1) (b) n ( n + 1)( n + 5 ) (c) n(n + 1) ( 3n 2 + 23n + 46 )
3 12
658
Form Five
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4 5 n 8
(a) ∑ k ( 2k − 1) (b) ∑ (− x) (c) ∑ ny (d) ∑ (3k − 7)

k −1 k
5.
k =1 k =1 k =1 k =1
4
1 4
(e) ∑ 2k + 1
k =1
(f) ∑ (3k − 2)(3k + 1)
k =1
1 4 1 1 1
6. (a) 4, 8, 16 (b) 2, 6, 12 (c) 2, , (d) , ,
2 15 2 6 12
(e) 1, − 4, 9 (f) 18, 300, 1,134
Exercise 6.5
LY
2 −1 117
1. 1 − q , 1 − q 2. (a) 6 (b) − 3. (a) x 2 − 5 x − 3 =0
N
8 2
(b) 3 x − 10 x − 4 = 0
O
140 2
5. 6. 9 x + 55 x + 6 = 0
17
7. (a) 4 x 2 + 40 x + 51 =
2
0
2
SE
(b) 4 x 2 − 37 x + 9 =0 (c) x 2 − 5 x − 6 =
2
0
(d) 3 x + 37 x + 12 = 0 (e) 2 x − 7 x = 0 (f) 2 x + 25 x + 72 = 0
U
10. 4 x 3 − 13 x 2 + 48 x − 64 =0
3 2
11. (a) x − 3 x − 2 x − 32 = 0 (b) x 3 + 4 x 2 − x − 11 =0
1 1 5
E
12. (a) − (b) 23 (c) 64 (d) − (e) −

12 12 12
N
Exercise 6.6
LI
1. (a) − 43 x 5 + 86 x 4 − 56 x 3 + 12 x 2 − 24 x + 20
N
(b) 7 x 5 − 58 x 4 + 8 x3 − 12 x 2 − 24 x + 120
O
41 114
2. a= ,b= − , and 3. 890
7 7
648
R
c= −
7
4. 9, f =
e= −11
−2 , g = 5. (a) x 4 − 4 x 3 − 2 x 2 + 12 x + 9
FO
(b) −3 x 4 + 7 x 3 − 6 x 2 + 3 x − 1
10, n =
6. (a) m = −7, p =
4
659
Form Five
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7. (a) quotient x 2 + 2 x + 1 , remainder 3 (f) quotient 2x3 – x2 + x – 1,

(b) quotient x3 − 8 x + 10 , remainder −11 remainder 2.
(c) quotient x 5 − 2 x 4 + 2 ,remainder −5
(d) quotient x − 13 or remainder 64
(e)quotient x3 + 4 x 2 + 12 x + 50, remainder 206 .
8. (a) quotient 2 x 3 + 2 x + 8 Remainder − x + 6 .
(b) quotient x 2 − x − 1 , remainder 2 x + 2 .
(c) quotient 2 x 3 − x 2 + x − 1 , remainder 2.
LY
3 2 2 3
(d) quotient x + ax + a x + a , remainder 0.
9. (a) 2 (b) 7 (c) 319 (d) 2549 (e) 131
N
10. t =30 , no factors
O
Exercise 6.7
10. { x ∈  : x ≤ 3 or x ≥ 5}
SE
 1  11. { x ∈  : 0 ≤ x ≤ 5}
1.  x ∈  : − < x < 7 
 3 
12. { x ∈  : x ≥ −1and x ≤ −5}
U
 5 
2.  x ∈  : 3 < x < 11, x ≠ 4   3 
  13.  x ∈  : x < − or x > 1
 2 
E
 3 7
3.  x ∈  : x > 2 or x < − 2  14. { x ∈  :1 < x < 3}
N
 
LI
 1 3 15. { x ∈  : −1 < x < 0 and 0 < x < 1}

4.  x ∈  : x < − 2 or x > 
2

N
 2 3 
 1
5.  x ∈  : x ≤ or x ≥ 
1 16.  x ∈  : 3 < x < 1 or 2 < xx << 4
O
 
 4 2
6. { x ∈  : x > 3or x < −1}  1 3 
17.  x ∈  : −1 < x < 3 or 12<<xx<<2 4 
R
 
7. { x ∈  : −1 < x < 1}
FO
 3 5
18.  x ∈  : − << x < 1 
8. { x ∈  : −1 < x < 0 and x > 1}  7 4
9. { x ∈  : x < −1, 0 < x < 1}  1 1 5 5

19.  x ∈  : −x > −< x<<or x < 
 4 4 4 4
660
Form Five
FOR ONLINE USE ONLY
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Exercise 6.8 (b) The total sum of money spent

by the 1st, 2nd and 3rd students
 25 37 53  are Tshs 18,000, Tshs 12,000
  and Tshs 22,500 respectively.
2. 119 31 55 
 68 −9 0 
 
Exercise 6.9
 −5890 
 
4. (a)  −190  1. (a) –532 (b) 380
 9310 
  2. (a)  −16 8 −34 
(b) Not possible  
 −14 −46 63 
LY
(c) Not possible  −24 12 2 

5. c = −50, d = 4, e =
9.
N
(b)  7 −9 −10 
1220   
 1 −12 −5 
O
6.    −10 −4
 620   0 
 10  SE
 
3. (a)  3 −9 −5 
 −11 −15 −10   
8. (a)  13 15   −4 1 3 
 8 
 −5 4 1 
U
 −31 −36 −23   
 
 −11 −15 −10  (b)  15 −3 −21
   
 − 6 −18 2 
E
(b)  13 15 8 
 −31 −36 −23   −30 6 10 
  
N
 2580 
 
9.  2170  where, 2580, 2170, and 4. (a) −212 (b) 25
LI
 2292 
 
N
9. (a) m = 4 (b) r = −10

2292 are the total points from the
O
departments of geography, chemistry,

and biology, respectively.  17 2 − 6 
 
D1 D 2 D3 10. (a)  − 4 4 6  (b) 144
R
 −2 6 9 
10. (a) 1 student  8 12 16 
st  
FO
 
2nd student  5 9 10 
3rd student 15 18 12 
661
Form Five
FOR ONLINE USE ONLY
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Exercise 6.10
 2 10 26 
1.=
(a) R 1 −1  1, y =
(b) x = −2, z =
3
16 − 20 8 
100  
 22 10 −14 
2. (a) ( x, y, z ) = ( 3, 1, 4 ) (b) ( x, y, z ) = ( 3, 2, 1)
(c) ( x, y, z ) = ( −4.714, − 2.071, − 5.86 ) (d) ( x, y, z ) = ( −1, 2, 3)
(e) ( x, y, =
z ) ( 8, − 11, 3) .
 8 8 8
 
3. (a)  −7 11 −1 1, yy=
(b) x = = −3,
2, zz ==
−32
LY
 −5 1 13 
 
 −4 11 0 
N
1 
4. 
15 
−7 8 0  5. ( a, b, c ) = ( 2, 5, 1)
O

 27 −3 15 
( I1 , I2 , I3 ) = (1.3, − 4.5, − 3.7 ) ( k , m, n ) = ( −5, 10, 2 )

6. 7.
SE
8.=q 40, 000,
= r 75,
= s 30
U
9. 5 units of simple, 8 units of medium, 8 units of complex
10. ( x, y, z ) = ( 2, 3, 1) units of complex
E
Exercise 6.11
N
1. (a) 32 x5 + 240 x 4 z + 720 x3 z 2 + 1080 x 2 z 3 + 810 xz 4 + 243 z5

LI
(b) a 7 − 7 a 6b + 21a5b 2 −35a 4b3 + 35a3b 4 − 21a 2b5 + 7 ab6 − b7

N
320 160 32
(c) 32 x5 + 160 x3 + 320 x + + 3 + 5
x x x
O
2. (a) 140 2 (b) 24476 (c) 40 2 (d) 98

R
3. 1 + 10 x + 55 x 2 + 210 x3 + ; 1.106
FO
4. (a) 1.0743 (b) 1279.2 (c) 7272.2

− 9 and n =
5. m = 46
7. 32 + 80 y + 80 y 2 + 40 y 3 + 10 y 4 + y 5 ; 32.08008
8. 1024 + 1280 y + 720 y 2 + 240 y 3 ; 1159
662
Form Five
FOR ONLINE USE ONLY
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9. 4 − 28c + 85c 2 − 146c3 + 155c 4 +

27 2 2 3 3 1 4
10. 81a 4 − 54a 3b + a b − ab + b ; 757335.0625
2 2 16
Exercise 6.12
5 2 1 1 2 2
3. 1 + 2 x + x + ; − < x < 4. − < y<
2 3 3 3 3
7 1 1 2 3
5. 1 − a − a 2 +  ; − < a < 6. 1 − 4 y − 24 y − 224 y ; 2.499
2 3 3
LY
1 1 2 1 1 3 2
8. 1 + t − t + ; 2.080 10. − − n − n −  , − 1 < n < 1
3 9 4 2 16
N
Exercise 6.13
O
2. n = 55 3. 27 4. r = 7
r
218−3r SE  −1 
(b) Cr ( 2 y ) (c) ( −1)
5− r r 12
Cr ( −1) 9− 2 r y 9− 2 r
r 5
5. (a) 9
  Cr y 24−3r
5  y 
(d) ( −1)
r 6
Cr t12− 2 r s r
U
1
5
17
p 3,=
8. = q 5,=
n 6 9. (a) 15
C10   (b) 45 (c) (d) −3432
6 54
10. (a) 14 (b) −16
E
N
Exercise 6.14
LI
4 2 14 12 x − 6
1. − 5. 1 − − 2
N
x + 2 x +1 x x − x +1
2 4 8 x + 13 1
− 6. 3( x 2 + 2) + 3( x + 1)
O
2.
x − 3 x −1
5 34 43 2 1 3
3. 12( x + 1) + 3( x − 2) − 4( x − 3) 7. y − 5 + + −
R
y +1 y + 2 y + 3
FO
3 5 x − 17 3 1 2 13
4. 13( x + 1) + 13( x 2 + 3) 8. − + + −
2( x − 1) ( x − 1) 2
2 (xx −− 3)
x − 2 2( 3)
16 −13 + 11 36 8 8
+ −
9. 3( x + 1) + 3( x 2 − x + 1) 10. ( 2
)
5 t +2 5 3 t+ 3 5 3 t− 3 ( ) ( )
663
Form Five
FOR ONLINE USE ONLY
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Exercise 6.15
1 2 1 1 1 2
1. − + ; s∞ = 3. 2 − − ; s∞ =
2
n n +1 n + 2 4 n +1 n + 2
1 1 1 1 1 n+3
4. 2n − 1 − 2n + 1 ; 2 − 2n + 1 5. 2 + ( 2n + 1)( 2n + 3)
1 1 3 2n + 1
6. − 9. 8 − ( 2n + 2 )( 2n + 6 )
n n+2
LY
1 n+2 11 1  1 1 1  1 1
− −  + +  −
10. (a) 6 ( n + 3)( n + 4 ) (b) 18 3 n + 1 n + 2 n + 3 (c) 9 9 ( n + 1)
 
N
Revision exercise 6
O
1 2 3x + 2
4. Factors: x + 1, x − 1, and x 2 + 4, − + 2
SE
x +1 x −1 x + 4
5 9
=
5. a = ,b
2 2
U
3 4 − 3x
6. + ; a ==
7, b − 6, c = − 6, d = 0, e = 7, f =−6
1 + x 1 + x2
2 5 4
7. (0, 0), (9, 27) 8. ( x − 2)6 + ( x − 2)7 + ( x − 2)8 12. 4
E
= x 80,
= y 2
N
13. (a) (b) x = 75

 11 −4 1 
LI
1 3
14.  −25 9 − 2
 15. x = 30, y = 20, z = −60 =
16. x = , y 1, and
= z
 2 2
 15 −5 1 
N

2 2 1 4 4 6
17. (a) 1 − 3 x + 6 x 2 − 10 x3 + (b) 1 − x − x − x +
O
3 9 81
21875 4 3 1 1 n n +1
18. x 20. 3 x − 1 − x + 1 + ( x + 1) 2 , Coefficient =n(−1) − 3
R
128
FO
21. (a) 1.00499 (b) 0.9933
22. n = 11; 55, 165, and 330.
24. (a) 0 (b) ( y − x)( z − x)( z − y )
664
Form Five
FOR ONLINE USE ONLY
DO NOT DUPLICATE
 − 6 − 4 13 
 
1, y =
30. x = − 4, z =
−4 31. (a) (19 31) (b)  −1 − 2 3 
 3 − 6 −10 
 
2 11 20 2 3 3
33. + x+ x ; − <x<
9 27 27 2 2
− 6, k =
36. (a) k = 6 (b) k < − 6 or k > 6
1
37. (a) x < −5 or x > (b) 2 < x < 3 or x > 8
5
38. n ( n + 6n + 11) ; 296616
LY
2
39. 3 carton of concentrated, 1 carton of diluted and 2 cartones of drt product.
N
O
SE
U
E
N
LI
N
O
R
FO
665
Form Five
FOR ONLINE USE ONLY
DO NOT DUPLICATE
Answers Chapter Seven
Exercise 7.1 Exercise 7.3

56 33 56
1. x 8.1cm,
= = h 12.8676 cm 1. (a) , ,
65 65 33
2. VW = 18.9148 units,
36 323 36
UV = 37.8297 units, (b) − , ,−
325 325 323
UW = 42.2949 units 204 253 204
LY
2. (a) ,− ,−
3. BD = 13.4 units 325 325 253
4. JK = 10 cm, KL = 10 cm, 56 33 56
(b) , ,
N
65 65 33
JL = 14.14 cm
O
169 169 6. (a) 157 12 ° , 337 12 °
cosec D =
5.= , sec D
119 120 (b) 49.1° , 229.1°
6. (a) 1
1
12
(b) 2
2
5
SE (c) 56.5°, 236.5°
 =45°, N
7. M  =45°
3 6 + 2 +6
8. (a) (c)
U
8. 5 5 cm, 53.13° and 126.87° 2 8
9. PR = 13.97 cm (b) 3
10. 407 metres
E
11. h = 46.86 metres Exercise 7.4

N
Exercise 7.2 3. (a) 2 (c) 1 − sin x

LI
(b) cot θ (d) cot x

2
1. (a) cos y (b) cos θ 5. (a) x + 2 y =0
N
2
(c) 1 (d) sec θ (b) x = 2 y + 4 y + 1
O
4 x (1 − x 2 )
1
4. (a) x 2 + y 2 = (c) y =
1 − 6 x2 + x4
(b) ( x − 2 ) + ( y + 1) =
R
2 2
1
( x − 4) 2 ( y − 7) 2
(d) + 1
=
(c) xy = 3
FO
9 81
5. (a) θ =60°, 120°, 240°, 300° 6. (a) 22.5°,112.5°, 202.5°, 292.5°
(b) θ =70.5°, 289.5° (b) 45°,121°, 225°,301°
(c) 14.47°,165.53°
(c) θ = 26.6°, 45°, 225°, 206.6°
(d) 0°, 48.18°, 180°, 311.82°, 360°
666
Form Five
FOR ONLINE USE ONLY
DO NOT DUPLICATE
336 336 625

8. (a) ,− ,− (h) −180°, − 106.85°, −90°, −16.85°,
527 625 527
0°, 73.16°,90°,163.16°,180°
28560 28560 28561
(b) − ,− , (i) − 40.72°, 72.6°
239 28561 239
(j) 51.33°, 128.67°
3
11. (a) −
3 3. (a) Maximum 2, minimum − 2
3 Maximum occurs at 45°
(b)
2
Minimum occurs at 225°
1
(c) −
LY
2 (b) Maximum 2 − 3 , minimum
8−2 6 −2 2 − 2 − 3 Maximum occurs at
(d)
N
4
255° Minimum occurs at 75°
Exercise 7.5
O
(c) Maximum 5, minimum −5
Maximum occurs at 143.13°
1. (a) 0º, 112º, 360º SE Minimum occurs at 306.87°
(b) 53.1°, 323.1°
201
(c) 48.4°, 205.34° (d) Max. + 7 3 , min.
4
U
(d) 119.56°, 346.7° 201
− + 7 3 Maximum occurs
(e) 114.2°, 335.7° 4
at 83.42° Minimum occurs at
E
(f) 188.4°, 319.72°

263.42°
N
(g) 101.34°, 355.4°

(h) 36.9°, 241.92° (e) Maximum 10, minimum
LI
(i) 80.72°, 234.04° − 10 Maximum occurs at

N
(j) 51.32°, 308.68° 71.57° Minimum occurs at

O
2. (a) − 30°, 90° 251.57°

(b) 76.71°, − 150.45° (f) Maximum 5, minimum −5
R
(c) −4.9°, −129.88° Maximum occurs at 36.87°

Minimum occurs at 216.87°
FO
(d) − 20.52°, 28.11°, 159.48°

(e) −24.3°, 114.29° (g) Maximum 17, minimum −17
(f) 0°, 45°, 180° Maximum occurs at 118.07°
(g) −8.3°, −155.43° Minimum occurs at 293.96°
667
Form Five
FOR ONLINE USE ONLY
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(h) Maximum 34, minimum − 34, π n + 1.365, π n + 0.2058

9.
Maximum occurs at 30.96° 11
10. 2π n + π.
Minimum occurs at 210.96° 6
(i) Maximum 37, minimum − 37 Exercise 7.7

Maximum occurs at 99.46° 1. (a) 2sin 45° cos5°
Minimum occurs at 279.46° (b) 2 cos 45° sin 25°
(j) Maximum 1 1 (c) 2cos 40° cos15°
, minimum −
2 2
LY
Maximum occurs at 45º Minimum (d) 2sin 55° sin 20°
occurs at 135º. 2. (a) − 12 ( cos 95° − cos15° )
(b) 12 ( sin165° − sin 55° )
N
4. Maximum 13, minimum − 13
(c) 12 ( sin 70° + sin10° )
O
Maximum occurs at 33.69° (d) 12 ( cos85° + cos15° ) .
Minimum occurs at −146.31° π − 2π n
SE 3. (a)= θ xn = ,θ ,
5. cos θ + 2sin θ ≡ 5 sin(θ + α ) 2
π + 4π n 3π + 4π n
=θ = ,θ ,
Maximum 5, minimum − 5 4 4
U
Maximum occurs at 63.43° π ( 3n + 1) π ( 3n + 2 )
=θ = ,θ .
Minimum occurs at −116.565° 3 3
π 2π
(b) x =π n, nπ − , 2π n ±
E
Exercise 7.6 2 3
1 2 2
π n, or π n ± π
N
=(c) x
π π 4 3 9
n + ( −1)
n
1. nπ πn π
2 12 =(d) θ or −
LI
π π 3 2 8
n+ nπ π
2. =(e) x or 2π n ±
N
5 20 4 3
π 7 π
(f) x= π n + (−1)
n
3. 2π n + , 2π n + π
O
4 4 4
4. 2π n − 0.19, 2π n + π − 0.89 a 2a − b + a b 2
6. ,
R
5. π n + 1.6512 b 1 − a 2 + 2ab
FO
6. π n + 1.0616, π n − 1.22678 cos 3θ 4 cos3 θ − 3cos θ and

7. =
7 11 1 cos 2θ 2 cos 2 θ − 1
=
7. 2π n + π , 2π n + π , 2π n + π
6 6 2
8. 2π n + 1.7, 2π n + (2π − 0.72) 8. (a)
0°, 60°,90°,120°,180°
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9. (b) 50° 7π π
6. ,
12 4
(c) 20°,90°,100°,140° 7π 5π 11π
7. (a) (b) (c)
(d) 0°, 45°,90°,120°,135°,180° 8 9 36
2π 4π
π 5π 3π 8. (a) 0.71π (b) (c)
10. 0, , , , 2π 3 5
6 6 2 9. 360 °, 135°
5λ 10. (a) − 64.3° (b) 270°
11. (a) tan (b) 18°, 90°
2 (c) −114.6° (d) 267.4°
17A 2
LY
12. (a) tan (b) cot π
2 3 Exercise 7.9
Exercise 7.8
N
1. (a) 1 + 5θ (b) 4
π 4π π 1 4θ
O
1. (a) (b) (c) (c) (d)
6 3 2 1 + 2θ 1 − 2θ 2
3π 2π 3π SE 1
(d) − (e) (f) (e) 2 (θ 2 + 2θ − 2 )
4 9 2 4
7π 9π 1
(g) (h) (f) − θ
U
4 4 2
2. (a) 60° (b) 300° 2. 5
E
(c) 210° (d) −120° 3. 0.294

(e) 540° (f) 252° 16 θ 2
N
382.5° 6.
(g) (h) 360° 1+θ
LI
π 11π π 5π 2
(1 − 2θ 2 ) sin 3α + 2θ cos 3α 
3. (a) , (b) , 7.
6 6 4 4 3 
N
π 3π 7π 11π 18θ 2
(c) , (d) ,
4 4 6 6 9.
O
1 + 2θ + 6θ 2
3π 5π π 4π
(e) , (f) , 10. (a) 1 + 2θ − θ 2
4 4 3 3
R
(b) tan α + θ sec 2 α

4. (a) 28.07° (b) 98.55°
FO
(c) −135.22° (d) −48.70°

(e) 251.53° (f) −291.06°
5. (a) 1.14 (b) 0.559 (c) 1.48
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Exercise 7.10
 π
1. Domain = x ∈  : x ≠ ( 2n + 1) 
 2
Range = { y ∈  : except − 1 < y < 1}
π πn
2. Domain =  x ∈  : x ≠ +  Range
= { y ∈ }
 4 2 
3. Domain= { x ∈  : x ≠ ±π , ± 2π , ± 3π ,...} Range
= { y : y ∈ }
4. Domain = { x ∈  : x ≠ 0, ± π , ± 2π , ± 3π ,...}
= { y ∈  : y ∈ (−∞, − 1] ∪ [1, ∞)}
LY
Range
 π 3π 5π 
5. Domain=  x ∈  : x ≠ ± , ± ,± ,...
 4 4 4 
N
Range = { y ∈  : except − 1 < y < 1}
O
6. Domain = { x ∈  : −π ≤ x ≤ π } Range = { y ∈  : −2 ≤ y ≤ 2}
 π πn  SE
7. Domain =  x ∈  : x ≠ + = { y : y ∈ }
, n ∈   Range
 4 2 
 π  1 1
8. Domain = x ∈  : x ≠ ( 2n + 1)  Range =  y ∈  : except − < y < 
 2  2 2
U
9. Domain = { x ∈  : 0 ≤ x ≤ π } Range = { y ∈  : −6 ≤ y ≤ 6}
 π 3π 
E
10. Domain = −2π ≤ x ≤ 2π , x ≠ ± , ±  Range

= { y : y ∈ }
 2 2 
N
Exercise 7.11
LI
2− 6 π
1. (a) (b) (c) 3 (d) 1
N
4 4
13 87
2. (a) 4 (d) 56
O
(b) − (c)
3 85 425 65
x
4. (a) (b)
R
2
1− x 1 + x2
1
FO
5. (a) x = 0.7862 (b) x = ±1, x = (c) x = 0.2808 (d) =

x 6−4 2
2
(e) 13 (f) 16 (g) ± 2 (h) 0
3
(i) ± 2 (j) ±
4
10. 0
670
Form Five
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Exercise 7.12
1. (a)
LY
N
O
(b)
SE
U
E
N
LI
(c)
N
O
R
FO
671
Form Five
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(d)
LY
N
O
(e)
SE
U
E
N
LI
N
(f)
O
R
FO
672
Form Five
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2. (a) Domain = { x ∈  : −1 ≤ x ≤ 1} (b) Domain

= { x : x ∈ }
 π π
Range =  y ∈  : − ≤ y ≤  Range = { y ∈  : 0 < y < π }
 2 2
= { x : x ∈ }
(c) Domain (d) Domain = { x ∈  : −1 ≤ x ≤ 1}
 π π
Range =  y ∈  : − < y <  Range = { y ∈  : 0 ≤ y ≤ π }
 2 2
3. (a) 0 < cot −1 x < π
4.
LY
N
O
SE
U
E
5.
N
LI
N
O
R
FO
673
Form Five
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Revision exercise 7
 15 135 + 168   315 − 8 135  15 135 − 168

−
1. (a)   (b) −   (c)
 315 − 8 135   408  408
2 2
 x −9  y −7  4 x 2 − 46 x + 94
2. (a)   +   1
= (b) y =
 4   15  x 2 − 10 x + 16
x 2 (1 − y 2 )
(c)=
3 2
(d) yx + 12 x −256 = 0
3sin 3θ cos 3 y
3. (a) 2 tan 2θ (b) − (c) − tan x (d)
LY
4 cos8 y
5. (a) 460° (b) 316.55° (c) 429.7° (d) −150°
N
73 19
6. (a) π (b) π
72 30
O
35 9641
7. (a) −3π (b) − π π (c)
6 14400 SE
4 9
8. (a) 9θ + 2 (b) (c) − (d) 6θ 2
3 8
10. (a) −144.1°, − 58.5°,35.9°,121.5° (b) 139.26°, −107.38°
U
π π (1 − 2n) 1
11. (a) 2π n, 2π n + , = (b) θ 2π n, or 2π n + π
2 5 2
E
2 1 2 1
(c) θ = π n + π , or θ =− πn+ π
5 10 3 6
N
4π n ± π 4π n ± π
(d) θ= 360°n + 69.2° or θ= 360°n − 32.3° (e) ,
LI
a+b a −b
(f) θ= 360°n − 19°47′ or θ= 360°n − 47°35′
N
πn π
(g) =
θ θ πn±
or = (h) θ= 180°n ± 60° or θ= 180°n ± 24.09°
O
3 3
12. (a) ( x, y ) = (15°, 75° ) ; ( 75°, 15° ) ; (195°, 255)
R
(15°, 255) ; (195°, 75° ) .

FO
(b) ( x, y ) = ( 45°,165° ) or ( x, y ) = (165°, 45° )

52
13. 14. 27.2°, 152.8°, 207.2°, 332.8° 15. 26.6°, 206.6°
39
674
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16. (a) 103.1°, 330° (b) 36.9°, 270° (c) 0°, 112.6°
(d) 28.1°, 208.1°, 159.5°, 339.5°
(e) 76.7°, 209.6° (f) 90°, 330°
17. (a) 13, 67.4° (b) 5, 53.13° (c) 10, 53.13° (d) 2, 45°
18. (a) 2, 45°; − 2, 225° (b) 5, 53.1°; − 5, 233.1°
(c) 17, 298.1°; − 17, 118.1° (d) 37, 170.5°; − 37, 350.5°
19. (a) Maximum = 5; Minimum = −5 (b)

x = 53.13°; and − 126.9°
LY
1 2 3 +θ
20. (a) − sin α (b) (1 + θ ) (c)
2 3 1−θ 3
N
22. 22.5°, 112.5°
O
1 1
=
24. t =or t
2 p SE
23 9 11 43
25. (a) 2 cos 2 θ sin 2 θ (b) 2sin11θ cos 2θ (c) −2sin θ sin θ
10 10
 7
(d) 2 cos  θ  cos θ
U
 2 
1 1
28.
= x =,x 35. −360°, − 90°, 0°, 360°
2 3
E
0°, 10.32°, 60°, 70.32°, 120°, 130.32°, 180°,

N
36.
190.32°, 240°, 250.32°, 300°, 310.32, 360°
LI
2t 2π π
37. tan 2 x = 2
, x = π n, + π n, + π n
1− t 3 3
N
4 + 15 4 − 15 4 + 15
O
39. (a) ± (b) ± (c) ±

4 8 4 − 15
R
FO
675
Form Five
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Chapter Eight
5. Let: x be the number of packages
of type A
Exercise 8.1 y be the number of packages
of type B
1. Let: x be the number of units paint Max
= z 5, 000 x + 7, 000 y
of quality P1 Subject to: 2 x + y ≤ 4000
y be the number of units paint of
x + 2 y ≤ 4000
quality P2
5 x + 6 y ≤ 13500
Max
= z 2, 000 x + 2,500 y
x ≥ 0, y ≥ 0
LY
6. Let: x be the number of kg of food
3x + 2 y ≤ 10 type I
x ≥ 0, y ≥ 0 y be the number of kg of food
N
2. Let: x be the number of tables type II
y be the number of chairs Min
= z 2500 x + 2850 y
O
Max
= z 3, 250 x + 3,165 y Subject to: x + 2 y ≥ 10
Subject to: 4 x + 3 y ≤ 140 SE x+ y ≥6
2 x + y ≤ 100 3x + y ≥ 8
x ≥ 0, y ≥ 0 x ≥ 0, y ≥ 0
U
3. Let: x be the number of circuit of 7. Let: x be the number of mangoes
type C1 y be the number of oranges
y be the number of circuit of Min= w 400 x + 150 y
E
type C2 1
Subject to: x+ y ≥5
N
Max
= z 4, 450 x + 3,570 y 2
Subject to: 2 x + y ≤ 20 x + y ≥ 10
LI
x + y ≤ 12 x+ y ≥5
N
2 x + 3 y ≤ 15 x ≥ 0, y ≥ 0
x ≥ 0, y ≥ 0
O
8. Let: x be number of kilogram of

4. Let: x be the number of chairs of
ingredient type 1
type A
R
y be number of kilogram of
y be the number of chairs of
ingredient type 2
FO
type B Min
= z 8, 000 x + 7,500 y
Max
= z 2,330 x + 1,890 y
Subject to: 2 x + 3 y ≥ 6
Subject to: 2 x + 3 y ≤ 30
3x + 4 y ≥ 8
x + y ≤ 12
x ≥ 0, y ≥ 0
x ≥ 0, y ≥ 0
676
Form Five
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9. Let: x be the number of units of (d) z = 2(0) + 3(5) = 15

product type A Therefore, the maximum value is at
y be the number of units product (4, 3) which is 17.
type B
Max z 10, 000 x + 13, 000 y
=
2 x + 5 y ≤ 80
4 x + y ≤ 60
x ≥ 0, y ≥ 0
LY
Exercise 8.2
N
1. (a)
x+2y=6
O
2x+y=4
SECorner points
z= x + 2 y
3x+y=5
A (6, 0)
U
z =(6) + 2(0) =6
B ( 23 , 8
3 )
z = 23 + 2 ( 83 ) = 6
E
C (0, 4)
N
x+2y=10 z= 0 + 2(4) = 8
LI
Therefore, the minimum value is 6.

2. The maximum value is at (28, 0)
N
Corner points which is 306,600.

z 2x + 3y
= In order to maximize profit, 28
O
A (0, 0) standard tents and 0 expedition tents

z = 2(0) + 3(0) = 0 should be manufactured.
R
3. The maximum value is at (6, 6)

B (5, 0)
which is 167,700.
FO
z = 2(5) + 3(0) = 10
 64 76 
C (4, 3) 4. The maximum value is at  , 
z = 2(4) + 3(3) = 17 which is Tshs 860,571.43. 35 7 
5. The minimum cost Tshs 352,500
D (0, 5)
which is at point (150, 150)
677
Form Five
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6. The maximum value is at ( 2, 3) which

is 8,720. 4. Min w = 25, 000 x + 35, 000 y + 2,100, 000
The carpenter should make 2 tables and Subject to : x ≤ 30
3 chairs to get a profit of Tshs 8,720. y ≤ 25
7. The maximum value is at B ( 0, 80 ) x + y ≥ 10
which is 790,400. Should sell 0 mixture x + y ≤ 50
type I and 80 units of mixture type II. x ≥ 0, y ≥ 0
8. The maximum profit is at (150, 400)
which is 11,521,000.
5. Min
= f 500 x + 1, 407,500
9. The maximum contribution of Subject to : x ≤ 40
LY
each product is at (80, 88) which is
y ≤ 55
22,480,000.
x + y ≤ 80
N
x + y ≥ 30
Exercise 8.3
x ≥ 0, y ≥ 0
O
1. Min f = 2500 x + 2500 y + 705, 000
6. Min f = −(3x + y ) + 82
SE
y ≤ 70
y≤5
x + y ≥ 60
x+ y ≥4
U
x + y ≤ 120
x+ y ≤6
x ≥ 0, y ≥ 0
x ≥ 0, y ≥ 0
E
2. Min w = x − y + 500 7. Min w = 4 x + 2 y + 11, 000

N
Subject to : x ≤ 70 Subject to : x ≤ 2000

LI
y ≤ 40 y ≤ 1500
x + y ≤ 90 x + y ≥ 2000
N
x + y ≥ 30 x + y ≤ 3000
x ≥ 0, y ≥ 0
O
x ≥ 0, y ≥ 0
3. Min w = −(2500 x + 2000 y) + 575,000 8. Min w = 1000 x − 7000 y + 190, 000

R
Subject to : x ≤ 30 Subject to : x ≤ 5
FO
y ≤ 25 y≤5
x + y ≤ 40 x+ y ≥4
x + y ≥ 20 x+ y ≤8
x ≥ 0, y ≥ 0 x ≥ 0, y ≥ 0
678
Form Five
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9. Min w = 400 x + 300 y + 380, 000 5. From A B

y ≤ 600 To
Malaga 0 15,000
x + y ≥ 500
Falulu 20,000 0
x + y ≤ 900
Tina 10,000 5,000
x ≥ 0, y ≥ 0
Minimum cost is Tshs 3,200,000
Exercise 8.4 6. From S1 S2
LY
1. From D1 D2 To
To P1 5,000 30,000
N
C1 80 0 P2 20,000 0
C2 40 10 P3 25,000 0
O
Minimum cost is 2,500 Minimum cost is Tshs 3,200,000
2. From Misungwi Ngudu
SE
7. From W1 W2
To
To
U
Mabuki 20 0
C1 600,000 20,000
Misasi 5 10
C2 1,500,000 0
Minimum cost is 53, 000
E
C3 1,000,000 0
3. From H1 H2
N
Minimum cost is Tshs 5,100,000

To
LI
P 0 500 8. From F1 F2
Q 500 100
N
R 400 0 To
S1 0 20
O
Minimum cost is Tshs 5,300

S2 5 10
4. From P Q
R
S3 20 0
To
Minimum cost is Tshs 9,500 when
FO
A 0 5
B 5 0 x 5,=
= y 0
C 3 1
Minimum cost is Tshs 1,550
679
Form Five
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9. From K1 K2 8. The minimum value is at (18, 0).

Hence, 8 tables and 0 chairs.
To
9. (a) 11ways
Lundo 35,000 0 (b) Product of 7 toys of each type give
Hamisi 45,000 15,000 the greates balance of Tshs 8,500.
Minimum cost is Tshs 1,015,000,000 (c) 18 toys
(d) The maximum value is at (10, 8).
Thus, 5 cheetah toys and 8 cat toys.
Revision exercise 8
10. Maximum loss of calories is at (1, 12 )
which is 9. 5 calories. This implies that,
LY
1. (a) Max
= z 4, 000 x + 6, 000 y
1 hour for aerobics and 30 minutes for
flexibility exercises.
3 x + 2 y ≤ 80
N
11. (a) 70 grams of A and 40 grams of B.
x ≥ 0, y ≥ 0 (b) Tshs 5,200
O
(b) Product mix should be 30 12. The minimum cost is at (0, 5) which is
products from Alpha and 0 SE Tshs s 500. This implies, 0 feed from
products from Beta A and 5 feed from B.
(c) 10 Beta products 13. The minimum cost is Tshs 44,000.
2. The maximum value is at (0, 34) The transportation is as follows;
U
which is Tshs s 1,020,000. 500 litres from N to D
3. The minimum value is at (100, 100) 3,000 litres from N to E
which is Tshs s 6,000,000. 3,500 litres from N to F
E
4. The maximum value is at (5, 8) 4,000 litres from Q to D

N
which is Tshs s 210,000. Hence,5 0 litres from Q to E

machines of type A and 8 machines 0 litres from Q to F
LI
of type B should be produced. 14. The minimum cost Tshs 64,000. The
5. The maximum profit is at crates should be supplied as follows;
N
(2.4, 7.2) ≈ (3, 7) which is Tshs s 0 crates from G1 to R1

O
5,400,000. 200 crates from G1 to R2

6. The maximum value is at (2, 4) 700 crates from G1 to R3
which is 8 cups. Thus, the students 600 crates from G2 to R1
R
should take 2 cups of coffee and 4 300 crates from G2 to R2

FO
cups of tea. 0 crates from G2 to R3

7. Greatest possible areas he can sow 15. The maximum number of cakes that
is 5 hectares. can be made is 30.
680
Form Five
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16. 100kg of F1 and 80kg of F2.

17. (a) 10 units of M and 4 units of N
(b) The maximum Profit is Tshs 7,600.
18.
From A B
To
P1 70 0
P2 90 30
LY
Minimum Transportation cost is Tshs 40,600
N
19.
O
A B C
Deport 1 50 150 0
Deport 2 100 0 200
SE
20. (a) The objective function is Min z = (40 x + 20 y ) + 45, 200
U
(b) Inequalities associated to the transportation problems are
x + y ≤ 160
E
x + y ≥ 50
x ≤ 70
N
y ≤ 120
LI
x ≥ 0, y ≥ 0
N
(c) The problem is not balanced since total supply from sources is not equal
to the total demands.
O
R
FO
681
Form Five
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Chapter Nine
Exercise 9.2
Exercise 9.1 1. (a) f ′(1) = −2

(b) f ′(0) = 0
1. (a) f ′( x) = 5
(c) f ′(−1) = 20
(b) f ′(t ) = 3t 2 − 2t
(d) f ′(−2) = −37
(c) f ′( x) = −3
1
(d) f ′( x) = 4 x − 3
LY
2. (a) f ′( x) = ax − 3b
2
(e) f ′(v) = 2
9 54 4 − 65
(b) f ′( x) = x − x
N
(f) f ′( x) = (3 − x )
−2
25 25
3 2
O
(g) f ′(t ) = 5kt
4
′( x)
(c) f= x−
1
2 x
(h) f ′( x) = ( 2 x )− 2 SE
3. (a) f ′( x) = 4 x − 12
2. (a) f ′( x) = 5; f ′(1) = 5
3
(b) g ′( x) = (2 x − 3)
U
(b) f ′( x) =
3 x 2 − 2 x; f ′(2) =
8
4
(c) f ′( x) = 1; f ′(2) = 1 2
(c) h′( x) = ( x − 1)
3
E
=
(d) f ′( x) 2=
x; f ′(3) 6
1 ⎛ 1⎞
N
(e) f ′( x) = −2 x ; f ′(4) = −
−3 4. a = 2 5. ⎜ −2, ⎟
32 ⎝ 2⎠
LI
3. f ′( x) = 5 − 4 x; f ′(3) = −7; f ′(−1) = 9 6. x= ±2 3

N
3
dy
4.
= (a) y 1080;
= 540
O
dx 7. t = 0, t = −1; x′(2) = 36
dy
=
(b) y 2;= 9
R
dx 8. h′(1) = 9
FO
dy
(c) y = 1; = −1 7
dx 9. 4 x − 8 x −3 ; 15
8
dy
= 200 ( x + 2 ) ; 200
−3
10.
dx
682
Form Five
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Exercise 9.3
1. (a) f ′( x) = 4 x + 6 x − 2
3 2
(b) f ′( s) = 24s + 60s + 64s − 32

3 2
(c) f ′( y) = − 96 y + 36 y + 96 y − 27 − 3 y − 2 y
3 2 −4 −2
(d) f ′(t ) = 70t 4 − 32t 3 + 12t 2 + 30t − 22
−6 ± 46 dy 17 3
2. x = 3. =
5 dx 6
LY
5 x 2 − 23
4. (a) f ′( x) =
N
2 x −3
(b) g ′( x) = 2 x ⎡6 ( x + 2 ) + 5 x ( x + 2 ) ⎤
5 4
O
5
⎣ ⎦
2
(c) h′( x) = − 3 − 2 x
1
SE
x4 x2 + 1 2 ( )
U
(d) k ′( x) = −9 x + 8x + 6 x − 5x − 6 x
8 7 5 4 2
5. g ′( x) = 2 ( 4 x −1)( x + 4 )
−3
E
7. (a) 1 (b) 7, − 7 ( )(
8. f ′(r ) = 2r 1 + r 1 − 3r
2 2
)
N
dz
LI
9. = 6 y 2 − 10 y − 4 10. f ′(u) = 2(u + 1)(3u + 1)(u − 1)3 ; f ′(−5) = −24192

dy
N
Exercise 9.4
O
1. (a) −
16
(b) −
4( x + 1)
(c) −
(
2 x2 + x + 2 )
(3x − 2)2 ( x − 1)3
(x )
2
2
−2
R
1 3
2. (a) (1 + x ) −
2 (3 + x )
−
2 ; f ′(2) = 0.052
FO
3 x+3
(b) ; f ′(2) = 0.095
2 ( x + 3)
2
x
1 3
x (10 x 2 + 33x − 12 ) ( x + 3) 2 ; 8.408
−
(c)
2
683
Form Five
FOR ONLINE USE ONLY
DO NOT DUPLICATE
1 3 2
3. (a) − (b) 1 − (c)
t4 q2 3
9 − 4 s 2 + 20 s − 22 208
4. 5. x = 0 and x = −2 9. ,−
4 ( s − 3) ( s − 4 )
2 2
9
Exercise 9.5
1
( ) ( )
− −2
1. (a) f ′( x) = 2 x3 x 4 − 2 2 (b) f ′( x) = −3x 2 x3 + 1
dy
( )
15
2. (a) = 32 x x 2 + 1
LY
dx
dy
( )( )
−7
(b) = − 6 3z 2 + 8 z − 3 z 3 + 4 z 2 −3z − 3
dz
N
(c) dy = 18 x 3x 2 − 4
( )
2
O
dx
1
dy
( )
−
(d) = x x2 + 5 2 SE
dx
1
( )
−
3. (a) f ′(t ) = ( t − 3) t 2 − 6t + 7 2
U
(b) f ′(t ) = −21(3 − t )20
3
3 2
E
( )
−
(c) g ′( z ) =z 3 − z3 2
2
N
− 3
2⎛ 1⎞ ⎛ 1 ⎞ 5
(d) z ′ = ⎜ x + ⎟ ⎜ 1 − 2 ⎟
LI
5⎝ x⎠ ⎝ x ⎠
( ) ⎛ 2 1 ⎞
1.9
N
(e) y′ = 2.9 t − t
3
⎜ 3t − ⎟
⎝ 2 t⎠
O
8t 3 + 9t 2 − 5
5. (a) f ′(t ) = − (b) f ′(−1) =
0.06189
( )
4
3 3 2t 4 + 3t 3 − 5t + 6
R
r4 +1 1
FO
6. r ′ = 8. x′ = 2
r 2 r 4 −1 ⎛ 2 ⎞3
3
3u ⎜1 − ⎟
2
15 ⎝ u⎠
7. θ ′ = −10 ( 4 − 2θ ) 9.
4
16
684
Form Five
FOR ONLINE USE ONLY
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Exercise 9.6 dz 6 z − 3 − 2 x
6. =
dx 2 z − 6 x − 2
dy dy
1. (a) 3 y 2 (b) 1 + dy y 2 − 2 x − 2 xy
dx dx 9. =
dx x 2 + 2 y − 2 xy
dy 5
3. =
dx 2 y ( x + 3)2 dy ay − x 2
10. =
dx y 2 − ax
12 (3x + 6 )
3
4. dy =
2
7.
dx 15 y 2 4 dy y
= −3
LY
13. (a)
2 dx x
8.
3
dy 4 x xy − y
N
1
9. y′ = y or y′ = ( 2x + 1)
−1 −
2 (b) dx = 2 xy + x
O
4 dy y − 4 x3 − 4 xy 2
10. z ′ = ±
3 (c) =
SE dx 4 x 2 y + 4 y 3 − x
Exercise 9.7
Exercise 9.8
dy 4x
U
1. (a) dx = − 1. (a) 2 cos 2x
( )
2
y 1 + x2
dy 1− 2 y (b) 2 x sin x + x 2 cos x
E
(b) =
dx 2 x + 2 y − 1
2 ⎛2⎞
N
dy 3x 2 + y 2 (c) − 2
cos ⎜ ⎟
(c) = x ⎝x⎠
LI
dx y(3 y − 2 x)
2 4 3 5 2 3
(d) −12sin 2x
(d) dy = 6 x 4 y 4 − 8 x y3 3− 4 x y3 2− y
N
dx 12 x y − 12 x y + 4 x y + x
(
(e) 2x sin 1 − x2 )
O
1
2.
dy 1 − 2 xy 3
= (f) − ( x sin x + 3cos x )
dx 3x 2 y 2 x4
R
dy 13 (g) cos x + cos 2 x

3. =
FO
dx 9 x+2
(h) sec 2 x + 2
2
dy y − 2 x − 2 xy 2( x + 2)
5. =
dx x 2 + 2 y − 2 xy (i) 4sec 2 4x
685
Form Five
FOR ONLINE USE ONLY
DO NOT DUPLICATE
(j) 12 x cos 3x2 −1 sin 3x2 −1 ( ) ( ) ⎛ x ⎞

+ 2sin −1 x ⎟
9. x ⎜ 2
1 ⎝ 1− x ⎠
(k)
1 + cos x
5
− sin x + cos x + 1 ⎛ 1 − sin x ⎞ 10. (a)
(l) sin ⎜ ⎟ 1 − 25x 2
(1 + cos x) 2 ⎝ 1 + cos x ⎠
2
(b) −
2. (a) 2π − 2 (b) 4 1 − 2x 2
cos x sin x Exercise 9.10
LY
5. − 2
x x
1. (a) 4 x(5 x − 16)( x − 8) 2
θ cos (θ 2
− 1)
N
7. (b) 2sec 2 2 x + 10 tan 5 x sec 2 5 x
(θ 2
− 1)
O
( x + 6x + 4)
2
(c) −
( x − 4)
2
2 2
y SE
10. (a) −
2 xy − 2sin 2 y (d) − (3x + 2) sin ( x
2 3
)
+ 2x +1
(
sin x + y 2 − 3 x 2 ) (e) 7 cos(7 x + 4)
U
(b)
4 y3 − 2 y sin ( x + y ) 2
2. (a) 2 cos 2 x cos 4 x − 4sin 2 x sin 4 x
2
(c) sec x 2 2
E
(b) −
2
2sec x 2
1− 4x 2 − x2
N
(d)
(1 − tan x )
2
(c) 3sec(3 x + 6) tan(3 x + 6)
LI
Exercise 9.9
(7 x + 29) 4 5
( 2 x + 1) 5 ( x − 8) 3
− −
(d) −
N
1 15
2. −
1 + x2
O
(e) 2cosec2x cot 2 xcosec 2 (cosec2 x)

x2
4.
(a )
R
2
− x2 a2 − x2 Exercise 9.11
FO
(
1 − 1 + x 2 y 3 cos x ) 1. (a) y′ =
5
(b) y′ = ln x
5. 5x − 4
(1 + x )(1 + 3 y
2 2
sin x )
(c) y′ = 2sin(ln x)
1
6. −
1 + x2
686
Form Five
FOR ONLINE USE ONLY
DO NOT DUPLICATE
2 2x 3x 2
2. y′ = 3.
y′ = 2 +
( x + 3)( x + 5) x + 3 x3 + 2
1 4 6
4. (a) f ′( x) = (b) f ′( x) = −
1 + x2 x 3x − 5
(c) f ′( x) = (sin x ) [ln(sin x) + x cot x]
x
(d) = 6x 12 x 2
f ′( x) −
2 + x 2 1 − x3
5. (a) y′
= ( sin x )
tan x
(1 + sec 2
x ln sec x )
LY
2x
(b)
= y′ − 7 cos ec2 x
2
x +3
N
2 x2 − 4
(c) y′ =
( )
O
x x2 − 4
(d) y′ = x (1 + ln x)
x
SE
2cosec2 x
6. f ′( x) =
ln tan x 2. ( )
y′ = cos x − sin 2 x ecos x
U
2 ( sin θ − cos θ ) 5. f ′( x) = 2 xe x + x 2e x
7. x′ = −
( sin θ + cos θ )(1 − sin 2θ )
E
6. (a) y′ = 4sin (8x ) esin

2
4x
3
N
11. y′ =
(b) y′ = ( 2ln 3) 3
2x
4ln 2
LI
dy 1
(c) y′ = (1 + x ln 3) 3
x
12. =
N
dx 2
Exercise 9.12 (d) x′ = sec2 θ e tanθ
O
1. (a) f ′( x) = 2 xe x
2 2
(e) x′ = 3t 2 + 6te−3t + sec t tan t
R
(
(b) g ′( x) = e x 1 −12 x − 6 x2 ) (f) v′ = ( 2u + 2) eu
2
+ 2u −8
FO
⎛1 ⎞
(c) h′( x) = e x ⎜ + ln x ⎟
⎝x ⎠ x3 ln 2 x ⎡ 3 1 ⎤
x2 −1 10. y′ = x ⎢ + − 1 − cot x ⎥
(d) xe e sin x ⎣ x x ln 2 x ⎦
f ′( x) =
x2 −1
687
Form Five
FOR ONLINE USE ONLY
DO NOT DUPLICATE
Exercise 9.13
3. 0.03 x 3cm3 7. 1.8π cm 2
2
2. dy = x cos x − 2sin x ; d y =
( )
6 − x 2 sin x − 4 x cos x
x 4 80π m ; 16π m 8. 1.25%
3 2
dx x3 dx 2 4.
1
os x − 2sin x d 2 y
; =
( )
6 − x 2 sin x − 4 x cos x 5. 40π cm3 10.
2
y%
x3 dx 2 x4
6. 0.015
dy ( 2t + 1)
2
3. (a) Exercise 9.15

=
dx t2
LY
1. 32π cm2 /s
d 2 y 2 ( 2t + 1)
3
(b) =
dx 2 3t 3 2. 157.5 m
N
2
d y 9 1
(c) = 3. cm / s
O
dx 2 4
8π
4. 384π cm /min
3
dy SE
4. (a) = − tan t
dx 2
2 5. 192cm / s
d y 1
(b) = − e−t sec3 t
U
2
dx 2 6. 1.5 cm/s
1
(c) −
2 7. 0.04cm 2 / s
E
6. (a) −1 (b) 48
8. 4.096cm, 0.3576cm / min
N
dy 1
=
LI
7. 9. 3cm 2 / s
dx 5
N
2ln( x) − 3 2ln(2) − 3 10. 9.3π m 2 / s

9. ;
x3 8
O
11. v 15
= = m/s, a 12 m/s 2
10. 1
R
12. (a) v(t ) = 3t 2 − 24t + 36, a(t ) = 6t − 24

Exercise 9.14
(c) t = 4
FO
1. ∆y =0.18
(b) when
= t 2=
and t 6
2. (a) 3.01 (c) 2.84 (d) 2 < t < 6
(b) 127.26
688
Form Five
FOR ONLINE USE ONLY
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Exercise 9.16
1
1. ( −1, 3) and ⎛⎜ ⎞
, − 3.75 ⎟ 2. (0, 0) and ( 4, − 32) 3. (5, − 210 ) and ( −1,6 )
⎝2 ⎠
⎛3 9⎞
4. (a) (1, − 9 ) (b) ⎜ , ⎟ (c) (1, 2 ) and ( −1, − 2 )
⎝2 4⎠
1 76
5. (a) ⎛⎜ , ⎞⎟ and ( −1, 4 ) (c) ( 2, − 8)
⎝ 3 27 ⎠
⎛ 2 256 ⎞
(b) ( −2, 0 ) and ⎜ , ⎟ (d) (3, 4 )
LY
⎝ 3 27 ⎠
⎛ 1 77 ⎞
6. k = 2; Turning point (1, − 3) and ⎜ , − ⎟
⎝ 3 27 ⎠
N
7. (0, − 9) 3
10. y = x − 3 x + 5
O
Exercise 9.17
1. 48 m 2 2.= 3 243 3
SE ⎛2 ⎞
3. 20 4. Maximum point ⎜ ,5 13 ⎟
x = ;v m
2 4 ⎝3 ⎠
U
⎛7 4 ⎞
5. Maximum point ⎜ , ⎟ , Minimum point ( 3, 0 )
⎝ 3 27 ⎠
4 4 
E
6. (a) Maximum point  ,  min point ( 2, 0 ) ; x-intercept = 1 and 2, y - intercept − 4

 3 27 
N
(b) Inflexion point ( 0,0 ) , Minimum (3, − 27 ); x intercept = 0 and 4, y intercept = 0

LI
(c) Maximum point ( 2, 44 ) , min point ( − 3, − 81) ; x-intercept =3.6 and − 5.1, y -intercept =0
N
O
1 1  5
(d) Maximum point  ,  , Min point ( 0, 0 ) ; x-intercept = 0, and , y -intercept = 0
 3 81  12
R
(e) Maximum point ( 0, − 4 ) ; x-intercept = 2, − 2; y - intercept = − 4

FO
 1 49  1 3
(f) Maximum point  − , −  ; Min point  , −  .
 6 54  2 2
2
7. 2 x + 24 cm, 4 12 cm
2
8. 10.98cm 2 9. 614.2 cm 10. 1250 m 2
x
689
Form Five
FOR ONLINE USE ONLY
DO NOT DUPLICATE
Exercise 9.18
4 3 2 2 1 3
2. 5 + 5 x − 5 x − 10 x +
64 3
3. (a) 4 x − 8 x 2 + x − 64 x 4 +
3
2 4
1 π 5  π
(b) 1 +  x −  +  x −  + 
2 2 24  2
LY
2 3 4
 π 3  π 11  π 19  π
(c) 2 − 2x+ +
4
x+  −
4
x+  +
4
 x +  +
4
  2  3 2  4 2
1 3 1 1 3 1 4
N
(d) − x − x2 + x + x +
2 2 4 4 3 48
O
1 1
5. (a) 1 − x 2 + x 4 + (d) 1 + 2 x − 2 x 2 + 4 x3 − 10 x 4 +
2! 4!
1 3 SE
(b) x − x +
3!
(c) 1 + ( ln a ) x + (
ln a ) ( ln a ) ( ln a )
2 3 4
x2 + x3 + x 4 +
2 6 24
U
16 4 128 6 3 9 9 3
6. 1 − 4θ + θ −
2
θ + 7. 1 + x + x 2 + x +
3 45 2 8 16
1 1
E
9. 1 − h 2 + h 4 +
2 24
N
Exercise 9.19
LI
∂p T ∂p 1
1. = −k 2 ; =k
∂V V ∂T V
N
∂z ∂z
= 2 xy 3 , = 3x 2 y 2
O
2.
∂x ∂y
∂z 1 2 y ∂z 2x 1
R
3. = 2 + 3 and =− 3 − 2
∂x y x ∂y y x
FO
2y
4. (a) y (cos xy − xy sin xy ) (b) (c) 6 (3x + y )
(x + y)
2
∂f ∂f ∂f ∂f
5. (a) 3 yx 2 + 2 y 2 x,
= x3 + 2 x 2 y
= (b) 2 x + 3 y,
= 3x
=
∂x ∂y ∂x ∂y
690
Form Five
FOR ONLINE USE ONLY
DO NOT DUPLICATE
∂f ∂f
(c) = 4 x3 y 3 + 16 xy + 5, = 3x 4 y 2 + 8 x 2 + 4 y 3
∂x ∂y
∂f 2 x y 2 ∂f x2 2 y
(d) = − , = − +
∂x y x 2 ∂y y2 x
∂2 z
6. (a) 2
= − x 2 sin( x − 2 y) + 4 x cos( x − 2 y) + 2sin( x − 2 y)
∂x
∂2 z
(b) = − 4 x 2 sin( x − 2 y)
LY
2
∂y
∂2 z
(c) = − 4 x cos( x − 2 y) + 2 x 2 sin( x − 2 y)
N
∂x∂y
O
∂2 z
(d) = − 4 x cos( x − 2 y) + 2 x 2 sin( x − 2 y)
∂y∂x
∂2 z x ∂2 z 2 x 3 y − 4 xy 3
SE
7. ∂x 2 =
− 3
, = 3
∂y 2
(
y 2 − x2 2 ) (
2 y 4 − y 2 x2 2 )
U
∂2 z ∂t π ∂t π l
8. = − 0.71 10. (a) = (b) =−
∂x 2 ∂l gl ∂g g g
E
∂2 z
N
9. =9
∂y 2
LI
Revision exercise 9
N
cos x sin x
1. (a) − 2 (b) −2sin 2x (c) x cos x + sin x (d) −5sin(5 x + 2)
O
x x
3. 5cos x + 4sin x 4. 4sin x (1 − 2 tan x ) − 2sec2 x (5 − 4cos x )
R
−2 y 3 − 6 xy  2 x 2 ln x + x 2 + y 2 
5. (a) (c) − 
FO

6 xy 2 + 3x 2  2 xy ln x 
(b)
( ) (
y x 2 + y 2 + 2 + 2 x3 sec2 ⎡⎣ln x 2 + y 2 + 2 ⎤⎦ )
( ) (
x x 2 + y 2 + 2 − 2 x 2 y sec2 ⎡⎣ln x 2 + y 2 + 2 ⎤⎦ )
691
Form Five
FOR ONLINE USE ONLY
DO NOT DUPLICATE
1− x
6. (a) e x + xe x (b)
ex
( )
(c) e x x2 − 3 + 2 xe x
1 − 3ln x
(d) (e) −5e1− x
x4
ex −1
7. (a) 2 xe 4 x + 4 x 2 e 4 x (b)
2 ex − x
2 ( x + 2)
2
6x
(c) + 4 ( x + 2 ) ln 2 x (d)
(1 + x )
2
x 2
LY
1
9. (a) ( 2 + x ) e − x =4 − x 2 + x 3 +
2
N
1 1 1 1
(b) log e y = ( y − 1) − ( y − 1) + ( y − 1) − ( y − 1) + ( y − 1) +
2 3 4 5
O
2 3 4 5
h cos x h 2 sin x h3 cos x h 4 sin x
13. (a) sin ( x + h )= sin x +
1!
−
2!
SE
−
3!
+
4!
+
1 2 1 3 1 4
(b) e x =
1+ x + x + x + x +
U
2! 3! 4!
π 1 3 1 3 3 1 4
(c) sin  + h  = + h − h2 − h + h +
6  2 2 4 12 48
E
π  40 3 44 4
(d) tan  + h  = 3 + 4h + 4 3h 2 + h + h +
N
3  3 3
LI
π 3 4 4 2 8 3 4 4
(e) tan  + x  = + x + x + x + x +
6  3 3 3 3 9 3 3
N
1 1
14. esin x =1 + x + x 2 − x 4 +
O
2 8
cos x 1 1 1 49 4
15. = 1 + x − x 2 + x3 + x +
1− x 2 8 16 384
R
FO
17. Turning point = (0, − 1)
 1 
18. (a) Gradient = −3 (b) ( 2, 0 ) and  − , 0  (c) 5 and –5
 2 
692
Form Five
FOR ONLINE USE ONLY
DO NOT DUPLICATE
1 7
19. cm / s 20. 16 cm 21. cm / s
14 100π
− sin x cos x 1
24. (a) + (b) − 2
2 + cos x 3 − sin x x +1
− 4 − x3
(c) 2sec 2x (d)
2 x3 x3 + 1
1
25. (b) x + x 3 +
3
9 2 27 4 4 3 4 5
LY
26. (a) 1 − x + x (b) 2 x − x + x
2 8 3 15
N
4 3
27. 1 + 2 x + 2 x 2 + x
3
O
∂z ∂z
28. (a) = 2cos(2 x + 3 y); = 3cos(2 x + 3 y)
∂x ∂y SE
∂z −x ∂z −y
=(b) = ;
∂x ∂y
( ) (x )
3 3
x2 + y 2 2
+ y2
U
∂z ∂z
(c) 3x 2 y 3 ;
=+ 2 y + 3 xy 2
=
∂x ∂y
E
∂z x ∂z y
29. (a) =− ; =−
N
∂x 2
25 − x − y 2 ∂y 25 − x 2 − y 2
LI
(b) ∂z = ∂z
( 2 x + y ) e x + xy ; =
2 2
xe x + xy
∂x ∂y
N
∂z ∂z
O
(c) 3 x 2 + 2 y;
= 2 x + 4 y3
=
∂x ∂y
R
∂z 3 x 2 y 3 ∂z 2 x3 3 y 2
(d) = + ; =
− −
∂x y 2 x 2 ∂y y3 x
FO
(e) ∂z =4 x − 6 y;
∂z
=−6 x + 2 y
∂x ∂y
∂z ∂z
(f)= y=; x
∂x ∂y
693
Form Five
FOR ONLINE USE ONLY
DO NOT DUPLICATE
100π 400
30. 1.85 cm 31. Length l1 = cm and l2 = cm
4+π 4+π
30
32. m / min 33. − 86 m/sec
π
34. Velocity = ( − 4t + 10) m/sec, acceleration = −4 m/s2
∂z ∂z
35. (a) = 16 (b) =5
∂x ∂x
∂2 z 2 ( x − y ) ∂2 z 2( y − x)
LY
36. (a) = (b) =−
∂x∂y ( x + y )3 ∂y∂x (x + y)
3
d2y 2
N
39. 0.16% 40. 2
=−
dx 3
O
SE
U
E
N
LI
N
O
R
FO
694
Form Five
FOR ONLINE USE ONLY
DO NOT DUPLICATE
Answers Chapter Ten
Exercise 10.1
6. − 1 t −2 − 2 t 5 + 7 ln t + t + c
1
2 5
1. (a) x 6 + c (b) 2x + c 2
1 3
6 52 2 72
1 7. 2x − 2x + x − x + c
2 2
(c) 3x −7 + c (d) x + c
2 5 7
3 sin x
2
3 −2 8. − + +c
(e) x + c
3
(f) x +c x 2
2 2 32 2 12
LY
9. x + x +c
1 3 3 3
2. (a) x +c (b) 5e x + c
3 5 3
10. 8ln x + − 2 + c
N
1 x x
(c) ln x + c (d) 2sin θ + c
4
11. ln t + 5 t 4 + 22 + c
O
1 4 t
(e) − cos θ + c
2 SE cos x sin x
12. ln x − − +c
(f) 4 ln sec θ + c 5 3
3 1 13. 6x − x 2 + c
3. (a) − + c (b) 2x + c
2
U
x
14. 1 x3 + 2 x 2 + x + c
12 5
3
(c) t +c
4
(d) −2e x + c 1 3
5
E
15. x5 − x 2 − 2 x 2 + c
5
5 85
N
(e) 10cosθ+c (f) x +c 16. t 4 − t 3 − t 2 + t + c

4
LI
Exercise 10.2 17. 7e x + 4e x + c

N
5 4 8 3 3 2 y2 2
1. 4 x + 3 x − 2 x + 5 x + c 18. − +c
2 y
O
3 4 3 2
19. 2sinθ – 2cosθ + c
2. − x + 3 x + 2 x − 3 x + c
2
R
4
2 52 20. sin x + c
3. x + x 2 + 3x + c 3
FO
5
7 3 3
48 74 18 72 21. x 4 +x − sin x + c
4. t − t +c 3 2
7 7
1 4 5 3 7 2 1 1 3 −2 1
22. x3 − x 2 − x 3 + + c
5. x + x − x + 2x + c 3 2 2 x
12 3 2
695
Form Five
FOR ONLINE USE ONLY
DO NOT DUPLICATE
5 2 1
23. ln t + t 4 + 2 + c 15. ln sec(ax ± b) +c
4 t a
1 1 3r 2
24. − + 3 + +c Exercise 10.4
r 3r 2
1 3
( )
2
1. x + x2 − 3 + c
Exercise 10.3 2
1
( )
2
−t
1 2. − 1 + e +c
( 6x − 9 ) +c
9
1. 2
54
4 3 2
( )
LY
1 5
3. 3t − 1 + c
2. − (1 − 2 x ) 2 +c 9
5
1 4. ln 1 + e x + c
3. − ( 3t − 1) +c
−2
N
6
O
4. −3ln 1 − x +c 5. ln ln x + ln x + c
x SE
5. 12e 3 +c 6.
1 7. − ln cos x − sin x + c
6. − ln 4 − 3t +c
U
3
7. −2sin (1 − 3x ) + c 8. x3 6 52
+ x +c
2 5
E
1
8. − ln 5 − 7 x +c 9.
N
7
1 1
LI
9. ln sec(2θ + 1) +c 10. (1 + ln x ) + c
2
2 2
N
ln 2 x − 1
10. +c 11. ln 3 + 4 x + 9 x 2 − 6 x3 + c
2
O
e3− 4 x 1 2
11. − +c 12. ln ( x + 2 )  + c
14 4
R
3
x  2
12. −10 cos  − 1 +c 13. ln 1 + x 2 + c
FO
2  3
e2 x+ 2 14. x − 2 x + 2 ln
13. +c x +1 − 3 + c
2
3
1 1 2
14. sin(ax ± b)+c
a
15.
3
(
x −1 ) 2 +c
696
Form Five
FOR ONLINE USE ONLY
DO NOT DUPLICATE
16. 1 e x2 + 4 x + c 20. −
1
+c 14. 1 e 2 x ( 3sin 3 x + 2 cos 3 x ) + c
2 ln x 13
17. 1 sin(3e x ) + c 15. θ tan θ + ln cos θ + c

2
21. e tan −1 x + c
6
1 2 2 
t 22. ln tan( x + 1) + c 16. −e−3 x  x 2 + x+ +c
18. t − 2 ln 1 + e + c 3 9 27 
1
1 17. x sin −1 ( 2 x ) + 1 − 4 x2 + c
19. − +c 2
x ln x
1 3 1
18. x ln x − x3 + c
3 9
Exercise 10.5
LY
1 2x  2 1 19. 2 x ln x − 4 x + c
1. e x − x+ +c
2  2 1 1
N
20. − ln x − +c
1 6x 6
36 x 6
2. x tan −1 (3 x) − ln(1 + 9 x 2 ) + c
O
6 1 3 1 1 1
21. (1 + x ) ln 3 x − ln x − x3 − x 2 − x + c
3 3 9 2
3. x cos −1 ( 0.5 x ) − 4 − x 2 + c SE
23.=
I n x n e x − nI n −1 ,
3 2
4. − x cos x + 3 x sin x + 6 x cos x − 6 sin x + c
I 4 = x 4 e x − 4 x3e x + 12 x 2 e x − 24 xe x + 24e x + c
U
1 1 1
5. x(sin x) 2 + cos x sin x − x + c
2 4 4 1
( )( )
8
27. 8 x3 − 1 1 + x3 +c
6. x 2 sin x + 2 x cos x − 2 sin x + c 216
E
1 4 1 4 Exercise 10.6
N
7. x ln x − x +c
4 16
( x + 5) 2
LI
2
8. 1 x 2 − 2 x ln 2 x + x − x + c
( ) 1. ln
x−2
+c
2 4
N
9. x ln 3 x − x + c 1 1 1
2. ln x − 1 + − ln x + 5 + c
O
36 6( x + 5) 36
1 2x
10. e (2 cos x + sin x) + c
5
R
x −1 1 x
11. − 1 e− x ( 2 cos ( 2 x ) + sin ( 2 x ) ) + c 3. ln 1
− tan −1   + c
3 3
(9 + x ) 2 2
FO
5
2 12 x
12. e ( 2sin x + cos x ) + c
5 s2 1 1
4. ln 2
− − +c
13. 1 e 4 x ( 2 sin 2 x − cos 2 x ) + c ( s − 1) s −1 s
10
697
Form Five
FOR ONLINE USE ONLY
DO NOT DUPLICATE
3 15
( 2 x + 1) 2 2  x−48
5. ln + +c 17. ln   + x+c
x−2 2− x  x+4
3 1 4 13
3 1 18. 3 x + x + ln x − 1 − ln x + 2 + c
6. ln x 2 ( x + 2 ) + +c 3 3 3
x 1
 r −1 2
1
19. ln r   +c
 r +1 
7. x −1 2
ln +c
x +1 ( x + 2)4
20. ln +c
( x + 5)3
LY
1 9
8. ln ( y − 3) 5 y 2 ( y + 2) 5 + c x2 1 1 1 31
21. + − 2 − 2 x + ln x + ln( x + 2) + c
2 4x 4x 8 8
N
3
( x + 2)
9.
O
ln 2
+c
( x + 1) Exercise 10.7
x ( x − 1) SE
10. ln +c 1 1 
x +1 1.  sin x − sin 7 x  + c
2 7 
1 1
 t −1 5 2. ( −4 cos 2 x − cos 8 x ) + c
U
11. ln   +c 16
t+4
1
( x + 1) + c 3. ( 5sin 2 x + sin10 x ) + c
20
E
12. − 2
( x − 1) 4.
1
( 3cos 2 x − cos 6 x ) + c
N
12
5x −1
13. − +c
5. 1 cos 6θ − 1 cos 4θ − 1 cos 2θ + c
LI
20 ( x + 3)
5
24 16 8
N
1 1
1
14. x − tan −1 ( x) + ln 
x −1 4 6. ( 3sin 2θ − sin 6θ ) + c
 +c 12
O
2  x +1 
1
7.
30
(
cos 2 x 5 cos 4 x − 3cos 4 2 x − 10 + c )
2
R
15. 5 ln x − 3 + +c
x −3 1
8. ( 4 x + sin ( 2 − 4 x ) ) + c
FO
8
2
t5 1 1 3
16. ln 7 +c 9. sin(12 x + 4) + sin ( 6 x + 2 ) + x + c
(t + 5) 5 96 12 8
1
10. ( sin12 x − 8sin 6 x + 36 x ) + c
96
698
Form Five
FOR ONLINE USE ONLY
DO NOT DUPLICATE
1 1 3 
11.  sin 2 x − sin 2 x  + c
2 3 
1
12.
8
(
6 x + 3sin ( 2 − 2 x ) + 4 cos ( x − 1) (sin 3 (1 − x ) + c)
1 3
13. sin x − sin x + c 1
3 18. (8 x − sin 8 x) + c
64
14. cos x ( 23 cos 2 x − 15 cos 4 x − 1) + c
1 1
19. tan 4 x − tan 2 x + ln sec x + c
1 1 4 2
15. sin θ − sin 2θ + c
2 4
LY
1 2 1
20. − cos3 x + cos5 x − cos 7 x + c
16. cos3 x ( 15 cos 2 x − 13 ) + c 3 5 7
1 1
N
1 1 21. tan 4 (3θ ) + tan 6 (3θ ) + c
17. sin 5 x − sin 7 x + c 12 18
5 7
O
Exercise 10.8 SE
1 4 1 x
1. tan x − tan 2 x + ln sec x + c tan −1   + c
7 2 7
U
2.
5 −1  5 x  2 −1
tan   + c 10. sin 2x + c
45  9  2
E
−1
3. 3 3 tan ( x3 ) + c −1
11. 6sin ( 23 x) + c
N
1  z +1 
LI
4. tan −1  +c
2  2  12. sin −1 ( 5
5
x) + c
N
1 9 + 4 y2 − 3
5. ln +c
13. x 1 − 4 x 2 + 12 sin −1 (2 x) + c
3 y
O
4 + z2 14.
6. − +c
R
4z
7. tan −1 x + c
FO
1 y 9 − x2
8.
2
( )
ln y 2 + 9 + tan −1 + c
3
15. −
9x
+c
1  4y  1  −1 1 
9. 2 tan  7  + c
 
−1
16.
2
(
−1
)
 sin ( x + 1) + sin 2sin ( x + 1)  + c
2 
699
Form Five
FOR ONLINE USE ONLY
DO NOT DUPLICATE
9  −1 1 1
17.  sin ( x − 2 ) + ( x − 2 ) 5 + 4 x − x 2  + c
2 3 9 
3
18. 1
3 (t 2 + 9) 2 − 9 t 2 + 9 + c
−1 1 −1 1
24. −2 9 − x 2 − 7 sin −1 ( 13 x) + c
19. 2sin ( x) − sin(2sin ( x)) + c
2 2
−1 −1
25. 2
3 tan −1 ( 13 ( x − 2)) + c
20. 18 (sin x − 14 sin(4sin x)) + c 2s 2 + 9
26. +c
tan −1 ( x +2 2 ) + c
1
21. 1
2
8(4 s 2 + 9) 2
22. 2
5 tan −1 ( 5
)
( x + 5) + c 27. 7 ln x 2 + 1 + x + 162 (sin −1 ( 2 x)) +
LY
5 5
−1 sin(2sin −1 ( 2 x))) + c
23. sin ( 12 x + 1) + c
1
2
N
Exercise 10.9
O
1. tan 12 x + c 2 1 
2. tan −1  tan ( 12 θ )  + c
SE 3 3 
−1 2  2 
3. +c 4. tan −1  tan x  + c
1 + tan x 2  2 
U
x 6. tan −1 (sin x) + c
5. ln tan   + c
2
E
1
7. − ln 1 + cos 2 x + c 8. tan −1 ( 2 tan x + c )
N
2
LI
1 3tan x + 1 1
9. ln +c 10. tan θ + c
6 3tan x − 1 2
N
x
11. ln sec 2   + c 12. ln tan( 2x ) + c
O
2
R
1  cot x  1
13. − tan −1  +c 14. ln tan(4 x) + sec(4 x) + c
11  11  4
FO
2 −1
15. tan −1 ( 13 tan( 2x )) + c 16. sin ( 12 sin x) + c
3
700
Form Five
FOR ONLINE USE ONLY
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17. − ln tan x + sec x + 2sin x + c 1 tan 4x + 2

18. ln +c
2 tan 4x − 2
1  tan 2x tan 2x 
20. 2 ln tan( 4x ) + c
19. 3  ln + 1 − ln −1  + c
 3 3 
1
y
21. tan( ) + c 22. tan −1 ( 3 tan x) + c
2 3
2  1  x 
2  1 
tan −1 
x 
24. tan −1   2 tan + 1  + c
23.  2 tan  − 1 + c 2 
LY
3  3 2  3  3
−1  1 θ  1 cos x
N
25. tan  tan    + c 26. ln +c
2  4  3 cos x − 3
O
2  1  x 
27. 28. tan −1  tan    + c
SE 3  3  3 
2sin x − 4 −1
30. tan (tan x + 1) + c
29. ln +c
2sin x − 2
U
31. 32. ln tan( 2x ) + 2 + c

3
E
33. sin x 1 + sin x − 13 (1 + sin x) 2 + 1 + sin x + c

N
LI
Exercise 10.10
N
1 x )+c 1 1
1. ln x 2 + 5 + 7
tan −1 ( 5
2 −1
2. 4 ln 4 x + 12 x + 10 + 2 tan (2 x + 3) + c
2 5
O
7 1
3. 4. − ln sin θ + 3cos θ − θ + c
10 10
R
1
5. ln x + 2 x + 10 + 13 tan ( 13 ( x + 1)) + c 6. ln y + 3 − y + 3 + c
2 −1
FO
3 2 5 −1 1 11 10
7. 2 ln u + 2u + 5 + 2 tan ( 2 (u + 1)) + c 8. ln cos θ + 4sin θ − θ + c
17 17
701
Form Five
FOR ONLINE USE ONLY
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1 5
9. 10. x + ln cos x + sin x + c
2 2
3 2 3
ln 7 cos 2 x − 2 sin 2 x −
37
11. ln 2 cos θ + 5sin θ + θ + c 12. x+c
13 13 106 53
Exercise 10.11
7x 11.
1
(ln x) 2 + c
1. +c 2 ln 2
ln 7
LY
(ln x)2 2x x
2. +c 12. + (ln 5 x − 1) + c
2ln10 ln 2 ln10
N
8x (2 x + 1) ln 2 x + 1 x
O
3. +c 13. − +c
ln 2 2 ln10 ln10
4. −
x2
+c 14.
(x 2
)
+ x − 1 ln x 2 + x − 1 − 1
SE +c
ln10 ln10
32 x 15. x
(ln 2 x − 1) + c
+c
U
5. 6 ln10
2ln 3
61−2 y x
+c 16. (ln 3
x − 1) + c
6. −
E
4
ln10
2 ln 6
N
−1 ( 13 ) x
7. +c
LI
x
4 ln 4 17. − +c
ln 3
N
−93−7 x tan x
+c 18. (ln tan x − 1) + c
8. ln10
O
7 ln 9
10 x −1 x
9. +c 19. (ln x − 1) + c
ln 2
R
ln10
FO
x
( ln 3x )
2
10. (ln 3 x − 1) + c
ln10 20. +c
4 ln 5
702
Form Five
FOR ONLINE USE ONLY
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Exercise 10.12
1. 16 52 3. 32
2.
3
4. 180 15 6. 2
5.
2
7. ln 2 2 2 12
8. 9. −
3 π
55 69 113
LY
10. 11. ln 2 + 12.
4 4 24
13. 7174089 9 3 −1 15
15.
N
14. 128
5
1
O
16. 3ln 2 17. 3(e − 1) 18. (2 ln 2 − ln 3)
3
−3
19. 2 21. 0
20.
7
ln 2
SE
1 e12 − 1  π − 4 
22. ln 7 23. 24. 10  cos(1) − cos  
U
2 4e   4 
1 16 2 − 4 4 2
25. 2 26. (1 − e −2 ) 27.
2 9
E
2 2
28. 29. ln( 235 ) 30.
N
15 3
31. 1 32. 6 33. 1
LI
40 ( ln 2 )
2
3
N
34. 35. 36.

2 3 4
O
3π 38. 3 + 4 ln 2 39. 9
37. +1
8
1 e5 − 1
R
40. 41. 42. 2 ln 2 − 2 ln 3

6 2
FO
3
43. 44. 12 ln 3 − 8 45. 1 − 7 6
10 36 36e
26 59 ln 2 − ln 3 48. 3ln 3 − 5ln 2

46. ln 2 − 47. −
3 18 2
703
Form Five
FOR ONLINE USE ONLY
DO NOT DUPLICATE
3 3 203 51. 0
49. 50.
8 480
52.
2
53.
2 54. π
35 15
5 π 1
55. 56. 57. (tan −1 ( 32 ) − π4 )
2 4 2
4 π −1 1
58. tan −1 ( 13 ) 59. 60. 6 − 4 2 − 7sin ( 3 )
3 4
LY
Exercise 10.13
N
1
square units
1
abπ square units
π
1. 2. 3. square units
3 2 2
O
4. 70.116 square units 5. 18 square units 80
6. square units
π
7. π square units 1 4π − 3 3 
SE 71
8.  −  square units 9. square units
2 24  6
U
11. 16.04 units 3 13. 12.0397 units
12. units
64
π 15. 21.2563 units 16. 2π units
14. units
E
2
78 23 square units 18. 3π a square units
N
17.
2
LI
Exercise 10.14
N
96 93 25 2
1. π cubic units 2. π cubic units 3. π cubic units
O
5 5 8
64 80
4. 16π cubic units 5. π cubic units 6. square units
R
3 π
4π ab 2 4π a 2b
FO
7. (a) cubic units (b) cubic units

3 3
16
8. 9. 2500π cubic units 10. π cubic units
15
704
Form Five
FOR ONLINE USE ONLY
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52π
11. (a) cubic units (b) 18π cubic units
5
76π 10π
(c) cubic units (d) cubic units
15 3
π 3π
12.
2
(e 2
)
− 1 cubic units 13.
10
cubic units 14. 9π cubic units
π
15.  2 −  square units 16. π square units 17. π square units
 4 24 8
18. 4π − 7 3 square units
LY
16
Revision exercise 10
N
2 x5 3 1
O
+ x +c
3
1. (a) (3 x − 1) 2 + c (b) (c) ln e 2 x + 1 + c
9 5 2
1 5 2 5
2 3
(e) ( x − 1) 2 + ( x − 1) 2 + c
(d)
5
x + 3 x 4 + 16 x 3 + 32 x 2 + c
5
SE 3
π ln 3
2. 3.
12 4
U
116 2 −1  1 θ 
4. (a) − (b) tan  tan    + c
15 3 3  2 
E
(c) (d) x 2 e x − 2 xe x + 2e x + c
N
5. 0.1794
LI
1 − x2 + 4
7. (a) ln 3 (b) − +c
4 4x
N
e x cos x e x sin x
O
1 1
(c) (sin x − sin 7 x) + c (d) − + +c
2 7 2 2
R
2  4 θ  1  1 −1 θ −3
(e) tan −1  tan   + +c (f) 2 tan  2  + c
2  
FO
23  23 23 
(g) 2.3752
705
Form Five
FOR ONLINE USE ONLY
DO NOT DUPLICATE
x
9. (a) sin( x 2 − 5) + c (b) − cos( x3 − 2 x 2 + 1) + c (c) −2 2 cos   + c
2
1  sin 9 (3 z ) 2sin11 (3 z ) sin13 (3 z ) 
(d)  − + +c
3 9 11 13 
1 3 3 1 
(e)  cos 2t sin 2t +  2t − sin 8t   + c
2 8 4 
(f) 1 cos(cos 3 x) + c
3
LY
1  tan 3 3 y 2 tan 5 3 y tan 7 3 y 
(g)  + + +c
3 3 5 7 
N
1 1 1  1
 − cos11t − cos 5t  + c
O
(h) (i) ln sec x − sec 2 x + sec 4 x + c
2  11 5  4
3 1 5  2x  1 7  2x   −32 − 5 2
SE
(j)  − cos   + cos    + c (k)
2 5  3  7  3  252 2
(l) e 4+sin x + c (m) 0 (n) 1 (sin x − cos x)6 + c
U
6
1 5 5 1 3 3 1 
10. I 6 = − cos x sin x +  − sin x cos x +  x − sin 2 x   + c and
6 6 4 8 2 
E
1 3
I=
7 cos 7 x − cos5 x + cos3 x − cos x + c
7 5
N
1  −1 x  2 3
2 32
x + c (c) 2 (1 + ln x ) 2 + c
3
11. (a) 2  tan x + 1 + x 2  + c ( x + 1) +
2
LI
(b)
  3 3 3
1 3
 1 1 1 
N
(d) 2  ( x − 1) 2 + x − 1  + c (e) ln x 2 + 4 x + 8 − tan −1  ( x + 2 )  + c

3  2 2 2 
O
32 19
12. π cubic units 13. π cubic units
5 3
R
1 1 11 
15. (a) − (b) − 2  2 ln 3 − 1
FO
2 ln 2 e  
7 1
(c) + ln 2 − ln 3 (d)
6 2
2
32
16. a e 2π k − e −2π k  square units 17. square units
4k 3
706
Form Five
FOR ONLINE USE ONLY
DO NOT DUPLICATE
1 4 3π − π + 2 ln 2 − 4 −1
20. (a) −5sec −1 x+ x 2 − 25 + c (b) (c)
5 6 2 ln10
1
21. (a)
4
( (
sin −1 sin 2 x ) ) + 12 sin ( 2 sin ( sin x ) ) + c
−1 2
(b) 2e
x−2
+ c
2 1
(c) − +c (d) ln x 2 + 2 x + 5 + c
x
3 ln 3 2
1 1  x 
(e) ln x 2 + 1 + tan −1  +c
2 2  2
LY
10 5 3 1 3 1
(f) x − ln x − 2 + ln + x 2 + x − tan −1 ( x + 1) + c
11 11 2 2 11 2 2
N
1 1
(g) ln x − 1 + − ln x 2 + 1 + tan −1 x + c
O
x −1 2
1 1  x+3
−1
(h) tan x − + c (i) sin −1 
SE +c
2( x 2 +1) 2  4 
2
(j) 1 + ln x − ln 1 + ln x + c (k) − +c
3( x3 + 1)
U
1 3
1 3
(l) ( x + 1) 2 + ( x − 1) 2 + c
3 3
E
22. ln(1 + 2) units

π (e2 + 1)
N
23. (a) 1 square unit (b) cubic units

2
LI
24. ( −37e −5 + 2 ) units

N
26. The total sales for 4 months is 3702.80 .

3π
− 1 cubic units .
O
27.
8
17
28. units
R
6
30. (a) P(4, 16), Q( − 6.25, − 25) (b) ( 68 − 45ln 3) square units .
FO
707
Form Five
FOR ONLINE USE ONLY
DO NOT DUPLICATE
Glossary
Absolute value inequalities an expression with absolute function as well as inequality

signs.
Adjoint of a matrix a transpose of a matrix containing co-factors of elements
of the matrix.
Angle bisector a line that splits an angle into two equal angles.
Anti-derivative opposite of the derivative of a function.

Argument a series of connected propositions that form a definite
LY
statement.
Asymptote a line that the distance between the curve and the line
approaches zero as one or both of the x or y coordinates
N
tends to infinity.
O
Biconditional statement a statement formed by a combination of a conditional
statement.
Binomial theorem an algebraic method of expanding the binomial expression
SE
to any power without lengthy multiplication.
Cartesian coordinate system a system used to determine a point uniquely in xy-plane
through two numbers.
U
Cofactor of an element the matrix obtained when the column and row of a chosen
element in a matrix are removed.
Column matrix a matrix whose elements are arranged in an order of a
E
single column.
Common logarithms logarithms to base 10, usually written without showing
N
the base.
LI
Complement of a set a set of elements in the universal that are not in the set
under consideration.
N
Composite function a function formed by substituting one function into another

function.
O
Compound angle an algebraic sum of two or more angles which are added
or subtracted through trigonometric functions.
R
Compound statement a declarative sentence formed by more than one declarative

sentence.
FO
Conditional statement a statement formed by two statements in which the second

statement is a logical consequence of the first statement.
Conjunction statement a compound statement formed by joining two statements
with the connector “and”.
708
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Constraints inequalities or equations which connect the decision

variables under certain restrictions or limitations.
Contrapositive of a a statement formed by interchanging the premise and the

conditional statement conclusion of the inverse statement.
Converse of a conditional a statement formed by exchanging the premises and
statement conclusion of the original conditional statement.
Definite integral the integral function which has limit of integration.
Derivative of a function the rate of change of a function with respect to a given
variable.
LY
Determinant a scalar value that is a function of the entries of a square
matrix.
Disjunction statement a compound statement formed by joining two statements
N
with the connector “or”.
Double angle formulae are formulas in trigonometry that deals with the double
O
angles of trigonometric functions.
Equivalent logical expressions expressions which have the same truth values in the
truth table.
SE
Feasible region the region of the graph which contains all the points which
satisfy all the constraints of the system.
U
Feasible solution a solution that satisfies all constraints.
Finite set a set with a fixed number of elements.
Hole a removable discontinuity that exist on the graph of
E
rational function at any input value that causes both the

numerator and denominator of the function to be equal
N
to zero
Horizontal asymptote a horizontal line parallel to the axis of the independent
LI
variable.
Identity matrix
N
a square matrix in which all elements of the principal

diagonal are 1’s and all other elements are zeros.
O
Indefinite integral is the integral function which has no limit of integration.

Indices is a number which shows how many times it has been
R
multiplied by itself.
Infinite set a set containing uncountable number of elements.
FO
Integration by parts a process that finds the integral of the products of functions
in terms of the integral of the product of their derivative
and anti-derivative.
Intersection of sets a set which contains all the elements that are common
to all involved sets.
709
Form Five
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Inverse of a conditional a conditional statement formed by negating both the

statement premise and conclusion.
Inverse of a matrix a matrix that, when multiplied by the given matrix gives
the multiplicative identity.
Limits limits describe how a function behaves near a point,
instead of at that point.
Locus a set of points whose location is determined by one or
more specified conditions.
Logarithms the exponent or power to which a base must be raised to
yield a given number.
Mathematical induction a mathematical technique which is used to prove that if
LY
the statement is true for the nth iteration, then it is also
true for (n+1)th iteration.
Matrix
N
a set of numbers arranged in a rectangular array, having
m rows and n columns and enclosed by the square or
O
ordinary brackets.
Minor of determinant the determinant of a sub-matrix formed by deleting the
rows and columns in a given matrix.
SE
Natural logarithms logarithms to the base e (where e = 2.718281828459).
Normal to a circle a straight line drawn at 90° to the tangent line at the point
where the tangent touches the circle.
U
Objective function a linear function whose value is to be either minimized
or maximized subject to the constraints defined over the
set of feasible solutions.
E
Oblique asymptote occurs when the degree of the numerator is greater than
that of the denominator.
N
Optimal points a point where the objective function attains its maximum
LI
or minimum value.
Optimal value the value from the optimal solution that maximizes
N
or minimizes the objective function of the linear

programming problems.
O
Orthogonal circles circles intersecting in such a way that the tangents at the
points of intersection are perpendicular.
R
Proposition a declarative sentence which can be either true or false

but not both.
FO
Radian the measure of an angle subtended at the centre of a circle

by an arc whose length is equal to the radius of that circle.
Remainder theorem a theorem used to calculate the remainder of the division of
any polynomial by another polynomial without applying
the long division method.
710
Form Five
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Row matrix a matrix whose elements are arranged in a single row.
Scalar matrix a diagonal matrix with equal-valued elements along the

diagonal.
Sequence a set of numbers, or algebraic expressions, which can be
obtained from a proceeding one by a definite rule.
Series an expression showing the sum of terms in a sequence by
linking the terms of the sequence with sign of addition.
Simple statement a declarative sentence that is either true or false.
Spreadsheet an interactive computer application program for

organization, analysis, and storage of data.
LY
Square matrix a matrix having the same number of rows and columns.
Tangent to a circle a straight line which touches the circle at only one point.
N
Trigonometric identities equations that are true for every value of variables
O
occurring on both sides of an equation.
Trigonometric ratios are values of all trigonometric functions based on the

SE
value of the ratio of sides in a right-angled triangle.
Trigonometric substitution the substitution of trigonometric functions for other
expressions.
U
Truth table a table that shows the validity of a compound statement
depending on the truth values of its simple statements.
E
Union sets a set containing all the elements available in the individual
sets under consideration.
N
Universal set a set containing all elements or members of all related

LI
sets without any repetition of elements.
Valid argument an argument that has all true premises and a true
N
conclusion.
Venn diagram
O
a diagram that uses circles or ovals to show relationship

between sets and their elements.
R
FO
711
Form Five
FOR ONLINE USE ONLY
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Bibliography
A. Page. (1951). Trigonometry. University of London Press.

Arora, S.R. (2001). Bussiness Mathematics with Applications. Rajendra Ravindra Printers
(PVt) Ltd.
Backhouse, J.K. (2011). Pure Mathematics (International Edition – East Africa). Pearson
Longman.
Backhouse, J.K & Houldsworth, S.P.T. (1984). Pure Mathematics Book 1. Pearson Education Ltd.
Backhouse, J.K, Houldsworth S.P.T. & B.E.D. Cooper. (1985). Pure Mathematics Book 2.
LY
Longman Group Ltd.
Bostock, L.S. & Chandler, S. (1981). Mathematics; The Core Course for A – Level. Stanley
Throne (Publisher) Ltd.
N
Bostock & Chandler, S. (1984). Core Mathematics for A – Level. Stanley Throne (Publisher) Ltd.
O
Brian & Mark Gaulter. (2001). Further Pure Mathematics. Oxford University Press.
Celia, C.W, Nice A.T.F & Elliot (1980). Advanced Mathematics 1. Macmillan Education Ltd.
SE
Chand’s, S, Dass, H. K & Verma, R. (2015). Mathematics for class XI (6th Revised Edition).
Vikas Publishing House Pvt. Ltd & Published by S. Chand and Sons Company Pvt. Ltd.
U
Dass, H.K. (2002). Engineering Mathematics. S. Chand and Sons Company Ltd.
John, B. (2010). Higher Engineering Mathematics. Elsevier’s Publisher.

E
Mannall. G & Kenwood. M. (2000). Pure Mathematics 1. Heinemann Educational Publishers

(Oxford) Ltd.
N
Sadler, A.J & Thorning, D.W.S. (1987). Understanding Pure Mathematics. Oxford University
LI
Press.
Shayo L.K.S & Masenge, R.W.P. Advance Level Mathematics (Volume 1). Dar es Salaam
N
University Press.
Sancheti, D.C & Kapoor. V.K (1993). Bussines Mathematics (11th Edition). Sultan Chand &
O
Sons Educational Publisher New Delhi.

Stroud, K. A (2001). Engineering Mathematics (5th Edition) Antony Rowe Ltd.
R
Tranter, C.J. & Lamb, C. G. (1961). Advanced Level Mathematics (Pure and Applied) 4th
FO
Edition. Hodder and Stoughton Educational Ltd.

Tranter, C.J & O.B.E. D.Sc. (1953). Advanced Level Pure Mathematics. The English Universities
Press Ltd.
Webber, R.P. (1945). Collage Algebra and trigonometry. Brooks/Cole Publishing Company;
Monterey, California.
712
Form Five
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Index
A E
abscissa 124 electrical networks 92, 113, 122
absolute value 136 empty set 55, 61, 78, 85
angle bisectors 138, 139, 140 equivalent sets 55, 57, 85, 88
argument 92, 102, 109, 110, 111, 112, 113, 707 exponential function 194, 197, 203, 468, 472
asymptotes 104, 627 external division 145, 631
LY
F
biconditional 95, 99, 100, 119
binomial expansion 289, 291, 293, 298, 299 factor formulae 320, 357, 388
N
binomial theorem 207, 289, 290, 291, 292, feasible region 400, 401, 407, 414
293, 297, 298, 315, 317, 373, 438 feasible solution 400, 423
O
finite set 58, 59, 71, 72, 78
C first principles 431, 433, 434, 435, 436, 437
compound statement 704, 705, 707

SE
chain rule 446, 447, 448, 449, 451, 455, 456
G
circle 140, 146 - 158, 161 - 165, 168, 169, 170 graphs of functions 170
U
cofactors of a matrix 273, 274
composite function 187, 203, 446 H
compound angle 320, 329, 330, 331, 334,
E
346, 348, 357, 388, 393, 454, 455 horizontal asymptote 180, 182, 183, 185, 186
compound statement 93, 94, 95, 96, 97, 110
N
conjunction 95, 96, 97, 110, 113, 117, 119 I

constraints 394, 395, 397, 400, 401, 403, 404
LI
identity matrix 262, 267, 268, 276, 279, 282

contrapositive 102, 103, 104, 105, 120
converse 102, 103, 104, 105, 119, 120 implicit function 449, 451, 453
N
improper subsets 70, 85

indices 207, 208, 293, 314, 315
O
D
infinite set 58, 59
decision variables 394, 395, 408, 409, 410 internal division 143
R
declarative sentence 92, 93, 119 ,704, 706 inverse of a matrix 28, 279
derivative 430, 431, 433, 435, 437, 440, 441, inverse of trigonometric 320, 385, 459
FO
difference of sets 60, 63, 76, 86

disjunction 95, 97, 114, 117, 119
double angle 320, 334, 335, 336, 339, 343,
J
388 joint sets 61, 71, 75
double implication 95, 100, 119
713
Form Five
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L R
linear function 171, 284, 394, 423, 446, 706 radians 320, 354, 356, 357, 364-369, 373
logarithmic function 197, 203, 211, 468, 470 rate of change 430, 431, 437, 465, 481, 482
logical connectives 92, 105 rational functions 170, 180, 204
ratio theorem 124, 146
M remainder theorem 241, 242, 315, 316
maclaurin’s series 496, 499, 500 S

matrices 27, 28, 29, 53, 207, 261, 262, 268,
maximum value 349, 401, 403, 493, 495 scalar matrix 261, 262
minimum value 349, 391, 402, 419, 486, 493, scientific calculators 1, 3, 5, 15, 30, 31
LY
sentences 92, 93, 95, 99, 104, 110, 120, 121
N simple statements 93, 94, 119, 707
small angles 320, 364, 368, 369, 370, 388
N
negation 94, 95, 106, 107, 116, 315 spreadsheet 37, 40, 41, 49, 50
square matrix 260, 261, 262, 269, 279, 705
O
O subset 55, 57, 62, 74, 75, 87, 91
objective functions 394, 409, 429 symmetric difference 63, 76, 86
SE
oblique asymptote 180, 181, 182, 184 synthetic method 246
optimal problem 400
optimal solution 400, 406, 407, 414, 423, 706 T
U
optimal value 400, 401, 423
taylor's theorem 496-499
ordinate 124, 489
tautology 105, 106, 108, 109, 110, 111, 112
P transportation problems 394, 408, 414, 677
E
transpose of matrix 266

partial derivatives 430, 502, 503, 504, 506
N
truth table 94, 95, 96, 97, 98, 99, 101, 102
partial fractions 303, 304, 305, 306, 307, 308
turning points 485, 486, 487, 488, 489, 491
perpendicular distance 124, 135, 136, 137
LI
point of intersection 134, 158, 159, 161

U
points of inflexion 485, 486, 489
N
polynomial function 171, 176, 203, 207, 233, union of sets 60, 76, 86
O
power set 58 universal set 55, 59, 60, 62, 71, 72, 74, 76,
premises 109, 110, 111, 112, 705, 707 78, 82, 85
principal value 353, 354
R
product rule 441, 442, 443, 449, 452, 473 V

proof by mathematical induction 207, 228, 229
FO
proper subsets 57, 58 vertical asymptotes 180, 181, 182, 184, 185,
propositions 92, 93, 94, 95, 96, 97, 98, 99 186, 204, 376
Z
Q
zero matrix 261
quartic functions 178
714

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Tanzania Institute of Education

© Tanzania Institute of Education 2022

ISBN: 978 – 9987 – 09 – 404 – 2

retrieval system or transmitted in any form or by any means whether electronic,

Acknowledgements..................................... vii Universal sets................................................ 59

Chapter Two: Sets....................................... 54 Chapter Three: Logic................................. 92

Methods of representing sets........................ 54 Concept of logic............................................ 92

Roster method............................................... 54 Types of mathematical statements................ 93

Set builder notation....................................... 54 Truth table..................................................... 94

Empty or null set........................................... 55 Logical connectives...................................... 95

Equivalent sets.............................................. 57 Disjunction ................................................... 97

Subsets ......................................................... 57 Conditional statements (implications).......... 98

Arguments................................................... 109 Equation of a tangent to a circle................. 153

Equations of angle bisectors....................... 138 Indices and logarithms................................ 207

Locus........................................................... 140 Indices......................................................... 207

Internal division ......................................... 142 Natural logarithms...................................... 214

External division ........................................ 143 Conversion of logarithm from one base to

Circle........................................................... 146 Sequences and series................................... 217

Remainder theorem..................................... 240 Chapter Eight: Linear programming..... 394

Factor formulae........................................... 357 principles..................................................... 431

Radians and small angles ........................... 364 Differentiation of a function........................ 437

Derivatives of polynomial functions........... 437

.................................................................... 374 Chain rule ................................................... 446

Differentiation of implicit functions........... 449

Chapter summary..................................... 387 Derivatives of inverse trigonometric functions...

Derivatives of logarithmic functions .....468 Integration of simple expressions.............. 514

The Tanzania Institute of Education (TIE) would like to acknowledge the

Designer: Mr Halifa R. Halifa

Illustrator: Mr Godlove S. Kyando

Coordinator: Ms Ivy P. Bimbiga

This textbook, Advanced Mathematics for Secondary Schools is written specifically

engineering, business, and mathematics.

polynomial, trigonometric, exponential, carefully each of the following

electronic calculators and perform

calculators. These are programmable

and non-programmable scientific

scientific calculators can write, store,

programmable scientific calculators are

1. List non-programmable and

Basic features of non-programmable scientific

Cursor control Display

Alpha Mode key

(d) Printing calculator Delete key

Standard Unit (US) Metric Unit

Gender Basic operation

Loose weight Fast 2638

Figure 1.1: Basic features for non- programmable

(e) Online calculator

Keys and functions of non-programmable scientific calculators

Table 1.1: Keys and functions of a non-programmable scientific calculator

Keys/Buttons Name Second function /shift Example

Inverse Factorial notation 3−1 , 6!

Brackets Argument and modulus 7 × (2 × 4 + 116) ÷ 3

Comma statistics and conjugate of

Degree/ Degree, minutes, and

minutes/ second convention to 15° 40′ 59′′, 15.6831

yellow colour while the “ALPHA” key

of the arrows. The “REPLAY” button Step 1: Enter the number.

for some non-programmable scientific Step 2: Press the “ ∧ ” key followed

calculators has a functionality of

(b) Preceding keys Step 3: Press the “ = ” key to obtain

A non-programmable scientific calculator the value of exponential.