Trigonometry

TRIGONOMETRY
Martin John
johnmartinudangu@gmail.com
Department of mathematics and ICT.
July 27, 2022

OutLines OutLines Introduction General angles Trig ratio Trig I
Table Of Contents
OutLines
1 Introduction
2 General angles
3 Trigonometrical ratio
4 Trigonometrical Identity
5 Trigonometrical Equation
6 Compound angles
7 Reference
Martin John Trigonometry 2022 July 27, 2022 | 1/16
Introduction OutLines Introduction General angles Trig ratio Trig I
Trigonometry
Introduction
✗ Trigonometry is a branch of mathematics that
focuses on relationships between the sides and
angles of triangles.

Introduction OutLines Introduction General angles Trig ratio Trig I
Trigonometry
Introduction
✗ Trigonometry is a branch of mathematics that
focuses on relationships between the sides and
angles of triangles.
✗ The word trigonometry comes from the Latin
derivative of Greek words for triangle (trigonon)
and measure (metron). Trigonometry (Trig) is an
intricate piece of other branches of mathematics
such as, Geometry, Algebra, and Calculus.

General angles OutLines Introduction General angles Trig ratio Trig I
Trigonometry
General angles
√
An angle is measured by the amount of rotation
from the initial side to the terminal side.

Trigonometry
General angles
√
√
A positive angle is made by a rotation in the
counterclockwise direction and a negative angle is
made by a rotation in the clockwise direction from
the x-axis.

Trigonometry
General angles
√
√
the x-axis.
Angles can be measured in two ways:

Trigonometry
General angles
√
√
the x-axis.
1. Radians

Trigonometry
General angles
√
√
the x-axis.
1. Radians
2. Degrees

Trigonometry
General angles
Radians

Trigonometry
General angles
Radians
✗ Revolution measured in radians is 2π, where π is
the constant approximately 3.14

Trigonometry
General angles
Radians
✗ Revolution measured in radians is 2π, where π is
the constant approximately 3.14

Trigonometry
General angles
Radians
How can we convert Radians into Degree

Trigonometry
General angles
Radians
Since 360◦ = 2π radians(1 revolution)

Trigonometry
General angles
Radians
=⇒ 180◦ = π radians

Trigonometry
General angles
Radians
=⇒ 180◦ = π radians
∴ 1◦ = π
180
radians

Trigonometry
General angles
Alternatives

Trigonometry
General angles
Alternatives
θ
θαl =⇒ θ = kl =⇒ k = l

Trigonometry
General angles
Alternatives
θ
θαl =⇒ θ = kl =⇒ k = l
360◦ α2πr =⇒ 360◦ = 2kπr
◦
=⇒ k = 360
2πr

Trigonometry
General angles
Alternatives
θ
θαl =⇒ θ = kl =⇒ k = l
360◦ α2πr =⇒ 360◦ = 2kπr
◦
=⇒ k = 360
2πr
Equating

Trigonometry
General angles
Alternatives
θ
θαl =⇒ θ = kl =⇒ k = l
360◦ α2πr =⇒ 360◦ = 2kπr
◦
=⇒ k = 360
2πr
Equating
θ 360◦ 2πrθ
l
= 2πr
=⇒ l = 360◦

Trigonometry
General angles
πrθ
∴l= 180◦
[ Arc-length]
a) Radian measure-Is a ratio of Arc-length and its
radius of a circle
πrθ
l 180◦
S= r
=⇒ S = r
πθ
∴S= 180◦
radians [ Radian measure ]

Trigonometry
General angles
b) Small angles
Consider the expansion of the following
trigonometrical ratios
x3 x5 x7
sin x = x − 3!
+ 5!
− 7!
+ ...
x3 x5 x7
Apply Limit sin x = lim
x−→0 (x − 3!
+ 5!
− 7!
+ . . .)
∴ sin x = x

Trigonometry
General angles
x2 x4 x6 x8
Then cos x = 1 − 2!
+ 4!
− 6!
+ 8!
− ...
Apply
x2 x4 x6 x8
Limit cos x = lim
x−→0 (1 − 2!
+ 4!
− 6!
+ 8!
− . . .)
x2
∴ cos x = 1 − 2
x3 x5 x7
But for tan x = x + 3!
+ 5!
+ 7!

Trigonometry
General angles
x3 x5 x7
Apply Limit tan x = lim
x−→0 (x + 3!
+ 5!
+ 7!
)
∴ tan x = x
Example
sin 3θ
Simplify 1+cos 2θ
,if θ is very small
Soln
sin 3θ
Apply Limit = lim
θ−→0 ( 1+cos 2θ )

Trigonometry
General angles
3θ 3θ
= (2θ)2
= 1+( 2−4θ )
1+(1− 2
) 2
6θ
= 2+(2−4θ2 )
sin 3θ 6θ
∴ 1+cos 2θ
= 4(1+θ)(1−θ)

Trigonometry
General angles
Degree-A circle is comprised of 360◦ , which is
called one revolution
Degrees are used primarily to describe the size of

an angle.
Trigonometry
General angles
Measurement of angles
✗ If P(x,y),is any point of the Quadrants,then

Trigonometry
General angles
The Idea of Quadrants
As discussed in O-level form IV Basic-mathematics

Trigonometry
General angles
1st Quadrant 0◦ < θ < 90◦
sin θ = yr (+ve)
cos θ = xr (+ve) tan θ = xy (+ve)

Trigonometry
General angles
2nd Quadrant 90◦ < θ < 180◦
sin(180◦ − θ) = yr (+ve) cos(180◦ − θ) = − xr (−ve)

tan(180◦ − θ) = − xy (−ve)

Trigonometry
General angles
3rd Quadrant 180◦ < θ < 270◦
sin(θ − 180◦ ) = − yr (−ve)

cos(θ − 180◦ ) = − xr (−ve) tan(θ − 180◦ ) = xy (+ve)

Trigonometry
General angles
4th Quadrant 270◦ < θ < 360◦
sin(360◦ − θ) = − yr (−ve)
cos(360◦ − θ) = xr (+ve) tan(360◦ − θ) = − xy (−ve)

Trigonometry
General angles
√
The result can be summarized as the figure below.

Trigonometry
General angles
− Every Quadrant has a corresponding values of an
acute angle.
Example
1 sin 150◦ = sin(180◦ − 150◦ ) = sin 30◦
2 cos 150◦ = − cos(180◦ − 150◦ ) = − cos 30◦
3 tan 150◦ = − tan(180◦ − 150◦ ) = − tan 30◦

Trigonometry
General angles
Also
1 sin 330◦ = − sin(360◦ − 330◦ ) = − sin 30◦
2 cos 330◦ = cos(360◦ − 330◦ ) = cos 30◦
3 tan 330◦ = − tan(360◦ − 330◦ ) = − tan 30◦

Trig ratio OutLines Introduction General angles Trig ratio Trig I
Trigonometry
Trigonometrical ratio
Trigonometrical ratio and their reciprocal
1
1 sin θ −→ sin θ
= csc θ(Cosecθ/Cosecantθ)
1
2 cos θ −→ cos θ
= sec θ(Scθ/Secantθ)
1
3 tan θ −→ tan θ
= cot θ(Cotangentθ)

Trigonometry
Complementary angles
Consider figure below

Trigonometry
1 sin B = cos(90◦ − B)
2 cos B = sin(90◦ − B)
3 tan B = cot(90◦ − B)
Defn:Complimentary angles are angles whose their
sum is 90◦
Foristance A + B = 90◦ =⇒ 30◦ + 60◦ = 90◦ [
Complimentary]

Trigonometry
NB: Supplementary angles are angles whose their
sum is 180◦
A + B = 180◦
=⇒ 120◦ + 60◦ = 180◦ [Supplementary angles]
sin B = sin(180◦ − B)

Trig Identities OutLines Introduction General angles Trig ratio Trig I
Trigonometry
Trigonometrical Identities
Fig 1⋆
y Opposite
sin θ = r
=⇒ Hypotenus
x Adjacent y Opposite
cos θ = r
=⇒ Hypotenus
tan θ = x
=⇒ Adjacent

Trigonometry
You may recall a little something called
SOH-CAH-TOA to help remembering of the
functions Where
opposite
1 SOH =⇒ Sine = hypotenuse
adjacent
2 CAH =⇒ Cosine = hypotenuse
opposite
3 TOA =⇒ Tangent = adjacent

Trigonometry
Quiz
1. Find values of the trigonometric ratios of angle θ

Trigonometry
Quiz
2. Use the triangle below to find the six trig ratios

Trigonometry
From Fig 1⋆
x2 + y 2 = r2 [Pythegoras theorem]
=⇒ (r sin θ)2 + (r cos θ)2 = r2
r2 sin2 θ + r2 cos2 θ = r2
r2 (sin2 θ + cos2 θ) = r2
=⇒ sin2 θ + cos2 θ = 1
∴ sin2 θ + cos2 θ = 1
Trigonometry
Trigonometrical Identity
Divides by cos2 θ through out
sin2 θ 1
cos2 θ
+1= cos2 θ
∴ tan2 θ + 1 = sec2 θ
Divides by sin2 θ through out
cos2 θ 1 1
1+ sin2 θ
= sin2 θ
=⇒ 1 + sin2 θ
= csc2 θ
cos2 θ
∴ 1 + cot2 θ = csc2 θ
Trigonometry
Proving Identities
1. Prove that,
csc θ + tan θ sec θ = csc θ sec2 θ
Soln Consider L.H.S
1 sin θ 1
csc θ + tan θ sec θ =⇒ sin θ
+ cos θ
× cos θ
1 sin θ cos2 θ+sin2 θ

= sin θ
+ cos2 θ
= sin θ cos2 θ

Trigonometry
1
= sin θ cos2 θ
= csc θ sec2 θ
∴ csc θ + tan θ sec θ = csc θ sec2 θ[Proved.]
2. Prove that,
sin2 θ 2θ
cos2 θ
+ cos
sin2 θ
= sec2 θ csc2 θ − 2
Consider L.H.S
sin2 θ cos2 θ sin4 θ+cos4 θ
cos2 θ
+ sin2 θ
= sin2 θ cos2 θ

Trigonometry
(sin2 θ+cos2 θ)2 −2 sin2 θ cos2 θ
sin2 θ cos2 θ
1−2 sin2 θ cos2 θ 1

sin2 θ cos2 θ
= sin2 θ cos2 θ
−2
=⇒ csc2 θ sec2 θ − 2
sin2 θ cos2 θ
∴ cos2 θ
+ sin2 θ
= sec2 θ csc2 θ − 2[Proved.]
3. Prove
q that,
1−cos θ
1+cos θ
= csc θ − cot θ

Trigonometry
Consider L.H.S
q √
1−cos θ
=⇒ √1−cos θ
1+cos θ 1+cos θ
√ √
=⇒ √1−cos θ × √1−cos θ [Rationalizing denominator]
1+cos θ 1−cos θ
√
(1−cos θ)2 1−cos θ
=⇒ √
1−cos2 θ
=⇒ sin θ
1
=⇒ sin θ
− cos θ
sin θ

Trigonometry
∴ csc θ − cot θ[Proved]
4. prove that,
tan2 θ + sin2 θ = (sec θ + cos θ)(sec θ − cos θ)
Consider R.H.S
(sec θ + cos θ)(sec θ − cos θ)
=⇒ sec2 θ − cos2 θ
=⇒ 1 + tan2 θ − (1 − sin2 θ)

Trigonometry
=⇒ tan2 θ + sin2 θ
∴ tan2 θ + sin2 θ[Proved]
5. Prove that,
cot4 θ + cot2 θ = csc4 θ − csc2 θ
Consider L.H.S
cot 4θ + cot2 θ =⇒ cot2 θ(cot2 θ + 1)

Trigonometry
(csc2 θ − 1)(csc2 θ) =⇒ csc4 θ − csc2 θ
∴ csc4 θ − csc2 θ[Proved]

Trigonometry
Elimination Problems
1. Simplify √ 1 , when x = a csc θ
x2 −a2
Soln
√ 1
= √ 1
(a csc θ)2 −a2 a2 (csc2 θ−1)
√
= a1 × cot2 θ
1 1 1 1 tan θ
= a
× cot θ
= a
× 1 = a
tan θ

Trigonometry
∴ √ 1 = tan θ
x2 −a2 a
2. Eliminate θ from the following

(a) cos θ + 1 = x and sin θ = y
Soln
cos θ = x − 1, sin θ = y since sin2 θ + cos2 θ = 1
=⇒ (x − 1)2 + y 2 = 1

Trigonometry
=⇒ x2 + y 2 − 2x = 0
∴ x2 + y 2 − 2x = 0[Eliminated]
(b) x = a sin θ and y = b tan θ
(c) x = 1 + tan θ and y = cos θ
(d) x = sin θ − cos θ and y = cot θ + tan θ
Soln of (b)

Trigonometry
x = a sin θ and y = b tan θ Since
1 1
1 + cot2 θ = csc2 θ =⇒ 1 + tan2 θ
= sin2 θ
x2 y2
Where sin2 θ = a2
, tan2 θ= b2
1 1 b2 a2
=⇒ 1 + y2
= x2
=⇒ 1 + y2
= x2
b2 a2
a2 b2
∴ x2
− y2
= 1[Eliminated]

Trigonometry
Soln of d
x = sin θ − cos θ
1
y = cot θ + tan θ = sin θ cos θ
=⇒ x2 = 1 − 2 sin θ cos θ
=⇒ x2 = 1 − 2( y1 )
2
∴ x2 + y
− 1 = 0[ Eliminated]

Equation OutLines Introduction General angles Trig ratio Trig I
Trigonometry
Trigonometrical Equation
⋆ Most of the equation in algebra have a finite
number of roots
⋆ In trigonometic equation,there is infinity number of
roots
There are two types of solution
(1.) Principal Solution
(2.) General Solution

Trigonometry
sin θ = 0,satisfied by
θ = 0◦ , ±180◦ , ±360◦ , ±570◦ . . .
Some time range is used to specify in order to
reduce number of roots
Example
1. Solve the equation sin θ = − 12 for 0◦ ≤ θ ≤ 360◦

Trigonometry
Principal Solution
⋆ Principal solution-Is a solution with a limit
unknown/required values of angles
• It Possessing an angles interval
Foristance 0◦ ≤ θ ≤ 360◦

Trigonometry
Example
Solve for the values of x [0◦ ≤ x ≤ 360◦ ]
1. tan4 x + 7 = 4 sec2 x
Soln
since 1 + tan2 x = sec2 x
tan4 x + 7 = 4(1 + tan2 x)

Trigonometry
=⇒ tan4 x + 7 = 4 + 4 tan2 x
tan4 x − 4 tan2 x + 3 = 0
=⇒ (tan2 x)2 − 4 tan2 x + 3 = 0
√
4± 16−12 4±2
tan2 x = 2
=⇒ tan2 x = 2
tan2 x = 3 or tan2 x = 1
√
=⇒ tan x = ± 3 or tan x = ±1

Trigonometry
√ √
x = tan−1 3, x = tan−1 − 3 or
x = tan−1 1, x = tan−1 −1
x = 60◦ , 240◦ , 120◦ , 300◦ , 45◦ , 225◦ ,
135◦ , 315◦

Trigonometry
∴ x = 45◦ , 60◦ , 120◦ , 135◦ , 225◦ , 300◦ , 315◦
2. 1 + cos x − sin2 x = 0
soln
1 + cos x − (1 − cos2 x) = 0
=⇒ 1 + cos x − 1 + cos2 x = 0
cos2 x + cos x = 0

Trigonometry
=⇒ cos x(1 + cos x) = 0
cos x = 0 or cos x = −1
=⇒ x = cos−1 0 or x = cos−1 −1
∴ x = 90◦ , 180◦ , 270◦
3. −6 sin2 x − cos x + 5 = 0[Task]

Trigonometry
General Solution
• sin θ = 0 =⇒ θ = nπ : n ∈ Z
• cos θ = 0 =⇒ θ = (2n + 1) π2 : n ∈ Z
• tan θ = 0 =⇒ θ = nπ : n ∈ Z
• cot θ = 0 =⇒ θ = (2n + 1) π2 : n ∈ Z
• sin θ = sin α =⇒ θ = nπ + (−1)n α : n ∈ Z

Trigonometry
• cos θ = cos α =⇒ θ = 2nπ ± α : n ∈ Z
• tan θ = tan α =⇒ θ = nπ ± α : n ∈ Z
• sin2 θ = sin2 α =⇒ θ = nπ ± α : n ∈ Z
• cos2 θ = cos2 α =⇒ θ = nπ ± α : n ∈ Z
• tan2 θ = tan2 α =⇒ θ = nπ ± α : n ∈ Z

Trigonometry
For the Equation of the form
a cos θ ± b sin θ = c
=⇒ r cos α cos θ ± r sin α sin θ = c
Where
a = r cos α, b = r sin α
Then r cos α cos θ ± r sin α sin θ = c

Trigonometry
=⇒ r cos(θ ∓ α) = c
c
cos(θ ∓ α) = r
= cos β
=⇒ (θ ∓ α) = 2nπ ± β
∴ θ = 2nπ ± β ± α
Example
1. Find general solution sin 2θ = 0

Trigonometry
Soln
2θ = nπ =⇒ θ = n2 π
∴ θ = n2 π : n ∈ Z
2. Find general solution of cos( 3θ

2
)=0
Soln
3θ
2
= (2n + 1) π2 =⇒ θ = (2n + 1) π3

Trigonometry
∴ θ = (2n + 1) π3 : n ∈ Z
3. Find general Solution of cot 3θ = 0
Soln
3θ = (2n + 1) π2 =⇒ θ = (2n + 1) π6
∴ θ = (2n + 1) π6 : n ∈ Z
Quiz

Trigonometry
Find the general solution of
1. sin θ = sin α
2. cos θ = cos α
3. tan θ = tan α
4. Solve the equation 4 cos2 χ + 6 sin2 χ = 5
5. Solve the equation 2 sin2 χ − sin2 2χ = 2

Compound OutLines Introduction General angles Trig ratio Trig I
Trigonometry
Compound angles
Even and Odd functions
Consider figure below

Trigonometry
Compound angles
y −y
1 sin θ = r
also sin(−θ) = r
=⇒ sin(−θ) = − sin θ
∴ sin(−θ) = − sin θ[ Odd function]
x x
2 cos θ = r
also cos(−θ) = r
=⇒ cos(−θ) = cos θ
∴ cos(−θ) = cos θ[ Even function]
3 tan θ = xy also tan(−θ) = xy =⇒ tan(−θ) =
− tan θ
∴ tan(−θ) = − tan θ[ Odd function]
Trigonometry
Compound angles
Compound angle formulae
Consider two angles A and B then A ± B is called
a Compound angles
1 sin(A ± B) = sin A cos B ± cos A sin B
2 cos(A ± B) = cos A cos B ∓ sin A sin B
tan A±tan B
3 tan(A ± B) = 1∓tan A tan B

Trigonometry
Compound angles
Proof
Consider the figure below

Trigonometry
Compound angles
PQ OP
sin A = OQ
also cos A = OQ
For △OP Q
FQ RF
sin A = RQ
also cos A = RQ
For △RF Q
RQ OQ
sin B = OR
also cos B = OR
For △ORQ

Trigonometry
Compound angles
TR OT
sin(A + B) = OR
also cos(A + B) = OR
For △ORT
OR sin(A + B) = T F + F R
OR sin(A + B) = P Q + RF
OR sin(A + B) = OQ sin A + RQ cos A
OR sin(A + B) = OR cos B sin A + OR sin B cos A

Trigonometry
Compound angles
∴ sin(A + B) = sin A cos B + cos A sin B
Put B = −B
sin(A + B) = sin(A − B)
= sin A cos B + cos A sin(−B)
sin(A − B) = sin A cos B − cos A sin B[ Odd
function]

Trigonometry
Compound angles
∴ sin(A − B) = sin A cos B − cos A sin B
OR cos(A + B) = OP − T P
OR cos(A + B) = OP − F Q
OR cos(A + B) = OQ cos A − RQ sin A
OR cos(A + B) = OR cos B cos A − OR sin B sin A
∴ cos(A + B) = cos A cos B − sin A sin B

Trigonometry
Compound angles
Put B = −B
cos(A + B) = cos(A − B)
= cos A cos(−B) − sin A sin(−B)
cos(A − B) = cos A cos B − sin A sin(−B)[ Even
function]
cos(A − B) = cos A cos B + sin A sin B[Odd
function]

Trigonometry
Compound angles
∴ cos(A − B) = cos A cos B + sin A sin B
sin(A+B)
tan(A + B) = cos(A+B)
sin A cos B+cos A sin B

tan(A + B) = cos A cos B−sin A sin B
Divides by cos A cos B through out

tan A+tan B
∴ tan(A + B) = 1−tan A tan B

Trigonometry
Compound angles
Put B = −B
tan(A + B) = tan(A − B
tan A+tan(−B)
tan(A − B) = 1−tan A tan(−B)
tan A−tan B
∴ tan(A − B) = 1+tan A tan B
[ Odd function]

Trigonometry
Example
Find without using table or calculator the value of
sin(120◦ + 45◦ ),leave your answer in surd form
soln
sin(120◦ + 45◦ )
= sin 120◦ cos 45◦ + cos 120◦ sin 45◦

Trigonometry
Compound angles
sin 60◦ cos 45◦ − cos 60◦ sin 45◦
√ √ √
3 2 2
2
× 2
− 12 × 2
√ √
6 2
4
− 4
√ √
∴ sin(120◦ + 45◦ ) = 14 ( 6 − 2)
Quiz
If sin(x + α) = cos(x − β).Find tan x in terms of α
and β
Trigonometry
Double and half angle formula
sin(A + B) = sin A cos B + cos A sin B
put A = B
sin(A + A) = sin A cos A + cos A sin A
∴ sin 2A = 2 sin A cos A
Similarly sin A = 2 sin A2 cos A2

Trigonometry
cos(A + B) = cos A cos B − sin A sin B
Put A = B
cos(A + A) = cos A cos A − sin A sin A
∴ cos 2A = cos2 A − sin2 A
Similarly cos A = cos2 A
2
− sin2 A
2

tan A+tan B
tan(A + B) = 1−tan A tan B
Put A = B
tan A+tan A
tan(A + A) = 1−tan A tan A
2 tan A
∴ tan 2A = 1−tan2 A
2 tan A
Similarly tan A = 2
1−tan2 A 2

Trigonometry
Examples
Solve the equation
3 cos 2θ + sin θ = 1, for 0◦ ≤ θ ≤ 360◦
Soln
Given 3 cos 2θ + sin θ = 1
=⇒ 3(cos2 θ − sin2 θ) + sin θ = 1

Trigonometry
3(1 − sin2 θ − sin2 θ) + sin θ = 1
=⇒ 3(1 − 2 sin2 θ) + sin θ = 1
3 − 6 sin2 θ − sin θ − 2 = 0
=⇒ 6 sin2 θ − 4 sin θ + 3 sin θ − 2 = 0
(2 sin θ + 1)(3 sin θ − 2) = 0

Trigonometry
−1 2
sin θ = 2
or sin θ = 3
sin θ = 12 , θ = 210◦ , 330◦
sin θ = 23 , θ = 41.8◦ , 138.2◦

∴ θ = 41.8◦ , 138.2◦ , 210◦ , 330◦

Trigonometry
Triple angle
sin 3A = sin(A + 2A)
= sin A cos 2A + cos A sin 2A
= sin A(cos2 A − sin2 A) + 2 sin A cos2 A
= sin A(1 − sin2 A − sin2 A) + 2 sin A cos2 A

Trigonometry
sin 3A = sin A(1 − 2 sin2 A) + 2 sin A cos2 A
= sin A − 2 sin3 A + 2 sin A cos2 A
= sin A − 2 sin3 A + 2 sin A(1 − sin2 A)
sin 3A = sin A − 2 sin3 A + 2 sin A − 2 sin3 A
∴ sin 3A = 3 sin A − 4 sin3 A

Trigonometry
cos 3A = cos(A + 2A)
= cos A cos 2A − sin A sin 2A
cos A(cos2 A − sin2 A) − sin A(2 sin A cos A)
cos A(cos2 A − (1 − cos2 A)) − 2 sin2 A cos A
= 2 cos3 A − cos A − 2(1 − cos2 A) cos A
= 2 cos3 A − cos A − 2 cos A + 2 cos3 A

Trigonometry
∴ cos 3A = 4 cos3 A − 3 cos A
sin 3A 3 sin A−4 sin3 A
tan 3A = cos 3A
= 4 cos3 A−3 cos A
Divides by cos3 A through out

3 sin A 3
− 4 sin3 A
cos3 A
tan 3A = cos A
4− 3 cos A
cos3 A
3 tan A sec2 A−4 tan3 A

= 4−3 sec2 A

Trigonometry
3 tan A(1+tan2 A)−4 tan3 A
= 4−3(1+tan2 A)
3 tan A+3 tan3 A−4 tan3 A

= 4−3−3 tan2 A
3 tan A−tan3 A
∴ tan 3A = 1−3 tan2 A

Trigonometry
NB:
♣ sin(A + B) × sin(A − B)
= sin2 A − sin2 B = cos2 B − cos2 A
♠ cos(A + B) × cos(A − B)
= − sin2 B + cos2 A = cos2 B − sin2 A

Trigonometry
Transformation formulae(Factor formulae)
∗ Factor formulae are very useful for solving and
simplifying expression
Consider
sin(A + B) = sin A cos B + cos A sin B
sin(A − B) = sin A cos B − cos A sin B

Trigonometry
cos(A + B) = cos A cos B − sin A sin B
cos(A − B) = cos A cos B + sin A sin B
When sin(A + B) + sin(A − B) = 2 sin A cos B
sin(A + B) − sin(A − B) = 2 cos A sin B
cos(A + B) + cos(A − B) = 2 cos A cos B
cos(A + B) − cos(A − B) = −2 sin A sin B

Trigonometry
Suppose A + B = P and A − B = Q
P +Q P −Q
=⇒ A = 2
and B = 2
∴ sin P + sin Q = 2 sin P +Q

2
cos P −Q
2
sin P − sin Q = 2 cos P +Q

2
sin P −Q
2
cos P + cos Q = 2 cos P +Q

2
cos P −Q
2
cos P − cos Q = −2 sin P +Q

2
sin P −Q
2

Trigonometry
Example
Solve the equation
sin 3x + sin x = 0 for − 180◦ ≤ x ≤ 180◦
Soln
2 sin 3x+x
2
cos 3x−x
2
= 0 [Factor formula]
2 sin 2x cos x = 0 =⇒ sin 2x = 0, cos x0
2x = 0◦ , 180◦ , 360◦ =⇒ x = 0◦ , 90◦ , 180◦
Trigonometry
for cos x = (2n + 1) π2 |n∈Z
x = 90◦ , 270◦
∴ x = −180◦ , −90◦ , 0◦ , 90◦ , 180◦
Quiz
Solve
cos(x + 20◦ ) − cos(x + 80◦ ) = 0.5 for 0◦ ≤ x ≤ 360◦

Trigonometry
Example
Prove that, cos2 A − cos2 B = sin(A + B) sin(B − A)
Soln
Consider L.H.S
cos2 A − cos2 B = 12 (1 + cos 2A) − 12 (1 + cos 2B)
= 12 (1 + cos 2A − 1 − cos 2B)

Trigonometry
= 12 (cos 2A − cos 2B)
= 21 (−2 sin 2A+2B

2
sin 2A−2B
2
)
= 12 (−2 sin(A + B) sin(A − B))

= − sin(A + B) sin(A − B)
= − sin(A + B) sin(−(B − A))
= sin(A + B) sin(B − A) [Odd function]

Trigonometry
∴ cos2 A − cos2 B = sin(A + B) sin(B − A) [Proved]
Prove
that,cos A + cos B + cos C − 1 = 4 sin A2 sin B2 sin C2
if A, B and C are angles of triangle.

Trigonometry
Soln
Consider L.H.S
Angles of triangle A + B + C = 180◦
(cos A + cos B) + (cos C − cos 0)
But cos A + cos B = 2 cos A+B
2
cos A−B
2
A + B + C = 180◦ =⇒ A + B = 180◦ − C

Trigonometry
=⇒ A+B
2
= 90◦ − C
2
cos a+B
2
= cos(90◦ − C2 ) = sin C2
Then cos A + cos B = 2 sin C2 cos A−B

2
Also
◦ ◦
cos C − cos 0◦ = −2 sin C+0
2
sin C−0
2
= −2 sin2 C
2

Trigonometry
So
cos A + cos B + cos C − 1 = 2 sin C2 cos A−B
2
− 2 sin2 C
2
= 2 sin C2 (cos A−B

2
− sin C2 )
= 2 sin C2 (cos A−B

2
− cos A+B
2
)
= −2 sin C2 (cos A+B

2
− cos A−B
2
)
= −2 sin C2 (cos( A2 + B2 ) − cos( A2 − B2 ))

Trigonometry
A
+B +A −B A
+B −A +B
= −2 sin C2 (−2 sin( 2 2
2
2 2
) sin( 2 2
2
2 2
))
2A 2B
= −2 sin C2 (−2 sin( 2
2
) sin( 2
2
))
= 4 sin C2 sin A2 sin B2

∴ cos A + cos B + cos C − 1
= 4 sin A2 sin B2 sin C2 [Proved]

Trigonometry
The t-formula
Consider sin 2θ = 2 sin θ cos θ
2 sin θ cos θ 2 sin θ cos θ
= 1
= cos2 θ+sin2 θ
cos2 θ( 2 sin θ2cos θ )

= cos θ
2
cos2 θ(1+ sin 2 θ )
cos θ
2 tan θ
sin 2θ = 1+tan2 θ

Trigonometry
2t
∴ sin 2θ = 1+t2
[ if t = tan θ]
2t
Similarly sin θ = 1+t2
[ if t = tan 2θ ]
Also cos 2θ = cos2 θ − sin2 θ

cos2 θ−sin2 θ
cos 2θ = 1
2
cos2 θ−sin2 θ cos2 θ(1− sin 2 θ )
cos 2θ = cos2 θ+sin2 θ
cos 2θ = cos θ
2
cos2 θ(1+ sin 2 θ )
cos θ

Trigonometry
1−tan2 θ
cos 2θ = 1+tan2 θ
1−t2
∴ cos 2θ = 1+t2
[ if t = tan θ]
1−t2
Similarly cos θ = 1+t2
[if t = tan 2θ
Alternative
Since sin 2θ = 2 sin θ cos θ
2 sin θ cos2 θ
sin 2θ = cos θ

Trigonometry
2 tan θ
sin 2θ = sec2 θ
2 tan θ
sin 2θ = 1+tan2 θ
2t
sin 2θ = 1+t2
[ift = tan θ]
2t
Similarly sin θ = 1+t2
[if t = tan 2θ ]
2
Then for cos 2θ = cos2 θ − sin2 θ = cos2 θ(1 − cos
sin θ
2 θ)
1
cos 2θ = sec2 θ
(1 − tan2 θ)
J
Trigonometry
1−tan2 θ
cos 2θ = 1+tan2 θ
1−t2
cos 2θ = 1+t2
[if t = tan θ]
1−t2
similarly cos θ = 1+t2
[ if t = tan 2θ ]
Example
Solve the equation
3 cos θ + 4 sin θ = 2 for 0◦ ≤ θ ≤ 360◦
Martin John Trigonometry 2022 July 27, 2022 | 100/

J
Trigonometry
Soln
1−t 2 2t 2 2
3( 1+t2 ) + 4( 1+t2 ) = 2 =⇒ 3 − 3t + 8t = 2 + 2t
5t2 − 8t − 1 = 0 =⇒ t = 1.7165
or t = −0.1165 but t = tan 2θ
tan 2θ = 1.7165, tan 2θ = −0.1165

θ
2
= tan−1 (1.7165) =⇒ θ
2
= 60◦ , 240◦

J
Trigonometry
=⇒ θ = 120◦
Then for θ
2
= tan−1 (−0.1165)
θ
2
= 6.6◦ , 173.4◦ , 186.6◦ , 353.4◦
∴ θ = 120◦ , 346.8◦

J
Trigonometry
The R-formula
Refer to the equation of the form
a cos θ ± b sin θ = c
√
Theorem if a, b, c ∈ R and a2 + b2 ≥ |c| the
solution of a cos θ ± b sin θ = c is given by
r cos(θ ∓ α) = c
Where a = r cos α, b = r sin α, r > 0

J
Trigonometry
Since a = r cos α, b = r sin α, r > 0
From a cos θ ± b sin θ = c
Substitute the value of a and b
r cos θ cos α ± r sin θ sin α = c
r(cos θ cos α ± sin θ sin α) = c
c
cos θ cos α ± sin θ sin α = r

J
Trigonometry
cos(θ ∓ α) = rc
√
but r = a2 + b2 =⇒ cos(θ ∓ α) = √ c
a2 +b2
Example
1. cos x + sin x = 1
Soln
√
a = 1, b = 1, c = 1 =⇒ r = 2

J
Trigonometry
√
but a = r cos α, b = r sin α =⇒ 1 =
√ 2 cos α, 1 =
2 sin α
cos α = √1 , sin α
2
= √1
2
=⇒ α = 45◦
Then cos x + sin x = 1√its solution is

r cos(x − α) = c =⇒ 2 cos(x − 45◦ ) = 1
cos(x − 45◦ ) = √1
2
=⇒ x − 45◦ = cos−1 √1
2

J
Trigonometry
x − 45◦ = 45◦ =⇒ x = 90◦ , 270◦ , 450◦ . . .
∴ x = 90◦ , 270◦ , 450◦ . . .
2. Solve 3 cos θ + 4 sin θ = 2, 0◦ ≤ θ ≤ 360◦
Soln
√
a = 3, b = 4, r = 25 = 5, a = 5 cos α, b = 5 sin α
3 = 5 cos α, 4 = 5 sin α =⇒ cos α = 53 , sin α = 4
5

J
Trigonometry
=⇒ α = cos−1 53 , α = sin−1 4
5
∴ α = 53.1◦
5 cos θ cos α + 5 sin θ sin α = 2 =⇒ 5 cos(θ − α) = 2
cos(θ − α) = 2
5
=⇒ θ − α = cos−1 2
5
θ − 53.1◦ = cos−1 2
5
∴ θ = 119.5◦ , 346.7◦

J
Trigonometry
Inverse of trigonometrical ratios
We are able to find angle θ such that sin θ = 0.5

J
Trigonometry
There are many possible value of angle θ which
gives the value of 0.5
sin−1 x = arcsin x, −π
2
≤x≤ π
2
cos−1 x = arccos x, 0 ≤ x ≤ π
2
tan−1 x = arctan x, −π
2
≤x≤ π
2
These are called principle value angles

J
Trigonometry
The Sine Rule
In any triangle the sides are proportional to the
sides of the opposite angle
Proof
J
Trigonometry
Since the area of triangle ABC is
A = 12 ab sin C, A = 21 bc sin A and A = 12 ac sin B
=⇒ A = 21 ab sin C = 12 bc sin A = 21 ac sin B

1
=⇒ 2
ab sin C = 12 bc sin A = 21 ac sin B
=⇒ ab sin C = bc sin A = ac sin B
Divides by abc through out

J
Trigonometry
ab sin C bc sin A ac sin B
abc
= abc
= abc
sin A sin B sin C
∴ a
= b
= c
Means
sin A sin B sin C
a
= b
= c
= K, Where K is Constant
Similarly
a b c
sin A
= sin B
= sin C

J
Trigonometry
This means
a b c
sin A
= sin B
= sin C
= K, Where K is Constant
Examples
a−b tan( A−B )
1. In any triangle ABC,show that a+b
= 2
tan( A+B )
2
Soln
a b c
Since sin A
= sin B
= sin C
=K
J
Trigonometry
=⇒ a = K sin A, b = K sin B
K sin A−K sin B tan( A−B )
Then K sin A+K sin B
= 2
tan( A+B )
2
Consider L.H.S
K sin A−K sin B sin A−sin B
K sin A+K sin B
= sin A+sin B
By factor formula
2 cos( A+B
2
) sin( A−B
2
)
2 sin( A+B
2
) cos( A−B
2
)

J
Trigonometry
cos( A+B
2
) sin( A−B
2
)
sin( A+B
2
) cos( A−B
2
)
sin( A−B ) 1
2
cos( A−B )
× sin( A+B
2 2 )
cos( A+B
2 )
=⇒ tan( A−B
2
)× 1
tan( A+B )
2
a−b tan( A−B )

∴ a+b
= 2
tan( A+B )
.Hence Proved
2

J
Trigonometry
2. In △,if a = 2, b = 3, sin A = 32 .Find ∠B
Soln,from
a b
sin A
= sin B
[Sine Rule]
2 3 6 3
2 = sin B
=⇒ 2
= sin B
3
3 3
=⇒ 3 = sin B
=⇒ sin B = 3
=⇒ sin B = 1

J
Trigonometry
=⇒ B = arcsin(1) =⇒ B = 90◦
∴ B = 90◦
sin(B−C) b2 −c2
3. For any triangle prove that, sin(B+C) = a2
Soln
Since a = K sin A, b = K sin B, c = K sin C
Consider L.H.S

J
Trigonometry
K 2 sin2 B−K 2 sin2 C sin2 B−K 2 sin2 C
K 2 sin2 A
= sin2 A
From A + B + C = 180◦ =⇒ A = 180◦ − (B + C)

Apply sine both sides
sin A = sin(180◦ −(B +C)) =⇒ sin A = sin(B +C)
Then sin2 A = sin2 (B + C)

J
Trigonometry
Also Consider
sin2 B = 12 (1 − cos 2B), sin2 C = 21 (1 − cos 2C)
1
sin2 B−sin2 C (1−cos 2B)− 12 (1−cos 2C)
Thus sin2 A
= 2
sin2 (B+C)
1 1
[1−cos 2B−1+cos 2C] (cos 2C−cos 2B)
= 2
sin2 (B+C)
= 2
sin2 (B+C)
1
(−2 sin( 2C+2B ) sin( 2C−2B )) − sin(B+C) sin(C−B)
2 2
2
sin (B+C)
2
= sin2 (B+C)

J
Trigonometry
sin(B+C) sin(B−C) sin(B−C)
=⇒ sin2 (B+C)
= sin(B+C)
b2 −c2 sin(B−C)
∴ a2
= sin(B+C)
.Proved

J
Trigonometry
Cosine Rule
Consider a triangle ABC below

J
Trigonometry
In △ABD
BD
cos B = AB
=⇒ BD = AB cos B
BD = AB cos B....................(i)
In △ACD
2 2 2
AC = CD + AD =⇒ CD = BD − BC
2 2
AC = (BD − BC)2 + AD

J
Trigonometry
2 2 2 2 2
AC = BD + BC − 2BDBC + AD =⇒ AC =
2 2 2
BD + AD + BC − 2BD × BC
2 2 2
AC = AB + BC − 2BD × BC =⇒ b2 =
c2 + a2 − 2c cos B × a
a2 +c2 −b2
b2 = a2 + c2 − 2ac cos B =⇒ cos B = 2ac
a2 +c2 −b2
∴ cos B = 2ac

J
Trigonometry
Similarly
(
b2 +c2 −a2
cos A = 2bc
a2 +b2 −c2
cos C = 2ab

J
Trigonometry
Alternative
Consider the triangle below

J
Trigonometry
AD AD
cos A = AB
=⇒ cos A = c
AD = c cos A................(i)
By Pythagoras theorem in △BCD
2 2 2 2 2 2
DC + BD = BC =⇒ BC = DC + BD
2 2
but,BC = (AC − AD)2 + BD

J
Trigonometry
2 2 2 2 2
BC = AC + AD − 2ACAD + BD =⇒ BC =
2 2 2
AC + AD + BD − 2ACAD
2 2 2
but,BD + AD = AB
2 2 2 2
BC = AC + AD + BD − 2ACAD
2 2 2
BC = AC + AB − 2ACAD
a2 = b2 + c2 − 2bc cos A

J
Trigonometry
b2 = a2 + c2 − 2ac cos B
c2 = a2 + b2 − 2ab cos C
Examples
1. In any triangle ABC,if a = 18, b = 24, c = 30.Find
cos A, cos B, cos C
From Cosine Rule

J
Trigonometry
b2 +c2 −a2 182 +302 −242
cos A = 2bc
= 2×18×30
∴ cos A = 45 , cos B = 35 , cos C = 0

2. In a triangle ABC,prove that
(b2 − c2 ) cot A + (c2 − a2 ) cot B + (a2 − b2 ) cot C = 0
Soln
Consider L.H.S

J
Trigonometry
(b2 − c2 ) cot A + (c2 − a2 ) cot B + (a2 − b2 ) cot C
(b2 − c2 ) cos A
sin A
+ (c2 − a2 ) cos B
sin B
+ (a2 − b2 ) cos C
sin C
b2 +c2 −a2 a2 +c2 −b2

but,cos A = 2bc
, cos B = 2ac
, cos C =
a2 +b2 −c2
2bc
Then
sin A = Ka, sin B = Kb, sin C = Kc

J
Trigonometry
Thus
b2 +c2 −a2 a2 +c2 −b2 a2 +b2 −c2
(b2 −c2 ) 2bc
Ka
+(c2 −a2 ) 2ac
Kb
+(a2 −b2 ) 2ab
Kc
(b2 −c2 )(b2 +c2 −a2 ) (c2 −a2 )(a2 +c2 −b2 ) (a2 −b2 )(a2 +b2 −c2 )
2Kabc
+ 2Kabc
+ 2Kabc
1
2Kabc
([((b2 −c2 )(b2 +c2 ))−a2 (b2 −c2 )]+[(c2 −a2 )(c2 +
2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
a )] − b (c − a ) + [(a − b )(a + b ) − c (a − b )])
1
2Kabc
[b4 − c4 −
a2 2b2 + a2 c2 + c4 − a4 − b2 c2 +
a b + a − b − a2 c 2 + b 2 c 2 ]
2 2 4 4

J
Trigonometry
1
2Kabc
[0] = 0 [Proved]
Quiz
1. Prove
that,2(bc cos A + ca cos B + ab cos C) = a2 + b2 + c2
2. In any triangle ABC,prove that
2(a sin2 C2 + c sin2 A2 ) = a + c − b

J
Trigonometry
Projection formulae
Any side of the triangle is equal to the side of the
projection of the two other sides on it
Consider the triangle ABC below

J
Trigonometry
AD
cos A = AC
=⇒ AD = AC cos A
BD
cos B = BC
=⇒ BD = BC cos B
Now,AD + DB = AC cos A + BC cos B
=⇒ c = b cos A + a cos B
Similarly
a = c cos B + b cos C, b = a cos C + c cos A

J
Trigonometry
∴Projection formulae are

a = b cos C + c cos B

b = a cos C + c cos A

c = a cos B + b cos A
Example
1. In any triangle,prove that
cos A cos B cos C a2 +b2 +c2
b cos C+c cos B
+ c cos A+a cos C
+ a cos B+b cos A
= 2abc

J
Trigonometry
Proof
Consider L.H.S
cos A cos B cos C
b cos C+c cos B
+ c cos A+a cos C
+ a cos B+b cos A
cos A cos B cos C

a
+ b
+ c
[Projection formulae]
b2 +c2 −a2 a2 +c2 −b2 a2 +b2 −c2
2abc
+ 2abc
+ 2abc
[Cosine Rule]
1
2abc
[b2 + c 2 − a2 + a2 + c 2 − b 2 + a2 + b 2 − c 2 ]

J
Trigonometry
1 a2 +b2 +c2
2abc
[a2 + b2 + c 2 ] = 2abc
cos A cos B cos C
∴ b cos C+c cos B
+ c cos A+a cos C
+ a cos B+b cos A
=
a2 +b2 +c2
2abc
[Proved]
2. In any triangle ABC,prove that
2(a sin2 C2 + c sin2 A2 ) = a + c − b

J
Trigonometry
Proof
◦ +C ◦ −C
From cos 0◦ − cos C = −2 sin( 0 2
) sin( 0 2
)
=⇒ cos 0◦ − cos C = −2 sin( C2 ) sin( −C

2
)
=⇒ cos 0◦ − cos C = 2 sin C2 sin C2
=⇒ cos 0◦ − cos C = 2 sin2 C

2
=⇒ 1 − cos C = 2 sin2 C
2

J
Trigonometry
Now,Consider L.H.S
2(a sin2 C
2
+ c sin2 A2 )
2(a( 21 (1 − cos C)) + c( 12 (1 − cos A)))

2( a2 (1 − cos C) + 2c (1 − cos A))
a(1−cos C)+c(1−cos A) = a−a cos C +c−c cos A =
a + c − a cos C − c cos A = a + c − (a cos C + c cos A)

J
Trigonometry
= a + c − (c cos A + a cos C) = a + c − b [Projection
formula]
∴ 2(a sin2 C
2
+ c sin2 A2 ) = a + c − b [Proved]

J
Trigonometry
Heron’s Formulae
Consider a triangle ABC below

J
Trigonometry
Since cos A = cos2 A
2
− sin2 A
2
=⇒ cos A = 1 − sin2 A
2
− sin2 A
2
=⇒ cos A = 1 − 2 sin2 A
2
=⇒ sin2 A
2
= 12 [1 − cos A]
From Cosine Rule
b2 +c2 −a2
cos A = 2bc

J
Trigonometry
2 +c2 −a2
sin2 A
2
= 21 [1 − ( b 2bc
)]
2
−c 2 +a2
sin2 A
2
= 21 [ 2bc−b2bc ]
2 +c2 −2bc)+a2
sin2 A
2
= 21 [ −(b 2bc
]
a2 −(b−c)2
sin2 A
2
= 4bc
(a+(b−c))(a−(b−c))
sin2 A
2
= 4bc

J
Trigonometry
(a+b−c)(a−b+c)
sin2 A
2
= 4bc
(a+b+c−2c)(a+b+c−2b)
sin2 A
2
= 4bc
( a+b+c−2c )( a+b+c−2b )
sin2 A
2
= 2
bc
2
( a+b+c −c)( a+b+c −b)

sin2 A
2
= 2
bc
2
a+b+c
Suppose s = 2

J
Trigonometry
(s−c)(s−b)
sin2 A
2
= bc
q
(s−b)(s−c)
∴ sin A2 = bc

J
Trigonometry
Also,Since
cos A = cos2 A
2
− sin2 A
2
A
cos A = cos2 2
− (1 − cos2 A2 )
A
cos A = 2 cos2 2
−1
A
cos2 2
= 12 (cos A + 1)
A
cos2 2
= 12 (1 + cos A)

J
Trigonometry
A b2 +c2 −a2
cos2 2
= 12 [1 + 2bc
] [Cosine Rule]
A 2 2 −a2
cos2 2
= 12 [ 2bc+b2bc
+c
]
A 2 +c2 +2bc−a2
cos2 2
= 12 [ b 2bc
]
2−a 2
cos2 A
2
= 12 [ (b+c)
2bc
]
A (b+c)2 −a2
cos2 2
= 4bc

J
Trigonometry
A (b+c+a)(b+c−a)
cos2 2
= 4bc
A ( b+c+a )( b+c+a−2a )
cos2 2
= 2
bc
2
A ( a+b+c )( a+b+c −a)

cos2 2
= 2
bc
2
A s(s−a)
cos2 2
= bc
q
s(s−a)
∴ cos2 A2 = bc

J
Trigonometry
Area of a Triangle
From A = 12 bc sin A where A is Area of triangle
A = 12 bc sin( A2 + A2 )
A = 12 bc(2 sin A2 cos A2 )
A = bc sin A2 cos A2
q q
(s−b)(s−c)
A = bc[ bc
× s(s−a)
bc
]
J
Trigonometry
q
(s−b)(s−c)s(s−a)
A = bc (bc)2
p
bc
A= bc
s(s − a)(s − b)(s − c)
p
∴ Area = s(s − a)(s − b)(s − c)
Where s = 12 (a + b + c) is Semi-perimeter of the
triangle
a, b, c are the lengths of the sides of triangle

J
Trigonometry
Example
Find area of a triangle below

J
Trigonometry
p
From A = s(s − a)(s − b)(s − c)
But,a = 20cm, b = 30cm, c = 16cm
s = 21 (20 + 30 + 16)cm
s = 10cm + 15cm + 8cm
s = 33cm
p
A = 33(33 − 20)(33 − 30)(33 − 16)cm2

J
Trigonometry
p
A= 33(13)(3)(17)cm2
∴ A = 44.6cm2

J
Trigonometry
Graphs of Trigonometric function
(a) Graph of Sine function

J
Trigonometry
(b) Graph of Cosine function

J
Trigonometry
(c) Graph of tangent function

J
Trigonometry
(d) Graph of cosecant function

J
Trigonometry
(e) Graph of secant function

J
Trigonometry
(f) Graph of cotangent function

J
Reference OutLines Introduction General angles Trig ratio Trig I
References
[1] Allen,Theresa M and martin john U.The principle of
mathematics, Adv.drug de1.Rev,65(2013):45-50
[2] saffman P.G.and Taylor G.The penetration of the fluid into a
medium of halle-wall, Proc.soc.london,ser A,245(1958):312-329.
[3] Allen,Theresa M and martin john U.The principle of
mathematics, Adv.drug de1.Rev,65(2013)45-50

J
Reference OutLines Introduction General angles Trig ratio Trig I
Questions
sn
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Qu

Trigonometry

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TRIGONOMETRY

Department of mathematics and ICT.

July 27, 2022

Martin John Trigonometry 2022 July 27, 2022 | 2/16

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Degrees are used primarily to describe the size of

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sin(180◦ − θ) = yr (+ve) cos(180◦ − θ) = − xr (−ve)

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sin(θ − 180◦ ) = − yr (−ve)

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1 sin θ cos2 θ+sin2 θ

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1−2 sin2 θ cos2 θ 1

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2. Eliminate θ from the following

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